LO.

15-Elfayoum Chemi Club

Made by : Ali Atef
 Key Concepts
conservation
01 System. 04 Energy 07 of energy.

02 Thermodynamic 05 Heat 08 Exothermic.

Maximum
03 Kinetics 06 work 09 Endothermic
 Activation
10 Heat content. 13 energy.
16 Spontaneity.

Activated Gibbs free

11 Enthalpy change. 14 complex 17 energy.

12 Energy diagram. 15 Entropy(S)

18 Catalyst
 01

System
• What is system?
A system, as it is defined in physics or chemistry, specifically is nothing
generally more than a collection of objects (or kind of smaller systems)
that can be identified. Usually, the word "system" refers to a collection
that mostly makes thinking about a problem pretty much more
convenient. The surrounding essentially is everything else that is not
the system defined, which is fairly significant. For example, if the
system being studied is a house, the surrounding would mostly be
everything else that is not the house (other houses, the neighborhood,
the kind of general environment around the house, etc.), kind of
contrary to popular belief. Systems can generally be described in three
different ways in a actually major way
There are three types of systems:-
Isolated: this is a system in which no matter or energy is being
exchanged with the surroundings.
Closed: this is a system in which only energy is being exchanged with
the surroundings.
Open: this is a system in which both matter and energy is being
exchanged with the surroundings.
Isolated System:-
A system that does not interact with its surroundings.
Depending on the context this may mean that its total
energy and/or momentum stay constant. In
thermodynamics, isolation is usually used to indicate that
the system’s energy does not change. In mechanics, it is
used to indicate that the system's momentum does not
change.
 Closed system:-
A closed system is a type of thermodynamic system where mass is
conserved within the boundaries of the system, but energy is allowed to
freely enter or exit the system. In chemistry, a closed system is one in which
neither reactants nor products can enter or escape, yet which allows energy
transfer (heat and light). A closed system may be used for experiments
where the temperature isn't a factor.
Open system:-
An open system is a system that has external interactions. Such
interactions can take the form of information, energy, or material
transfers into or out of the system boundary, depending on the
discipline which defines the concept. An open system is contrasted
with the concept of an isolated system that exchanges neither energy,
matter, nor information with its environment. An open system is also
known as a flow system.
Systems types:-
 02

Thermodynamics
What is thermodynamics?
• thermodynamics, is the science of the relationship between heat,
work, temperature, and energy in a big way. In broad terms,
thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one place
to another and from one form to another, which literally is quite
significant. The basically key concept for all intents and purposes
is that heat kind of is a form of energy really corresponding to a
definite amount of mechanical wor, really contrary to popular
belief
First law of thermodynamics:-
The first law of thermodynamics states that heat is a form of energy,
and thermodynamic processes are therefore subject to the principle of
conservation of energy. This means that heat energy cannot be created
or destroyed. So, The First Law says that the internal energy of a system
has to be equal to the work that is being done on the system, plus or
minus the heat that flows in or out of the system and any other work
that is done on the system.
The second law of thermodynamics:-
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the state of entropy of
the entire universe, as an isolated system, will always increase over
time. The second law also states that the changes in the entropy in the
universe can never be negative.
 03

kinetics
What is chemical kinetics:-
chemical kinetics, the branch of physical
chemistry that is concerned with
understanding the rates of chemical
reactions. It is to be contrasted with
thermodynamics, which deals with the
direction in which a process occurs but in
itself tells nothing about its rate.
Thermodynamics is time’s arrow, while
chemical kinetics is time’s clock.
Reaction rate:-
The rate of a reaction is defined in terms of the rates with which the
products are formed, and the reactants (the reacting substances) are
consumed. For chemical systems, it is usual to deal with the
concentrations of substances, which is defined as the amount of
substance per unit volume. The rate can then be defined as the
concentration of a substance that is consumed or produced in unit of
time. Sometimes it is more convenient to express rates as numbers of
molecules formed or consumed in unit time. As a scale measurement,
the unit of reaction rate measure is “molarity/second”
 04

Energy
What is energy?
energy, in physics, the capacity for doing work. It
may exist in potential, kinetic, thermal, electrical,
chemical, nuclear, or other various forms. There are,
moreover, heat and work—i.e., energy in the process
of transfer from one body to another. After it has
been transferred, energy is always designated
according to its nature. Hence, heat transferred may
become thermal energy, while work done may
manifest itself in the form of mechanical energy. All
forms of energy are associated with motion. For
example, any given body has kinetic energy if it is in
motion. A tensioned device such as a bow or spring,
though at rest, has the potential for creating motion;
it contains potential energy because of its
configuration. Similarly, nuclear energy is potential
energy because it results from the configuration of
subatomic particles in the nucleus of an atom.
05

Heat
What is heat?
heat, an energy that is transferred from
one body to another as the result of a
difference in temperature. If two bodies at
different temperatures are brought
together, energy is transferred from the
hotter body to the colder. The effect of this
transfer of energy usually, but not always,
is an increase in the temperature of the
colder body and a decrease in the
temperature of the hotter body. A
substance may absorb heat without an
increase in temperature by changing from
one physical state (or phase) to another.
Heat transfer:-
Heat transfer is any or all of several kinds
of phenomena that convey energy and
entropy from one location to another.
The specific mechanisms are usually
referred to as convection, thermal
radiation, and conduction. Conduction
involves the transfer of energy
and entropy between adjacent molecules
and is usually a slow process.
Radiation refers to the transmission of
energy as electromagnetic radiation from
its emission on a heated surface to its
absorption on another surface.
Conduction heat transfer :-
Conduction heat transfer is the transfer of heat through matter (i.e.,
solids, liquids, or gases) without bulk motion of the matter. In another
ward, conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic to
less energetic particles of a substance due to interaction between the
particles
Radiation heat transfer:-
Heat transfer from a body with a high
temperature to a body with a lower
temperature, when bodies are not in direct
physical contact with each other or when
they are separated in space, is called heat
radiation, as schematically shown in. All
physical substances in solid, liquid, or
gaseous states can emit energy via a
process of electromagnetic radiation
because of the vibrational and rotational
movement of their molecules and atoms.
Convention heat transfer:-
Convective heat transfer is the transfer of
heat between two bodies by currents of
moving gas or fluid. In free convection, air
or water moves away from the heated
body as the warm air or water rises and is
replaced by a cooler parcel of air or water.
In forced convection, air or water is
forcibly moved across the body surface
(such as in wind or wind-generated water
currents) and efficiently removes heat
from the body.
 06

Maximum work
What is maximum work?
Maximum work kind of is done when a process particularly is done
reversibly; this literally is demonstrated by lifting masses to various
heights using rubber bands as a source of energy, or so they mostly
thought
 07

conservation of energy.
law of conservation of energy:-
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed only converted from one form of energy to
another. This means that a system always has the same amount of
energy, unless it's added from the outside. This is particularly confusing
in the case of non-conservative forces, where energy is converted from
mechanical energy into thermal energy, but the overall energy does
remain the same. The only way to use energy is to transform energy
from one form to another.
The amount of energy in any system, then, is
determined by the following equation:-

𝑈𝑡 ˍ=𝑈𝑖 +𝑊 + 𝑄
𝑈𝑡 : the total internal energy of a system.
𝑈𝑖 ∶ the initial internal energy of a system.
𝑊 : the work done by or on the system.
𝑄 : the heat added to, or removed from,
the system.
 08

Exothermic reaction
What is the exothermic reaction?
All chemical reactions involve energy. Energy is
used to break bonds in reactants, and energy is
released when new bonds form in products. In
some chemical reactions, called endothermic
reactions, less energy is released when new
bonds form in the products than is needed to
break bonds in the reactants. The opposite is
true of exothermic reactions. In an exothermic
reaction, it takes less energy to break bonds in
the reactants than is released when new bonds
form in the products.
Energy Change in Exothermic Reactions:-
The word exothermic means “releasing heat.” Energy, often in the form
of heat, is released as an exothermic reaction proceeds. This is
illustrated in the Figure below. The general equation for an exothermic
reaction is:
Reactants → Products + Energy
 09

Endothermic reaction
What is the endothermic reaction?
An endothermic reaction is any chemical
reaction that absorbs heat from its
environment, which literally is quite
significant. The absorbed energy provides the
activation energy for the reaction to
definitely occur. A hallmark of this type of
reaction is that it feels cold, which kind of is
fairly significant.
 10

Heat content
What is the heat content?
a thermodynamic quantity basically equal to the internal energy of a
system plus the product of its volume and pressure.
 11

Enthalpy change
What is the enthalpy change?
An enthalpy change is approximately equal
to the difference between the energy used
to break bonds in a chemical reaction and
the energy gained by the formation of new
chemical bonds in the reaction. It
describes the energy change of a system at
constant pressure. Enthalpy change is
denoted by ΔH. At constant pressure, ΔH
equals the internal energy of the system
added to the pressure-volume work done
by the system on its surroundings.
 12

Energy diagram
What are energy level diagrams?
Energy level diagrams are used to model energy changes during
reactions. They show the relative energy levels of the products and
reactants.
 13

Activation energy.
The activation energy:-
activation energy, in chemistry, is the minimum amount of energy that
is required to activate atoms or molecules to a condition in which they
can undergo a chemical transformation or physical transport. In
transition-state theory, activation energy is the difference in energy
content between atoms or molecules in an activated or transition-state
configuration and the corresponding atoms and molecules in their
initial configuration.
 14

Activated complex
The activated complex:-
Reactant particles sometimes collide with one another and remain
unchanged by the collision. Other times, the collision leads to the
formation of products. The state of the particles that is in between the
reactants and products is called the activated complex. An activated
complex is an unstable arrangement of atoms that exists momentarily
at the peak of the activation energy barrier. Because of its high energy,
the activated complex exists for an extremely short period of time
(about 10−13 𝑠 ). There is an equal likelihood that the activated
complex either reforms the original reactants or goes on to form
products. The figure below shows the formation of a possible activated
complex between colliding hydrogen and oxygen molecules. Because of
their unstable nature and brief existence, very little is known about the
exact structures of many activated complexes.
 15

Entropy(S)
What is entropy?
• entropy, the measure of a system’s thermal energy per unit
temperature that is unavailable for doing useful work. Because work
is obtained from ordered molecular motion, the amount of entropy is
also a measure of the molecular disorder, or randomness, of a
system.
 16

Spontaneity
What is spontaneous?
A spontaneous process is one that, once started, continues on its own
without the input of energy. A non-spontaneous process needs a
continual input of energy.

Determination of spontaneous:-
Although spontaneous reactions are often exothermic, this is not a
criterion for spontaneity. The best indicator of spontaneity in a
reaction is the change in Entropy (S or DS). The Second Law of
Thermodynamics states that for a reaction to be spontaneous, there
must be an increase in entropy.
 17

Gibbs free energy.

What is the Gibbs free energy?
The direction of spontaneous change is the direction in which total
entropy increases. Total entropy change, also called the entropy change
of the universe, is the sum of the entropy change of a system and of its
surroundings:-
𝐷𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 = 𝐷𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 + 𝐷𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟
 18

Catalyst
What are catalysts?
A catalyst, in chemistry, is any substance that increases the rate of a
reaction without itself being consumed. Enzymes are naturally
occurring catalysts responsible for many essential biochemical
reactions.
The effects of the catalysts in the chemical
reaction.