FLUID MECHANICS

Lecture slides by:

Dr. Mesay G.

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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Fluid Dynamics deals with fluids in motion

Where you find Fluids and Fluid-Dynamics?

• Blood flow in arteries and veins

• Interfacial fluid dynamics
• Geological fluid mechanics
• The dynamics of ocean
• Laminar-turbulent transition
• Solidification of fluids

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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Viscosity
• Resistance of a liquid to flow is called viscosity.

• It is related to the ease with which molecules can move past each other.

• Viscosity increases with stronger intermolecular forces and decreases with higher temperature.

• Some liquids are very viscous such as honey, others such as water much less so.

• Generally speaking heating a liquid makes it less viscous and cool it more so.

In everyday terms viscosity is “thickness”. Thus, water is “thin” having

a lower viscosity, while honey is “think” having a higher viscosity.
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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Viscosity

Fluids’ Flow is affected by their viscosity

• Viscosity measures the internal friction in a fluid.

Low viscosity Medium viscosity High viscosity

• gases • water • honey
• other fluids that pour • oil and grease
and flow easily • glass

• Viscous forces depend on the resistance that two adjacent layers of fluid have
to relative motion.

• Part of the kinetic energy of a fluid is converted to internal energy, analogous to

friction for sliding surfaces
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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics

• When fluid is in motion, its flow can be characterized as being one of two main types.

1. Steady, or laminar, if each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path such that the
paths of different particles never cross each other

 In steady flow, every fluid particle arriving at a given point in space has the same
velocity.

If the flow of a fluid is smooth, it is called streamline or laminar flow (a).

The path taken by a fluid particle under steady flow is called a streamline
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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics

2. Turbulent flow is irregular flow characterized by small whirlpool-like regions

 Above a certain speed, the flow becomes turbulent (b).

 Turbulent flow has eddies; the viscosity of the fluid is much greater when eddies are
present

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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Steady or laminar flow and turbulent flow
 Laminar (Streamline) flow: Every particle of fluid that passes a particular point follows the
same path as particles that preceded it.

 Turbulent flow: Characterized by agitated, disorderly motion.

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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Ideal fluids

An ideal fluid is defined by the following set of characteristics. The flow of the fluid must
be
• steady
The velocity at any point in the flow does not change in time.
• incompressible
The density does not change with pressure.
• non-viscous
There are no sources of internal friction that could remove energy from the flow.
• irrotational
An element (small piece) of the flow traces out a straight path aligned with the fluid
velocity, not a helical pattern around it.

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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Ideal fluid flow
Because the motion of real fluids is very complex and not fully understood, the following simplifying
assumptions are made for ideal fluid flow:

1. The fluid is nonviscous. In a nonviscous fluid, internal friction is neglected. An object moving
through the fluid experiences no viscous force.

2. The flow is steady. In steady (laminar) flow, all particles passing through a point have the same
velocity.

3. The fluid is incompressible. The density of an incompressible fluid is constant.

4. The flow is irrotational. In irrotational flow, the fluid has no angular momentum about any point. If
a small paddle wheel placed anywhere in the fluid does not rotate about the wheel’s center of mass,
the flow is irrotational.
• An ideal fluid (perfect fluid) has no viscosity. It is a frictionless fluid. The flow of a fluid that is assumed to
have no viscosity is called inviscid flow. The ideal fluids can only be subjected to normal, compressive
stress which is called pressure. 9
 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Flow Rate and the Equation of Continuity
A moving fluid will exert forces parallel to the surface over which it moves, unlike a static fluid. This gives rise
to a viscous force that impedes the forward motion of the fluid.

We will deal with Steady (laminar) flow.

A steady flow is one where the velocity at a given point in a

fluid is constant.

V1 = V2 =
constant constant
v1v2
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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Flow Rate and the Equation of Continuity
Equation of Continuity: conservation of mass

The amount of mass that flows though the cross-sectional area A1

is the same as the mass that flows through cross-sectional area A2.

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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Flow Rate and the Equation of Continuity
Flow of an ideal fluid through a short section of pipe
Constant density and velocity within volume element dV; Incompressible fluid means dr/dt = 0

Mass flow rate = amount of mass crossing area A per unit time = a “current "sometimes called a
“mass flux”
volumeof fluid in cylinder  dV  Adx
cross-section area A
dM d
velocity v Imass  mass flow rate   (rV )
dt dt
dx
 rA  rAv
dt
Ivol  volumeflow rate  Av
length dx
Imass  mass flow rate  rAv
Jmass  mass flow/unitarea  rv 12
 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Flow Rate and the Equation of Continuity
Equation of Continuity: conservation of mass
• An ideal fluid is moving through a pipe of nonuniform diameter
• The particles move along streamlines in steady-state flow
• The mass entering at point 1 cannot disappear or collect in the pipe
• The mass that crosses A1 in some time interval is the same as the mass that crosses A2 in the
same time interval.
r2
mass flow in  r1A1v1  mass flow out  r2 A2v2

• The fluid is incompressible so:

r1  r2  a cons tan t r1

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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Flow Rate and the Equation of Continuity
Equation of Continuity: conservation of mass
r2
• The fluid is incompressible so:
r1  r2  a cons tan t
 A1v1  A 2 v 2 r1

• This is called the equation of continuity for an

incompressible fluid
• The product of the area and the fluid speed
(volume flux) at all points along a pipe is constant.
The mass flow rate is the mass that passes a given
point per unit time. The flow rates at any two points
must be equal, as long as no fluid is being added
or taken away.
The rate of fluid volume entering one end
equals the volume leaving at the other end
Where the pipe narrows (constriction), the
fluid moves faster, and vice versa
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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Flow Rate and the Equation of Continuity
Example Q1. A river is 40m wide, 2.2m deep and flows at 4.5 m/s. It passes
through a 3.7-m wide gorge, where the flow rate increases to 6.0 m/s. How
deep is the gorge?

𝐴 2 = 𝑤2 𝑑2
𝐴1 = 𝑤1𝑑1

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∶ 𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝐴2𝑣2 → 𝑤1𝑑1𝑣1 = 𝑤2𝑑2𝑣2

𝑤1𝑑1𝑣1 40 × 2.2 × 4.5
𝑑2 = = = 18 𝑚
𝑤2 𝑣2 3.7 × 6.0 15
 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Flow Rate and the Equation of Continuity

Example Q2. A garden hose of inner radius 1.0 cm carries water at 2.0 m/s. The
nozzle at the end has radius 0.20 cm. How fast does the water move through the
constriction?
A1v1  A2 v2 Simple ratios
 A1   r12 
v2   v1   2 v1
 A2   r2 
2
 1.0 cm 
  2.0 m/s   50 m/s
 0.20 cm 
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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Flow Rate and the Equation of Continuity

Where does the water flow the fastest?

Point A
Point B

Faster Slower
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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Bernoulli’s Equation and its applications
Bernoulli’s equation is a statement of energy conservation.

Flow in an ideal fluid conserves total energy. When fluid flows in a gravitational field, the
energy (per unit volume of fluid) comes in three forms:

• gravitational potential energy density: rgh

• kinetic energy density: rv2/2 (ordered particle velocities)
• internal energy density: P (disordered particle velocities)

The requirement that the total energy be conserved implies that the sum of these three
forms remains constant throughout the flow. The result is Bernoulli’s equation
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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Bernoulli’s Equation and its applications
The requirement that the total energy be conserved implies that the sum of these three
forms remains constant throughout the flow. The result is Bernoulli’s equation

P + rv2/2 + rgh = constant

• where p is the static pressure (in Newtons per square meter), ρ is the fluid density (in kg per cubic
meter), v is the velocity of fluid flow (in meters per second) and h is the height above a reference
surface. The second term in this equation is known as the dynamic pressure.

Total energy per unit volume is

p  12 r v 2  r g h  const
constant at any point in fluid.
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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Bernoulli’s Equation and its applications
What happens to the energy density of the fluid if I raise the ends ?

1 2 1 2
P1  rgh1  rv1  P2  rgh2  rv2
2 2
Work per Potential
unit volume energy Kinetic
done by the per unit energy
fluid volume per unit
volume

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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Bernoulli’s Equation and its applications
The most general applications of Bernoulli’s equation

Example Q1. The tank is open to the atmosphere at the

top. Find an expression for the speed of the liquid leaving
the pipe at the bottom.

𝑣1 = 2𝑔ℎ

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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Bernoulli’s Equation and its applications
The most general applications of Bernoulli’s equation
Example Q2. Find the velocity of water leaving a tank through a hole in the side 1 metre below the
water level.
𝑃 + 12𝜌𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝: 𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚, 𝑣 = 0, 𝑦 = 1 𝑚

𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚: 𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚, 𝑣 =? , 𝑦 = 0 𝑚

𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃 + 12𝜌𝑣2

𝑣= 2𝑔𝑦 = 2 × 9.8 × 1 = 4.4 𝑚/𝑠

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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Factors that affect fluid flow rate

 Pressure difference: How hard the fluid is pushed forward.

 Radius r of the tube: It is more difficult to push fluid through a tube of tiny
radius.

 Length of the tube: A long tube offers more resistance to flow.

 Fluid type: Some property of a fluid that characterizes its "thickness" or

"stickiness" should affect the flow.

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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Summary: fluid dynamics
• Pressure in a fluid is the same for points at the same
height

• In hydrostatic equilibrium, pressure increases with depth

due to gravity

• The buoyant force is the weight of the displaced fluid

• Fluid flow conserves mass (continuity eq.) and

energy (Bernoulli’s equation)

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 Fluid Mechanics
7. Fluid Dynamics
Summary: fluid dynamics

Continuity equation: mass is conserved!

𝜌 × 𝑣 × 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
For liquids:
𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 → 𝑣 × 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌, 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣, 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴)

Bernoulli’s equation: energy is conserved!

𝑃 + 12𝜌𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃, 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌, 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣, ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦)
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