Designing Energy Efficient Traction Machines for

Electric and Hybrid Vehicles

V. Leconte, P. Lombard, A. Rodriguez, A. Soualmi

(Altair Engineering, France);

P. Wendling
(Altair Engineering, USA);

Abstract

The design of powertrain motors for electric or hybrid vehicles presents many
challenges. The designer faces multiple constraints on weight, compactness,
cost, efficiency and temperature rise. The efficiency of the motor impacts
directly the autonomy of the vehicle. In a race to sustainability, designers need
innovative methodologies and fast tools to meet the many requirements of
electric mobility.

Rotating machines are traditionally optimized at their rated operating point. For
powertrain applications, motors operate over a wide range of speeds and
torques. The efficiency of the motors must be optimized considering the full
driving cycle of the vehicle. Today, such optimization can be achieved using
new dedicated and fast analysis tools. These design tools deliver reliable
evaluation of the motor efficiency throughout the driving cycles. These tools
help the designer select the most efficient machine topology early at the
predesign stage.

Constraints on efficiency and temperature rise make evaluation of losses a key

element of the design process. During predesign, a pure sinusoidal power
supply is considered and eddy current losses in the permanent magnets are
ignored. Because of the high-speed operations of the motor and the use of pulse
width modulation (PWM) power supply, a full evaluation of the losses is
needed. PWM power supplies introduce harmonics in the currents fed into the
machine.. Detailed losses in permanent magnets, back iron, and windings must
be evaluated to predict the motor efficiency in an accurate way.

The impact of the losses on the temperature rise can be evaluated. An adjusted
design can mitigate the losses and better meet the thermal constraints of the
machine. A coupled magnetic/thermal simulation is needed. In such a
computation, electromagnetic losses are the sources for the thermal problem.

This full methodology is shown through the design of a powertrain motor,

starting from the initial specifications of the motor. We will show how
simulation and optimization tools can be used to help maximizing the overall
efficiency of the motor and meet all design requirements.

1. Introduction

Most rotating electric machines are designed to have maximum efficiency at

their rated operating point. For powertrain applications, the optimum of the
machine should not be evaluated on a single point but over the full driving
cycle they are submitted to [1]. This consideration helps maximizing the
autonomy of electric or hybrid vehicles. When using finite element simulation
tools, evaluating the performance over a full driving cycle is time consuming.
It is not an efficient process for optimization purposes.

The design of the traction machine is split into two phases. In the first phase, to
perform the optimization over a full driving cycle, assumptions are made in the
calculations, enabling higher solving speed and keeping reasonable fidelity of
the results. In the second phase, more accurate models are used, leading to a
better evaluation of the losses in the machine. However, only one
representative load case is considered. For this load case, the impact on the
losses of the PWM power supply is evaluated.

Using this two-step approach, the selection of an optimal structure for the
traction application can be achieved. This will be illustrated through an
example.

2. Traction machine requirements and selection of a motor topology

The specifications for the machine are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Requirements for the traction machine

A hybrid synchronous permanent magnet machine topology has been chosen

for this application. Today, in automotive applications, such a structure is
DESIGNING EFFICIENT TRACTION MACHINES FOR EVs and HEVs

known to deliver high torque and high power as well as high efficiency. The
machine outer dimensions are set. It is a 3-phase machine. A 54 slots stator has
been chosen. During an initial pre-design study, 4 different rotor topologies are
evaluated. Table 2 shows the performances for these topologies at the base
work point. Rotor A and B offer the best performances. However, Rotor C is
chosen for cost and manufacturability reasons.

Table 2: Comparing motor topologies at base work point

The pre-design study can be performed using Altair FluxMotor, a template

based motor design tool. Using FluxMotor, the designer can very quickly
evaluate performances of machines. FluxMotor is based on 2D finite element
magnetostatics computations. Such computations fully consider magnetic
saturations, ensuring a good accuracy of the results. All basic motor
calculations are fully automated, making it easy and quick to compare different
topologies. The templates are fully parameterized, enabling sensitivity analysis
and optimization studies.

Table 3: Evaluated Winding Configurations

Once the rotor topology has been selected, the winding scheme must be
chosen. The design of the winding can also be easily performed using the same
tool. Table 3 shows key parameters for 4 different configurations of the
winding.

The winding scheme is chosen as a compromise to maximize both the output

torque and the efficiency for the base speed. Winding D and B yield the best
efficiency. Winding B gives a torque 8% higher than Winding D. Because of
the higher torque value, Winding B is selected for the rest of the study.

Performances Winding A Winding B Winding C Winding D

Torque (N.m) 206.7 194.7 207.4 179.7

Power (kW) 138.3 144.5 143.0 151.8

Base Speed (rpm) 6391 7085 6595 8066

Total losses (kW) 8.2 7.7 7.9 7.3

Efficiency (%) 94.40 94.91 94.77 95.16

Table 4: Machine performances for each winding. Winding B is selected.

The stator and the rotor are made of laminated sheets (M330-35A) and the
permanent magnets are made of NdFeB (Br=1,05T).

3. Optimization over a driving cycle

The driving cycle used to evaluate the consumption performances of the

vehicle is the WLTP (Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures).
The load on the motor (speed/torque characteristic curve) is extracted from the
data provided by the cycle and the characteristics of the drivetrain of the
vehicle. The curve is discretized, to provide a set of load points for which the
motor will be evaluated. In the following work, only the positive values of
accelerations are considered.

Figure 1: Efficiency map and locations of the work points considered to evaluate
the efficiency over the WLTP duty cycle.
DESIGNING EFFICIENT TRACTION MACHINES FOR EVs and HEVs

Fig. 1 shows the efficiency map. It displays the efficiency for each load point
on the driving cycle. The global efficiency of the powertrain is the sum of the
efficiencies over driving cycle.

The computations are based on the Park model [2], using the direct and
quadrature characteristics of the PM motor. The table of the flux linkages, Φd
(direct axis) and Φq (quadrature axis) are calculated using a static finite
elements solution. The linkage inductances are evaluated in function of the
currents id (direct axis) and iq (quadrature axis). The iron losses in the stator
are evaluated based on local values of the magnetic flux density. These losses
are adjusted with the speed. These tables are used to evaluate the transient
behavior of the motor and the losses, for each load point. The value of the
currents (direct and quadrature) for each load point are quickly obtained using
an optimization procedure.

This method gives a very good compromise between accuracy and solving
speed: the saturation effects are fully considered, but no finite element transient
solving is required. At this stage, iron losses in the rotor and eddy current
losses in the permanent magnets are neglected.

The objective of the optimization is to maximize the global efficiency. The

constraints of the optimization are to maintain the base torque over 180 N.m
and the base speed over 5000 rpm. The design variables are listed in Table 5
with their variation intervals. Modifications to the stator topology are not
considered in this optimization.
 Table 5: Parameters used for the optimization with nominal values, lower and
upper bounds.

The tool used for the optimization is Altair HyperStudy. It directly couples to
FluxMotor. It is based on a global response surface optimization method
(GRSM). The rotor resulting from the optimization is shown on Fig. 2. This
new topology leads to a global efficiency of 73.7% compared to the initial
efficiency of 70.9% for the initial topology. The base torque is 181.5 N.m and
the base speed is 6226 rpm.

Figure 2: Result of global efficiency optimization over WLTP.

4. Refined view of the losses and motor efficiency

Magnetostatic computations are quick and efficient. Their use is key during the
pre-design stage of a machine where speed is needed to evaluate multiple
topologies. However, the losses in the rotor, especially the eddy current losses
in the permanent magnets, must be considered for more accurate values of the
motor efficiency. To evaluate the losses, a transient simulation with motion of
the rotor and circuit coupling is performed using Altair Flux software. Only
one work point is considered. The speed is imposed in the model.

The work point is chosen to represent the typical load the motor will have to
sustain during long periods of time: motor running at base speed (6226 rpm)
for half base torque (90.75 N.m). This work point is also interesting from the
thermal stress point of view.

PWM techniques are widely used to control powertrain motors. Unfortunately,

it introduces high harmonics in the currents that create extra losses. These high
harmonics should be considered when evaluating the losses.

One possibility to evaluate the shape of the current is to use a system

simulation tool to model the motor, the power supply and the control scheme.
In this simulation, the motor is represented using the Park model, by its direct
DESIGNING EFFICIENT TRACTION MACHINES FOR EVs and HEVs

and quadrature inductances (Ld and Lq) [3]. The current fed to the motor is
computed from this simulation and exported into tables of current versus time.
These tables are used as sources to a transient finite element model where the
losses will be evaluated.

In this study, the finite element tool directly integrates an electric circuit. The
equations describing the circuit are solved simultaneously with the magnetic
equations in the finite element matrix system. The PWM signal is introduced
in the definition of the voltage sources connected to the motor by comparing a
sine wave to a triangular signal (intersective PWM). The chosen switching
frequency is 5,6 kHz. A parametric study is performed to get the values of the
voltage and control angle to be used to reach the considered work point. The
current is displayed in Fig. 3.

Figure 3: Current waveforms in the 3 phases with PWM control.

The losses are evaluated on a full cycle at steady-state. The time sampling,
needed to capture the effects of high frequencies in the current, leads to the use
of a small time step. Because of the time constant of the machine, several
cycles are needed to reach the steady state operations. To reduce the number of
time samples needed to steady state, the transient computation is initialized
with a static computation. The static computation establishes the magnetic flux
produced by the permanent magnets. Also, to damp the numerical transient and
shorten the solving time, the resistivity of the winding is increased during the
initial time steps. Permanent magnets are considered as solid conductors in
which eddy currents and losses can develop. Iron losses are calculated using a
Bertotti type model [4]. The mesh for this computation is shown on Fig. 4.
Close to 4500 time steps are necessary to obtain the results.
 Figure 4: 2D mesh of the machine using periodicities and using about 6800 nodes

Table 6 compares the results obtained with and without PWM and the impact
can clearly be identified on the iron and permanent magnet losses.

Table 6: Losses with and without PWM

5. Evaluation of the temperature distribution

A critical constraint for the machine is the temperature the insulating parts and
the permanent magnets can support. Using the joule losses averaged over a
steady-state period as heat sources, a thermal computation is performed. It is
based on a 2D model in which conduction is solved using the finite element
method. Heat exchanges at the boundaries of the domain are evaluated using
simple convection coefficients. The machine is considered to be water cooled
from the outside. A transient simulation is performed to evaluate the
temperature distribution in the motor after running for 3 hours at base speed
and half base torque. Fig. 5 shows the temperature distribution for two
simulations, the one on the left without PWM and the one of the right with
PWM. Because of the higher harmonics in the current, the model with the
DESIGNING EFFICIENT TRACTION MACHINES FOR EVs and HEVs

PWM included shows higher temperatures in the rotor than the model without
PWM. The temperature of the magnet is key to the survival of the magnets.

Figure 5: Temperature maps after 3 hours without and with PWM

6. Conclusion

Designing high efficiency motors for powertrains is a challenging task. In this

contribution, new and enhanced tools are shown to meet the many constraints
of electric traction. Fast pre-design tools coupled to optimization techniques
enable the designer to select quickly the best motor configuration for a given
application. More advanced and detailed computations of the losses are needed
to get an accurate thermal image of the machine. In further work, the design
can be expanded to include other physics, such as structural analysis when the
motor is running at full speed and vibration and noise analysis of the machine.
Multiphysics optimization could also be introduced in the design, however
requiring more computing power and longer processing time.

7. References

[1] P. Lazari, J. Wang and L. Chen, "A Computationally Efficient Design

Technique for Electric Vehicle Traction Machines“, in IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, vol. 50, no. 5, pp. 3203-3213, 2014.

[2] J. R. Hendershot and T. J. E. Miller, “Design of Brushless Permanent-

Magnet Motors”. Mentor, OH and Oxford, UK: Magna Physics and
Oxford University Press, 1994.

[3] G. Almandoz, G. Ugalde, J. Poza and Ana Julia Escalada, “Matlab-

Simulink Coupling to Finite Element Software for Design and Analysis of
Electrical Machines”, Matlab, A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing
and Engineering Applications - Volume 2, IntechOpen, p 162-183

[4] F. Fiorillo, A. Novikov, “An Improved Approach to Power Losses in

Magnetic Laminations under Nonsinusoidal InductionWaveform”, IEEE
Transaction on Magnetics, vol 25, N°5, Sept. 1990.