UNIT 4

What is Gandhian ideology?

§ Gandhian ideology is the set of religious and social ideas adopted and developed
by Mahatma Gandhi, first during his period in South Africa from 1893 to 1914,
and later in India.
§ Gandhian philosophy is not only simultaneously political, moral and religious, it
is also traditional and modern, simple and complex. It embodies numerous
Western influences to which Gandhiji was exposed, but is rooted in ancient
Indian culture harnessing universal moral & religious principles.
§ The philosophy exists on several planes - the spiritual or religious, moral,
political, economic, social, individual and collective.

o The spiritual or religious element, and God, are at its core.

o Human nature is regarded as fundamentally virtuous.
o All individuals are believed to be capable of high moral
development, and of reform.
§ Gandhian ideology emphasises not on idealism, but on practical idealism.
§ Gandhian philosophy is a double-edged weapon. Its objective is to transform
the individual and society simultaneously, in accordance with the principles of
truth and non-violence.
§ Gandhiji developed these ideologies from various inspirational sources
vis Bhagvad Geeta, Jainism, Buddhism, Bible, Gopal Krishna Gokhale,
Tolstoy, John Ruskin among others.

o Tolstoy's book 'The Kingdom of God is within you' had a deep

influence on Mahatma Gandhi.
o Gandhiji paraphrased Ruskin's book 'Unto this
Last' as 'Sarvodaya'.
§ These ideas have been further developed by later "Gandhians", most notably, in
India by, Vinoba Bhave and Jayaprakash Narayan and outside of India by Martin
Luther King Jr. and others.
Major Gandhian Ideologies

§ Truth and nonviolence: They are the twin cardinal principles of Gandhian
thoughts.

o For Gandhi ji, truth is the relative truth of truthfulness in word and
deed, and the absolute truth - the ultimate reality. This ultimate
truth is God (as God is also Truth) and morality - the moral laws
and code - its basis.
 o Nonviolence, far from meaning mere peacefulness or the absence
of overt violence, is understood by Mahatma Gandhi to denote
active love - the pole opposite of violence, in every sense.
Nonviolence or love is regarded as the highest law of humankind.
§ Satyagraha: Gandhi ji called his overall method of nonviolent action
Satyagraha. It means the exercise of the purest soul-force against all injustice,
oppression and exploitation.

o It is a method of securing rights by personal suffering and not

inflicting injury on others.
o The origin of Satyagraha can be found in the Upanishads, and in
the teachings of Buddha, Mahavira and a number of other other
greats including Tolstoy and Ruskin.
§ Sarvodaya- Sarvodaya is a term meaning 'Universal Uplift' or 'Progress of
All'. The term was first coined by Gandhi ji as the title of his translation of John
Ruskin's tract on political economy, "Unto This Last".
§ Swaraj- Although the word swaraj means self-rule, Gandhi ji gave it the content
of an integral revolution that encompasses all spheres of life.

o For Gandhi ji, swaraj of people meant the sum total of the swaraj
(self-rule) of individuals and so he clarified that for him swaraj
meant freedom for the meanest of his countrymen. And in its fullest
sense, swaraj is much more than freedom from all restraints, it is
self-rule, self-restraint and could be equated with moksha or
salvation.
§ Trusteeship- Trusteeship is a socio-economic philosophy that was propounded
by Gandhi ji.

o It provides a means by which the wealthy people would be the

trustees of trusts that looked after the welfare of the people in
general.
o This principle reflects Gandhi ji’s spiritual development, which he
owed partly to his deep involvement with and the study of
theosophical literature and the Bhagavad Gita.
§ Swadeshi The word swadeshi derives from Sanskrit and is a conjunction of two
Sanskrit words. ‘Swa’ means self or own and ‘desh’ means country. So swadesh
means one's own country. Swadeshi, the adjectival form, means of one’s own
country, but can be loosely translated in most contexts as self-sufficiency.

o Swadeshi is the focus on acting within and from one's own

community, both politically and economically.
o It is the interdependence of community and self-sufficiency.
 o Gandhi ji believed this would lead to independence (swaraj), as
British control of India was rooted in control of her indigenous
industries. Swadeshi was the key to the independence of India, and
was represented by the charkha or the spinning wheel, the “center
of the solar system” of Mahatma Gandhi’s constructive program.
Relevance in Today’s Context

§ The ideals of truth and nonviolence, which underpin the whole philosophy, are
relevant to all humankind, and are considered as universal by the Gandhians.
§ More than ever before, Mahatma Gandhi's teachings are valid today, when
people are trying to find solutions to the rampant greed, widespread violence,
and runaway consumptive style of living.
§ The Gandhian technique of mobilising people has been successfully employed
by many oppressed societies around the world under the leadership of people
like Martin Luther King in the United States, Nelson Mandela in South
Africa, and Aung San Suu Kyi in Myanmar, which is an eloquent testimony to
the continuing relevance of Mahatma Gandhi.
§ Dalai Lama said, "We have a big war going on today between world peace and
world war, between the force of mind and force of materialism, between
democracy and totalitarianism." It is precisely to fight these big wars that the
Gandhian philosophy needed in contemporary times.
In my life, I have always looked to Mahatma Gandhi as an inspiration, because he embodies
the kind of transformational change that can be made when ordinary people come together to
do extraordinary things." -Barack Obama
Conclusion

§ Gandhian ideologies shaped the creation of institutions and practices where

the voice and perspective of everyone can be articulated, tested and
transformed.

o According to him, democracy provided the weak with the same

chance as the strong.
§ Functioning on the basis of voluntary cooperation and dignified & peaceful co-
existence was replicated in several other modern democracies. Also, his
emphasis on political tolerance and religious pluralism holds relevance in
contemporary Indian politics.
§ Truth, nonviolence, Sarvodaya and Satyagraha and their significance constitute
Gandhian philosophy and are the four pillars of Gandhian thought.

Concept of Swaraj
Swaraj can be considered as Indian version of liberty or freedom. Swaraj has been the goal of
freedom movement. The concept of swaraj kept on evolving. For moderates, swaraj was getting
greater representation of Indians in governance. For extremists like Tilak and Lala Lajapatray
swaraj was ‘self government’. Aurobindo Ghosh, was the first person to interpret swaraj in
terms of complete freedom from the foreign rule rather than the dominion status. Aurobindo
also spiritualized the concept of swaraj. According to Aurobindo, the real meaning of freedom
is ‘inner freedom’. The realization of the law of our being. The concept of freedom has to be
compatible with the peace and harmony in the society.

Gandhi’s swaraj is inspired by Aurobindo. Gandhi has further expanded its meaning. Gandhi’s
swaraj was also based on the ideas of Upanishad. As per Upanishads swaraj implies ‘self-
control’ or ‘control on one’s desires’. Thus for Gandhi, there is no real swaraj without ‘self
discipline’.
Gandhi’s swaraj is also inspired by Leo Tolstoy, who held that kingdom of God is within you.
It means man does not require any external control.

Gandhi has explained swaraj in multiple spheres. 1) Political sphere – In political sphere,
swaraj meant panchayati raj, democratic decentralization. A system of governance where
individual is the center. Idea of swaraj results into Rama rajya. Rama rajya is a stateless
society. 2) Swaraj in economic sphere – Economic swaraj will give a life of dignity to the
millions of people living in the state of poverty. Economic swaraj is a party of Gandhi’s
constructive programs. It included land reforms ( land to the tillers ), revival of cottage
industries, promotion of Khadi. The model of economic development which aims to fulfill the
basic needs without harming the environment. 3) Swaraj in social terms – Another very strong
aspect of Gandhi’s constructive program. It includes fighting against the evils of communalism,
untouchability. 4) Swaraj in cultural terms – Gandhi suggested that one should respect one’s
own culture. If we will not respect our culture, the world will not respect us. Culture is a part
of person’s identity. However Gandhi didn’t have orthodox views. Gandhi believed that one
should accept the good things from all cultures. He held that we should keep our windows open
but doors closed. “I do not want my house to be walled in on all sides and my windows to be
stuffed. I want the culture of all lands to be blown about my house as freely as possible. But I
refuse to be blown off my feet by any.”
Thus Gandhi’s swaraj was aimed at addressing problems of India and regeneration of India.

Gandhi on state.
Gandhi believes that state is antithetical to the idea of freedom. Gandhi is considered as
anarchist. Gandhi’s Rama rajya is a stateless society.
State is not compatible with the idea of non-violence. Even the smallest state requires
instruments of coercion. State is not compatible with the idea of swaraj. Swaraj means self
control.
According to Gandhi, state is a symbol of weakness of man. Since man cannot control himself,
state is needed as an external control.

gandhi view on nationalism unique points

Mahatma Gandhi, the leader of the Indian independence movement, had a unique perspective
on nationalism that set him apart from many other leaders of his time. Some of the distinctive
points in Gandhi's views on nationalism include:

1. Non-violence (Ahimsa): Gandhi was a staunch advocate of non-violence. He

believed that true nationalism could only be achieved through non-violent means. He
argued that violence not only undermined the moral foundation of the struggle but
also perpetuated a cycle of hatred and revenge.
 2. Inclusive Nationalism: Gandhi's nationalism was inclusive and accommodative. He
emphasized the unity of all communities, religions, and castes in India. His vision of a
free India was one where every individual, regardless of their background, could
coexist peacefully.
3. Swadeshi and Self-reliance: Gandhi promoted the concept of "Swadeshi,"
encouraging Indians to use locally made goods and promote self-reliance. He believed
that economic independence was crucial for true political freedom.
4. Village-centric Economy: Gandhi had a vision of decentralized, village-based
economies. He believed that the revitalization of rural life and economies would lead
to a more just and sustainable society.
5. Sarvodaya (Welfare of All): Gandhi's nationalism was deeply rooted in the idea of
"Sarvodaya," which means the welfare of all. He envisioned a society where the
upliftment of the weakest and poorest was the measure of true progress.
6. Hindu-Muslim Unity: Gandhi worked tirelessly to bridge the gap between Hindus
and Muslims. He believed in the unity of all religious communities and considered
Hindu-Muslim unity essential for India's success as a nation.
7. Satyagraha: Gandhi's unique method of nonviolent resistance, known as
"Satyagraha," played a central role in his approach to nationalism. It involved the use
of truth and non-violence as powerful tools to resist injustice and oppression.
8. Decentralized Political Structure: Gandhi was critical of centralized political
power. He advocated for a political structure that empowered local communities and
avoided excessive concentration of authority.

Gandhi's views on nationalism were deeply intertwined with his philosophy of life, which
included principles of non-violence, truth, and the welfare of all. His ideas continue to
influence discussions on nationalism, democracy, and social justice worldwide.
Certainly, let's highlight some unique and distinctive points in Gandhi's views on nationalism:

1. Spiritual Foundation: Gandhi's approach to nationalism was deeply rooted in

spirituality. He believed in the power of truth and saw the struggle for independence
as a moral and spiritual duty.
2. Personal Transformation: Gandhi emphasized personal transformation as a crucial
aspect of the nationalist movement. He believed that individuals must embody the
change they wished to see in society.
3. Constructive Program: Gandhi introduced the concept of the "Constructive
Program," which involved constructive and nation-building activities alongside the
struggle for political freedom. This included initiatives for social reform, economic
self-sufficiency, and community development.
4. Simple Living: Gandhi personally practiced and advocated for a simple and austere
lifestyle. He believed that a simple life was not only morally virtuous but also
essential for building a just and equitable society.
5. Distrust of Modern Industrialization: Unlike some contemporaries who saw
industrialization as a path to progress, Gandhi was skeptical of its impact on human
values and the environment. He favored cottage industries and small-scale production
over large-scale industrialization.
6. Economic Equality: Gandhi's vision of nationalism included a strong emphasis on
economic equality. He wanted to eradicate poverty and bridge the gap between the
rich and the poor through the principles of Sarvodaya.
 7. Individual Autonomy: Gandhi emphasized the importance of individual autonomy
and self-governance at the local level. He believed in the idea of "Sarvodaya," where
the welfare of the individual was intricately connected with the welfare of the
community.
8. No Monopoly on Leadership: Gandhi believed that leadership should not be
concentrated in a few hands. He encouraged the decentralization of political power
and believed that everyone should be a leader in their own right.

These unique points in Gandhi's views on nationalism reflect his holistic and
multidimensional approach to the struggle for independence. His philosophy extended
beyond political freedom, encompassing spiritual, moral, economic, and social dimensions
for the overall well-being of the nation.

Rawls on distributive justice

John Rawls, an influential political philosopher, presented his theory of justice in his seminal
work "A Theory of Justice" (1971). Rawls is particularly known for his conception of
distributive justice, which revolves around the idea of justice as fairness. Here are the key
elements of Rawls's theory on distributive justice:

1. Original Position and Veil of Ignorance:

o Rawls introduces the concept of the "original position," a hypothetical
situation where individuals decide on the principles of justice without knowing
their own personal characteristics or social position.
o The "veil of ignorance" ensures that individuals in the original position are
unaware of their talents, wealth, race, gender, or any other defining features.
This ignorance is meant to eliminate biases in the choice of principles of
justice.
2. Two Principles of Justice:
o Rawls proposes two principles of justice that individuals in the original
position would agree upon:
§ First Principle (Equal Basic Liberties): Each person is to have an
equal right to the most extensive basic liberties compatible with similar
liberties for others.
§ Second Principle (Difference Principle): Social and economic
inequalities are permissible only if they benefit the least advantaged
members of society. Inequalities should be arranged so as to improve
the position of the least advantaged.
3. Fair Equality of Opportunity:
o Rawls includes the principle of fair equality of opportunity as part of his first
principle. This principle ensures that individuals have an equal chance to attain
positions and offices, regardless of their background, as long as the
competition is fair.
4. Maximin Rule:
o Rawls suggests that rational individuals in the original position would choose
principles that maximize the minimum level of well-being (the "maximin"
rule). This reflects a concern for the welfare of the least advantaged.
5. Difference Principle and Economic Inequality:
 o The Difference Principle allows for economic inequalities as long as they
result in benefits for the least advantaged. Rawls argues that some level of
inequality can be justified if it leads to an improvement in the overall well-
being of society's most vulnerable members.
6. Reflective Equilibrium:
o Rawls employs the concept of "reflective equilibrium," which involves
balancing intuitions about justice with the principles derived from the original
position. It's a method of reaching a coherent and justified understanding of
justice.

Rawls's theory of justice has had a significant impact on political philosophy, and his
principles continue to be influential in discussions about distributive justice, fairness, and the
structure of just societies.

Tagore’s nationalism

Rabindranath Tagore, the renowned Indian poet, philosopher, and polymath, had a distinctive
perspective on nationalism that was expressed in the context of India's struggle for
independence. His views on nationalism can be summarized in the following key points:

1. Cosmic Unity and Universalism:

o Tagore's nationalism was deeply rooted in a broader cosmic unity. He
emphasized the idea that humanity is connected beyond national boundaries
and advocated for a universalist approach that transcends narrow nationalism.
2. Critique of Chauvinistic Nationalism:
o Tagore was critical of narrow and aggressive nationalism that he believed
could lead to chauvinism and conflict. He warned against the dangers of an
exclusive nationalism that fosters hatred and disregards the diversity of
cultures within a nation.
3. Cultural Pluralism and Diversity:
o Tagore celebrated India's cultural diversity and believed in the coexistence of
various cultural traditions within the nation. He argued for a nationalism that
respects and values the rich tapestry of different languages, religions, and
customs.
4. Spiritual and Ethical Basis:
o Tagore's nationalism had a spiritual and ethical foundation. He envisioned a
society where moral values, compassion, and a sense of duty would guide the
actions of individuals and the nation as a whole.
5. Freedom of the Mind:
o Tagore emphasized the importance of intellectual freedom and the freedom of
the mind. He believed that a true nationalist movement should not stifle
dissent or suppress individual expression and creativity.
6. Decentralization and Local Governance:
o Tagore supported the idea of decentralized governance and local self-
sufficiency. He believed that communities should have the autonomy to
manage their own affairs, contributing to a more balanced and harmonious
society.
7. Education for Freedom:
 o Tagore emphasized the role of education in nurturing the values of freedom,
creativity, and ethical responsibility. He believed that an enlightened and
educated citizenry was essential for the well-being of the nation.
8. Internationalism:
o Tagore's vision of nationalism extended beyond national borders. He
advocated for an internationalist perspective, where nations collaborate and
appreciate each other's contributions to humanity rather than engaging in
isolationist and antagonistic behavior.

Tagore's ideas on nationalism were articulated in his writings, especially in his collection of
essays titled "Nationalism" (1917). His vision went beyond mere political independence,
focusing on a more profound understanding of human interconnectedness and the importance
of ethical and cultural values in shaping a just and harmonious society.

Ambedkar on social justice and democracy

B. R. Ambedkar, a prominent Indian jurist, social reformer, and the chief architect of the
Indian Constitution, had profound views on social justice and democracy. His ideas were
instrumental in shaping the constitutional framework of India, and he devoted much of his
life to addressing the issues of caste-based discrimination and social inequality. Here are
some key aspects of Ambedkar's thoughts on social justice and democracy:

1. Annihilation of Caste:
o Ambedkar was a strong advocate for the annihilation of the caste system,
which he considered a major impediment to social justice. He argued for the
abolition of caste-based distinctions and the establishment of a society based
on equality and fraternity.
2. Reservation and Affirmative Action:
o Ambedkar recognized the need for affirmative action to uplift marginalized
and oppressed communities. He played a pivotal role in introducing
reservations for Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other
Backward Classes (OBC) in educational institutions and government jobs to
address historical injustices.
3. Social Equality and Fraternity:
o Ambedkar emphasized the principles of social equality and fraternity as
essential components of a just society. He believed that a democratic society
should ensure equal rights and opportunities for all its citizens, regardless of
their social background.
4. Political Empowerment:
o Ambedkar stressed the importance of political empowerment for marginalized
communities. He was a key figure in the drafting of the Indian Constitution,
which guarantees political rights and representation to all citizens, irrespective
of caste or creed.
5. Educational Reforms:
o Ambedkar saw education as a powerful tool for social upliftment. He
advocated for educational reforms that would make quality education
accessible to all sections of society, including those historically deprived of
educational opportunities.
6. Role of Women in Social Justice:
 Ambedkar was concerned with the status of women in society and worked
o
towards their social and economic empowerment. He fought against gender-
based discrimination and advocated for women's rights.
7. Democracy as a Safeguard:
o Ambedkar believed that democracy could act as a safeguard against social
oppression. He saw democratic principles as essential for protecting the rights
of individuals and ensuring social justice. However, he also acknowledged the
limitations of formal democracy and emphasized the need for social and
economic democracy.
8. Secularism:
o Ambedkar was a strong supporter of secularism and believed in the separation
of religion from the state. He saw secular principles as crucial for ensuring
equality and justice for all citizens, irrespective of their religious affiliations.

Ambedkar's ideas on social justice and democracy continue to be influential in India, and his
contributions are commemorated annually on Ambedkar Jayanti. His legacy extends beyond
legal and constitutional reforms, as he remains an icon for those advocating for the rights and
dignity of marginalized communities.

Aristotle

introduction

The subject of political science has evolved by questioning the nature and importance of
concepts like state, constitution, citizenship, laws, and governments.

Aristotle, famously referred to as the father of political science, had laid the bricks of the
subject. In this blog, you will read about his understanding of the state, classification of
constitutions and the cycle of governments.

Aristotle: Father of Political Science

The first man to distinguish between various branches of knowledge had been Aristotle. He
differentiated between meteorology, poetics, logic, biology, ethics, natural history, aesthetics,
physics, rhetoric, metaphysics and even wrote extensively on these subjects.

He did not only lay the foundation stone of political science but also contributed significantly
to its elaboration as well. "Politics", "Ethics", and "Rhetoric" are few among many of his
works that hold discussions on questions of law, equality, justice, etc.

According to Aristotle, political science is a master science. He gives credit to political science
as a master-art because, unlike other sciences that serve as a means to an end, political science
pertains to the ends of human existence in itself. Aristotle, thus viewed political science as the
end to human existence rather than as a means to it.

In his book, The Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle writes, "The supreme good... must be the object
of the most authoritative of the sciences - some science which is a master craft. But such is
manifestly the science of politics, for it is this that ordains which of the sciences are to exist in
states, and what branches of knowledge the different classes of citizens are to learn, and up to
what point."

His view demonstrates that political science dominates all other sciences. It explains
his "Hierarchy of Ends", implying that each branch of knowledge is merely a means and
would ultimately serve the end of leading a good life. Note here that Greek philosophers and
their view of politics share one common notion. They believe that the state comes into existence
for the sake of life and continues for the sake of good life. Aristotle doesn't differ on this notion
and is hence considered to view the science of politics as supreme to other sciences.

Aristotle and his view on State

Aristotle views the state as natural. According to him, the state is a necessary condition for all
humans. Like Plato, he doesn't differentiate between state or society and, in a similar fashion,
considers it to be essential for a good life. Thus, in his view, the State is a necessary condition
of a good life.

Any human being cannot survive in isolation, and thus, a man and a woman establish a
household. A village is formed when a family expands itself, and when many such villages are
formed, a state comes into existence. As and when a state is formed and society is organised,
human beings can meet their needs.

It is for the same reason that the state's existence is as important and natural as the presence of
a family or village. However, most human associations are flawed and help to fulfil one or a
few facets of the good life, but that's untrue for a state. He viewed the state as being able to
meet the whole or all facets of a good life.

It is important to understand why he perceived the state as natural for humans. According to
him, there is no difference between an animal or a human being, other than the fact that a
human being has the desire and a sense of living a good life. What it means is that human
beings become different from animals only if they exist in a state. It is the same desire to lead
a good life that makes the formation of a state a natural thing to occur.

Aristotle and his view on Man

Aristotle believes that Man is a political animal. This analogy is intriguing because it does
not only consider man to be a social animal but also interprets him as a political being. Aristotle
uses the same concept of the good life to justify his consideration of a man as a political being.
He asserts that all kinds of living beings happen to exist in groups, and thus, they can be
understood as social animals. However, it is solely the quality of human beings to aspire for a
good and qualitative life.

For human beings, satisfaction doesn't cease at survival; the constant aspiration to lead a good
life makes them political beings by default. He says, "he who does not live in a state or who
does not need a state is either a beast or a god".

State and its relation with Man

Aristotle is known for his dictum that State is prior to man. Chronologically, it is a man who
appears before the state. Still, since it is the state that makes human beings capable of
completing their needs and fulfilling the objective of a good life, the state is given priority over
the man.

To understand how the state is before man, O.P Gauba uses the example of whole and part. A
leg or a hand is a part of the body, but a leg or a hand without a body is useless; an individual
without a state is incomplete, and it is the state that makes him whole.

Aristotle draws a relation between organ and organism. Each organ of a living being performs
a specific function; each individual performs different responsibilities in society. The body
consists of different organs performing varied functions, and the body ensures harmony in its
functioning. Similarly, the state ensures the communion of various individuals, where the
division of labour ensures cooperation and harmony in society.

Aristotle and his classification of governments and constitutions

The father of the science of politics owes the title to his name because he employed empirical
inquiry as to his method. Aristotle was troubled by the instability that existed in Greek city-
states' governments. He studied over 158 case histories of various city-states by sending his
students to prepare case studies of various constitutions. He analysed almost 160 case histories.
To be precise, it is believed that he analysed 158 case histories.

The case history of Athens is an important source to understand his classification of the
constitutions. One can understand this fact based on two factors:

1. The number of individuals ruling the state: whether it is one person ruling the
state, a few individuals or if it is a rule of many.
2. The intent of the ruler or rulers: whether the ruler is ruling for his state's interest
(known as a normal form of government), or whether the ruler is looking after his
self-interest (known as a perverted form of government).

Aristotle’s Classification of Government

Public Interest Selfish Interest

The One Monarchy Tyranny

The Few Aristocracy Oligarchy

 The Many Constitutional Democracy Democracy

§ If it is the rule of ONE, then it would be MONARCHY or a Kingship in an

ideal form of government, or it would be despotism or TYRANNY in a
perverted form.
§ If the rule is by FEW, it would be ARISTOCRACY in an ideal form of
government or OLIGARCHY in a perverted form.
§ If the rule is by MANY, it would be POLITY or a constitutional government as
the ideal form of government, and interestingly, DEMOCRACY in a perverted
form.
According to Aristotle, without any adequate checks on a ruler's power, no form of government
would be stable. He believes that power and virtue cannot coexist.

He has provided the cycle of change of governments over time. Kingship, a normal form of
government, turns to tyranny when there is an absence of control over the monarch's power.
Tyranny leads to a rebellion or a revolution by a few individuals who establish an aristocracy.
Aristocracy can deteriorate and turn into an oligarchy, the perverted form. With time, a greater
many rebels against oligarchy and supersede it with polity. Polity further decays in democracy
when the many rulers begin to seek their self-interest. In the end, a single individual who seems
virtuous establishes a monarchy, and the progression of ideal form and perverted form
continues in a circular motion.

Conclusion
Aristotle gave the concept of a mixed constitution as a solution to prevent instability and
establish a lasting form of government in the Greek city-state. He employed his idea of
the "Golden Mean" to create stability. In his book "Ethics", he explains the Golden Mean as
a middle path, which means that virtue lies between two extremes. Anything on an extreme
end becomes a vice, and each virtue lies in the middle of the two extremes. For instance,
courage is a virtue that lies between the two extremes of timidity and negligence.

His solution to bring a stable form of government is the combination of rule by few and rule
by many. He discarded Monarchy because it would be corrupt from absolute power.
Aristocracy would suit because few would make the rules. This would comprise the chosen
minority who are educated and ri ch. However, in case of no checks on aristocracy, it would
deteriorate. To prevent that, Aristotle suggests that the decisions made by the aristocracy should
be ratified by the ordinary many. He says that "the people, though individually they may be
worse judges than those who have special knowledge, are collectively as good".

Aristotle's suggestion of a judicious mixture between aristocracy and what is sometimes

referred to as Polity or, at other times Democracy, embodies his belief in the Golden Mean
formula. Hence, the competent, rich and educated would rule, but the ordinary citizens would
check the aristocracy from exceeding their power by ratifying their decisions. In modern
times, Aristotle's formula is arguably referred to as Constitutional Democracy.

UNIT 3

FABIAN SOCIALISM

Fabian socialism, founded in 1884, is a form of socialism that advances the principles of
democratic framework to achieve gradual conversion to socialism rather than by revolutionary
overthrow. This originated from the movement for the Utopian socialism.

Body:

The characteristics of Fabian socialism are:

• Fabian socialism is gradual in nature, a slow and steady process. There is no place
for abruptness. The socialism proceeds step by step with people participation and
extension of democratic rights.
• It feels the necessity of ‘State’ as an ultimate arbiter of all disputes. Though power
shall be rested in the hands of the state, there shall be no opportunity to exercise it
arbitrarily.
• It advocates nationalization of key industries in the economic structure of the
society, but did not support management of entire economy by state.
• State has to improve the conditions and make way for socialism without curbing
freedom.
• Control of state or parliament over the economy to stop development of aberration.
 • It includes parliamentary processes like Universal Adult Franchise, periodic
elections; enact laws by representatives etc. for the functioning of society.
• It is against complete revolution or armed struggle as it believes that it can ensure
only temporary relief but in the long run may cause disastrous results.
• Permeation or privileged membership: This form of socialism was also exclusively
membered by intellectuals or the higher class. They were believed to directly
influence or actively ensure the spread of Fabians.
• Emphasis on the possibility of reasonable reconstruction of government and society
on what they perceived as a scientific basis.

Famous Fabian socialists:

• George Bernard Shaw, Beatrice Webb, Sidney Webb, Annie Besant etc. The Britain
Labor Party was believed to be completely Fabian in ideology.
• India: PM Jawaharlal Nehru was inspired by Fabian views and socialism. The
Mahalanobis model, rationing and control of public choices were his ways of
implementing Fabian thought.

Conclusion:

Working of the history of world economics and a look at the challenges for the future, the
socialistic economics with Fabianism and a mix of capitalism seem to give an ideal economic
fabric as a way ahead.

Totalitariasnism concept , elements , criticisms

Totalitarianism is a political system characterized by centralized and autocratic control over
all aspects of public and private life. In a totalitarian state, the government typically seeks to
exert absolute authority, suppressing dissent, controlling information, and regulating every
facet of society. The concept of totalitarianism emerged in the 20th century, particularly in
response to regimes like Nazi Germany and Stalinist Soviet Union. Here are the key elements
and criticisms associated with totalitarianism:

Elements of Totalitarianism:

1. Authoritarian Leadership:
o Totalitarian states are often led by a single charismatic leader or a small ruling
elite. This leadership is concentrated in one party or person, and dissent is not
tolerated.
2. State Control of Ideology:
o Totalitarian regimes seek to control and manipulate the ideology of the state.
This involves shaping public opinion, controlling education, and often creating
a cult of personality around the leader.
3. State Control of Information:
 o Totalitarian states tightly control information, often through state-owned
media. They seek to shape narratives and control the dissemination of
information to maintain their ideological dominance.
4. Mass Surveillance:
o Totalitarian regimes employ extensive surveillance mechanisms to monitor the
activities and behaviors of citizens. This can include state security agencies,
informants, and advanced technological surveillance.
5. Suppression of Opposition:
o Political opposition is actively suppressed through censorship, imprisonment,
and sometimes execution. Opposition parties are either banned or controlled
by the ruling party.
6. Use of Force and Fear:
o Totalitarian states often rely on coercion, fear, and force to maintain control.
This can involve secret police, political purges, and arbitrary arrests to instill
fear and discourage dissent.
7. State Control of Economy:
o Totalitarian regimes often exert significant control over the economy. This
may involve nationalization of industries, strict economic planning, and state
ownership of key resources.
8. Militarization:
o Totalitarian states tend to emphasize militarization and the buildup of military
strength. The military is often used not only for defense but also to suppress
internal dissent.
9. Totalistic Ambitions:
o Totalitarianism seeks to influence and control every aspect of an individual's
life. This includes not only political and economic aspects but also social,
cultural, and personal aspects.

Criticisms of Totalitarianism:

1. Violation of Human Rights:

o Totalitarian regimes are often criticized for widespread human rights abuses,
including arbitrary arrests, torture, and the suppression of freedom of speech
and assembly.
2. Lack of Political Pluralism:
o Totalitarianism is criticized for its lack of political pluralism, as it typically
eliminates competing political parties and dissenting voices, leading to a lack
of political diversity.
3. Cultural Homogenization:
o Critics argue that totalitarian states enforce cultural homogenization,
suppressing diversity of thought, expression, and cultural practices.
4. Economic Inefficiency:
o Despite state control, some totalitarian regimes have faced economic
inefficiencies due to lack of innovation, incentive, and competition, leading to
economic stagnation.
5. Risk of Aggression:
o Totalitarian states may pose a risk to global peace and security due to their
aggressive expansionist tendencies, as witnessed in historical examples such
as Nazi Germany and fascist Italy.
 6. Dependence on Personality Cults:
o Totalitarian regimes often rely on a personality cult around a single leader,
fostering a dangerous concentration of power and potential for abuse.
7. Limited Individual Freedoms:
o Critics argue that the all-encompassing control exerted by totalitarian states
severely restricts individual freedoms and autonomy.
8. Social and Cultural Regression:
o Totalitarian regimes can stifle cultural and intellectual progress, as the state
dictates cultural norms and suppresses dissenting or innovative ideas.

Totalitarianism remains a controversial and heavily criticized political system, and its
historical manifestations have left a lasting impact on global political thought and
governance.

fasicism and nazism

Fascism and Nazism are political ideologies and movements that emerged in the early to mid-
20th century in Europe. While they share certain characteristics, each has its unique features
and historical context.

Fascism:

Key Characteristics of Fascism:

1. Authoritarianism:
o Fascism is characterized by strong, centralized authoritarian leadership. The
leader is often seen as embodying the will and spirit of the nation.
2. Nationalism:
o Fascism is deeply nationalist, emphasizing the supremacy of the nation or
race. It often promotes a sense of national rebirth or rejuvenation.
3. Totalitarianism:
o Fascist states are typically totalitarian, seeking to control and regulate all
aspects of public and private life. This includes political, social, economic, and
cultural spheres.
4. Anti-Communism:
o Fascism is anti-communist and often portrays itself as a bulwark against
socialist or communist ideologies. It rejects class struggle in favor of a
hierarchical social order.
5. Militarism:
o Fascist ideologies glorify militarism and often advocate for expansionist and
imperialistic policies to strengthen the nation.
6. Corporate Interests:
o Fascist governments often maintain close ties with corporate interests, creating
a corporatist economic system where the state collaborates with private
businesses.
7. Authoritarian Social Conservatism:
o Fascism tends to be socially conservative, promoting traditional gender roles,
family values, and opposition to perceived moral decay.
Historical Example:

• Benito Mussolini's Italy (1922–1943) is often considered the first fascist state.

Nazism:

Key Characteristics of Nazism:

1. Racial Superiority:
o Nazism is characterized by a belief in the racial superiority of the Aryan race,
particularly the idea of a "master race." This led to extreme forms of racism
and anti-Semitism.
2. Adolf Hitler's Leadership:
o Nazism is closely associated with Adolf Hitler's leadership. Hitler's
charismatic and dictatorial rule defined the movement.
3. Anti-Semitism:
o Central to Nazism is a virulent form of anti-Semitism, which led to policies
and actions resulting in the Holocaust—the systematic genocide of six million
Jews during World War II.
4. Lebensraum (Living Space):
o Nazism included expansionist goals, driven by the idea of acquiring additional
"living space" for the Aryan race. This expansionism played a role in the
outbreak of World War II.
5. Aryanization:
o The Nazis implemented policies to purify German society, including forced
sterilization of individuals deemed unfit and euthanasia programs targeting
people with disabilities.
6. Rejection of Communism and Marxism:
o Nazism, like fascism, strongly rejected communism and Marxism. Hitler
blamed Communists and Jews for many of Germany's problems.

Historical Example:

• Nazi Germany (1933–1945) under Adolf Hitler is the most infamous example of
Nazism.

While both fascism and Nazism share common features such as authoritarianism,
nationalism, and rejection of communism, Nazism stands out with its extreme racial theories
and genocidal anti-Semitism. Both ideologies, however, were responsible for significant
atrocities and played a crucial role in shaping the course of history during the 20th century.

he major differences between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles

of State Policy are given below:
Fundamental Rights Directive Principles of State Policy

Part 3 of the Constitution of India contains the Directive Principles are written in Part 4 of
Fundamental Rights guaranteed to the citizens the Constitution of India. They are given
of India. Articles 12-35 of the Constitution of India in Articles 36-51 of the Constitution of
deal with Fundamental Rights. India.

The basic rights that are guaranteed to Indian Directive Principles of the Indian
citizens by the Constitution of India are known as constitution are the guidelines to be
Fundamental Rights followed by the Government while
framing policies.

Political Democracy is established in India with Economic and Social Democracy is

the help of Fundamental Rights given in the established with the help of the Directive
Constitution of India. Principles of State Policy

The welfare of each and every citizen is The welfare of the entire community is
promoted through the Fundamental Rights fostered with the help of Directive
Principles.

As per the law, the violation of Fundamental Violation of Directive Principles is not a
Rights is punishable. punishable crime unlike violation of
Fundamental Rights

Fundamental Rights are justiciable as they can Directive Principles are not justiciable as
be enforced legally by the courts if there is a they cannot be enforced by the courts if
violation. there is a violation.

If there is a law which is in violation of If there is a law in violation of Directive

fundamental rights then the courts can declare Principles, then the courts do not have
it as invalid and unconstitutional. the power to declare it as invalid and
unconstitutional.
 Fundamental Rights are sometimes considered Directive Principles are directions for the
as a kind of restrictions imposed on the State. Government in helping it to achieve
some particular objectives.

Fundamental rights can be suspended during a Directive Principles of State Policy can
national emergency. But, the rights guaranteed never be suspended under any
under Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended. circumstances.

Fundamental Rights was borrowed from the Directive Principles of State Policy was
Constitution of the United States of America borrowed from the Constitution of
Ireland which was in turn copied from
the Constitution of Spain.

Sovereign

The word Sovereign derives from an old French word sovereign which inversely came from
the Latin word superānus. The meaning of the Latin word is ‘Above”. Therefore, the ethical
meaning of the word is the high-ranked authority of a Governing body to imply the right to
make autonomous decisions. The word is used as a tale in politics to give reality to the
individual seated in the highest rank of the governing body. The practice to give superiority
to the Sovereign is known as sovereignty. Sovereignty is the practice over polity to give
respect and power to the Sovereign to make decisions for the governing body and take
immediate decisions in devastating situations. There are several types of sovereignty which
are as follows:

1. Titular sovereignty: it can be defined as a fake sovereign only by name, which is not
given any superior power to govern effectively. For example, the king of Japan, the
Queen of Britain, is performing the role of titular sovereignty.

2. Legal and political sovereignty: Legal Sovereignty is the supreme power of states to
empower the legislation and decision by the highest authority. In each state of India,
there is Legal sovereignty. Generally, it is said that electorates have only political
sovereignty. Legal sovereignty is selected by political sovereigns.

3. Internal and external sovereignty

The core understanding of this type of sovereignty is to implement the supreme power to the
state authority over all other authority or institutions. External sovereignty means the practice
of sovereignty by the state’s authority to stop the attack of foreign states on other foreign
states.

4. Popular sovereignty

It refers to the practice of sovereignty by which the governing body is supported and
empowered by the public. In democratic countries, popular sovereignty is practised by the
common people by electing their representatives.

5. De Jure and De Facto sovereignty

This type of sovereignty is authorized by rules and laws to empower the governing body.

Sovereignty in the preamble of the Indian constitution

Preamble represents the introduction part of the Indian constitution and states that Indians are
the origin of the constitution. It secures justice, liberty, equality and promotion in fraternity
among all Indians. The word “Sovereignty” had been mentioned in the preamble for the
attribution of the word “Republic”. It has represented three ideas regarding Indian law. The
“Republic of India” is considered as a single entity, and the entity is termed as “Sovereignty”.
It represents one nation, one country, one voice, one state and “one will”, which are the main
criteria for emphasising “Sovereign Republic” in Indian democracy. The “Republic of India”
refers to “Sovereignty” that suggests equal and independent status with the members of the
international community.

Moreover, India has the supreme legal competence to fix Indian laws. It suggests the owner
affairs and absolute control of Indian regulations by the “Sovereignty”. Therefore, it can be
said that India is a country that follows sober, and these are represented in the Indian
constitution.

Analysis of preamble

Indian democracy has been emphasised in the constitution preamble by analysing the
“Sovereignty” of India. It focuses on the two-fold objective of the Indian constitution
regarding the term “Sovereign Democratic Republic”. The preamble tells the unity of nations
while promoting fraternity among all the citizens of India. It suggests the idea of constructing
a nation with “one voice and one will”. It also expresses that the constituent assembly was
given to the Indian citizens on 26 November 1949. The preamble clarified that “Sovereignty”
is associated with each people of India, and there does not exist any rooms for princess,
crown or similar rank. All the people of India have been marked as one body in the preamble
of the Indian constitution. They are all included for presenting the assembly chamber to
construct the frame of the constitution. Solman’s resolution is taken in it, referring to the
Indian, not the God.

The preamble has expressed some terms to describe the Indian democracy. These terms are:
Democratic: it represents the political democracy, i.e., the application of the voting system to
elect any country leader.

Republic: the head authority of any state elected by vote is called a republic. It represents the
“Sovereignty” of the people to represent the democracy and government of India.

Liberty: the preamble expects the liberty of expression, faith, belief and thoughts of all
Indians

Equality: the preamble aims to control equality by maintaining basic facts like economic,
political and social matters by giving opportunities.

Fraternity: it expresses the brotherhood among all the communities under India.

Indian Sovereignty

The term “the people of India” represents the Indian constitution and talks about the
nullification of other authorities to enact Indian laws. From the preamble analysis, it can be
said that the Indian constitution had been constructed to maintain equality among all the
citizens of India. It is evident that all the governing rules are maintained by independent
states under India. The Government of India is independent to take any steps regarding the
nation. No external nation or community has control over it. The preamble takes the
resolution to maintain equality among all the people of India to get the opportunity of various
political, economic, social and other factors. All of these explanations make it clear that India
is a sovereign country.

Conclusion

Sovereign is referred to as the supreme power of the highest authority. A sovereign has the
power to control the governing body. The Sovereign is selected by the common people. The
practice of sovereignty is over polity to make reasonable decisions to protect the common
people. The prime duty of a sovereign is to protect the public can’t make decisions to solve
the issues in politics. The high authorities of India have the supreme power to make any
rational decisions. Moreover, the Indian preamble says about equality among all citizens.
Therefore, India is considered a sovereign country, and the word “Sovereign” is mentioned in
the introduction part of the constitution, i.e., preamble.