Definition of infancy stage

Infancy is a crucial developmental stage characterized by rapid growth and dependency on caregivers for
basic needs. It's a time of immense learning and development, laying the foundation for future physical,
cognitive, and socio-emotional growth.

Characteristics of infancy

1. *Rapid physical growth*: Babies experience dramatic changes in size, weight, and appearance
during infancy as they grow and develop.
2. *Motor development*: Infants gradually gain control over their movements, progressing from
simple reflexes to more complex skills like crawling, standing, and eventually walking.
3. *Language acquisition*: Infants begin to communicate through sounds, gestures, and eventually
words. They start to understand language before they can speak it, and their vocabulary expands
rapidly during this stage
4. Attachment formation: Infants form emotional bonds with their primary caregivers, which are
crucial for their social and emotional development. This attachment provides a sense of security and
lays the foundation for future relationships.
5. Cognitive development: Infants start to explore and make sense of the world around them through
sensory experiences, imitation, and problem-solving. They begin to understand object permanence,
cause and effect relationships, and basic concepts of time and space.
6. Social development: Infants engage in social interactions with caregivers and other familiar adults,
learning about social norms, emotions, and relationships. They start to develop empathy and basic
social skills.

Physical development in infancy

Physical development in infancy is the growth and maturation of the body, brain, senses, and neural
connections from birth through the first year of life. The term for the period of time right after birth is
postnatal. For the mother, this period of time is called postpartum. Physical development happens at a rapid
rate soon after a neonate is born. A neonate is another term for a newborn baby or a baby that has left the
womb.
Physical development involves everything happening inside a baby's body as they go from being a newborn
to a 1-year-old. A baby's body lengthens, grows muscle, and puts on weight. The baby learns to use their
body in new ways, like sitting up, grabbing toys, and crawling. Babies learn to voluntarily control their
muscle movements, and their bodies build up the muscles needed to sit, stand, and eventually walk.
The brain and senses also change during the first year of life. The brain grows in size and builds new neural
connections as a baby is exposed to language, colors, shapes, and music. A baby's senses improve
drastically. At birth, a baby's vision is very limited, especially their distance vision. Newborn babies go from
responding to life automatically and reflexively to purposefully directing their actions, sounds, and
movements!

Physical development in infancy typically progresses through several stages

• Growth Spurts:
Infants experience rapid growth in height and weight, with noticeable spurts occurring during the first year
of life. Infants experience rapid physical growth during the first year, with weight typically doubling by 5-6
months and tripling by the end of the first year.

• Reflexes:
 At birth, infants have reflexes , These reflexes gradually diminish as voluntary control over movements
develops. Sucking :Suck on anything that touches the lips. Rooting: Turning the head when the cheek is
touched .Grasping Fingers automatically grip anything that touches the palm of the hand. Babinski The
toes will fan out and curl when the sole of the foot is stroked from heel to toe. Moro A sudden noise or loss
of support to the head and neck will cause infants to spread out their arms and legs then quickly contract the
limbs inward. Tonic Neck When lying on the back with the head to one side infants will extend the arm and
leg on that side while flexing the limbs on the opposite side (looks like a fencer pose). Stepping Legs move
in stepping like motion when feet touch a smooth surface

• Motor Milestones:
Infants develop both gross motor skills (like rolling over, sitting up, crawling, and eventually walking) and
fine motor skills (such as grasping objects, picking up small items, and eventually self-feeding).

Gross motor skill

*0-3 months*: Infants gain control over their head movements and begin to lift their heads briefly while
lying on their stomachs. They also start to make kicking movements.
*4-6 months*: Infants can roll over from front to back and back to front, sit with support, and may begin to
support some of their weight on their legs when held upright.
*7-9 months*: Many infants can sit without support, crawl, and pull themselves up to stand while holding
onto furniture.
*10-12 months*: Infants may start to stand unsupported and take their first steps, although walking typically
becomes more stable closer to 12 months.

Fine Motor Skills:

*0-3 months*: Infants begin to grasp objects placed in their hands and bring their hands together.

*4-6 months*: They can grasp objects voluntarily and pass them from one hand to the other.

*7-9 months*: Infants develop a pincer grasp, using their thumb and forefinger to pick up small objects.
*10-12 months*: They can use their fingers to feed themselves and may start to use simple tools, like
banging objects together.
• Sensory Development**:
Infants’ sensory abilities, including vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch, undergo significant development
during this stage. At birth, a baby’s vision is very fuzzy. They can only see objects that are 8-10 inches away
They can only see objects that are 8-10 inches away. This works great for being able to see a parent's face!
The rest of a baby's vision is cloudy, but they typically begin to visually follow objects around 3 months old.
Babies show a preference for looking at faces over other kinds of objects. By the end of the first year, babies
should be able to recognize patterns and colors. Even though a baby's vision is weak at first, hearing is
strong from birth and remains the dominant sense throughout infancy.

• Brain development
the brain of a newborn baby doubles in size during the first year of life. The brain grows in size through
neural plasticity: the strengthening and growth of neural connections. The brain literally changes in structure
and functions as a person learns through experiences. During the first few years of life, the brain undergoes
rapid growth and development. Engaging in activities like talking to your baby, reading together, playing
games that involve interaction, and providing a stimulating environment can all help with brain development
in infants. These activities help promote language skills, cognitive development, and social interactions,
which are essential for healthy brain development.

• **Sleep Patterns**:
Infants require a lot of sleep for growth and development, with sleep patterns gradually becoming more
structured over the first year. Infants’ sleep patterns are quite different from adults. Newborns typically sleep
for 16-17 hours a day, but in short bursts as they wake up for feeding every few hours. As they grow, they
start to develop more regular sleep patterns. Establishing a bedtime routine can help create a conducive
environment for better sleep. It’s important to create a safe sleep space for infants by placing them on their
back on a firm mattress with no loose bedding to reduce the risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS).
It’s a term used to describe the sudden and unexplained death of a baby less than one year old. This usually
happens during sleep, and the exact cause is unknown.

• Teething Milestones**:
Teething in infants is a significant milestone! It typically starts around 6 months of age, but the timing can
vary. During teething, infants may experience symptoms like drooling, irritability, swollen gums, and a
strong urge to chew on things.
0-2 months Reflexes: sucking, rooting, swallowing, grasping, and startling Holds head up when on stomach
Moves arms and legs Looks directly at faces
2-4months Holds head steady Holds a toy Swings arms at toys Puts hands in mouth Pushes up onto
elbows/arms Looks at own hands Follows movement with eyes Turns head toward sounds
4-6 months Rolls over in one direction (stomach to back)Pushes up on arms from stomach Leans on hands
while sitting Reaches and grabs toys Moves objects into mouth Looks at self in a mirror
6-9 months Sits up without help Moves objects from hand to hand Goes from laying down to sitting up
Uses fingers to move objects closer
9-12 months Pulls up and stands with support Takes steps while holding on Slurps from a cup Grabs objects
with thumb and finger Puts objects in containers Waves and claps

Cognitive development in infants

Cognitive development in infancy involves the progressive growth of cognitive abilities and processes. Here
are the key aspects:

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years):

According to Piaget’s theory, infants progress through this stage, which is characterized by the development
of sensory and motor skills. Infants learn about the world through their senses and actions. Key milestones
include:
•Object Permanence*: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not seen, heard, or
touched. This typically emerges around 8-12 months.
*Symbolic Thought*: The ability to mentally represent objects and events, which lays the groundwork for
language development and imaginative play.

2. Attention and Perception:

Infants become increasingly able to focus their attention on specific stimuli and differentiate between
various sensory inputs. They develop preferences for certain sights, sounds, and textures.

3. Problem-solving:
Infants engage in simple problem-solving tasks, such as figuring out how to reach a toy that is out of reach
or how to open a container to access its contents. They learn through trial and error and gradually develop
more sophisticated problem-solving strategies.

4. Social Cognition: Infants begin to understand basic social concepts, such as the intentions and
emotions of others. They start to engage in joint attention, where they share attention with others
toward the same object or event.
5. Language Development: While primarily a socio-emotional milestone, language development is
closely tied to cognitive development. Infants start to recognize and produce sounds, eventually
progressing to babbling, single words, and simple sentences.
6. Sensory Development: Infants begin to explore the world through their senses, such as touch, taste,
smell, sight, and hearing.

7. Cause and Effect: Infants start to understand the relationship between actions and outcomes, laying
the foundation for problem-solving skills.
8. Memory Development: Babies start forming memories and recalling familiar faces, objects, and
events.

9. Language Development: Infants begin babbling, imitating sounds, and eventually saying words,
which is crucial for communication and cognitive growth.
10. Social Interaction: Babies learn to engage with caregivers and peers, developing social skills and
emotional intelligence.

11. Symbolic Play: Infants engage in pretend play, using objects symbolically, which enhances their
creativity and imagination.
12. Spatial Awareness: Babies start to understand concepts like distance, size, and spatial relationships
as they explore their surroundings.
13. Imitation: Infants mimic actions and behaviors they observe, which helps them learn and develop
new skills.

Cognitive Development Milestones

From 0 to 4 months
An infant needs to interact with their environment in order to learn about it. By using their senses, infants
educate themselves about the world around them. An infant will develop preferences for certain experiences
such as playing peek-a-boo (or) having a bath. They love repetition and also enjoy new experiences.

Milestones Achieved

1. Smiles and laughs

2. Looks toward direction of sound
3. Eyes track slow moving target for brief period
4. Looks at edges, patterns with light/dark contrast and faces
5. Imitates adult tongue movements when being held/talked to
 6. Learns through sensory experiences
7. Repeats actions but unaware of ability to cause actions
From 4 to 8 months
During this stage infants begin to organize their world through repeated interactions in their environment.
Even though an infant doesn’t have words to describe concepts such as soft, small, hard or big, they are
already beginning to understand these concepts by using their senses. An infant’s memory is also central to
cognitive development. They can only remember objects for only a few minutes. However, by the end of
this stage their ability to remember objects extends to a week or two.

Milestones Achieved

1. Swipes at dangling objects

2. Shakes and stares at toy placed in hand
3. Becomes bored if left alone for long periods of time
4. Repeats accidently caused actions that are interesting
5. Enjoys games such as peek-a-boo or pat-a-cake
6. Will search for partly hidden object
7. Able to coordinate looking, hearing and touching
8. Enjoys toys, banging objects, scrunching paper
9. Explores objects by looking at and mouthing them
10. Develops preferences for foods
11. Explores objects with mouth

From 8 to 12 months
From here on, infants will enjoy a stimulating environment which will enable them to develop skills and
concepts faster. Activities and toys will become a focal point as infants begin to engage and interact with
purpose.

Milestones Achieved

1. Moves obstacle to get at desired toy

2. Bangs two objects held in hands together
3. Responds to own name
4. Makes gestures to communicate and to symbolize objects, e.g. points to something they want
5. Seems to understand some things parent or familiar adults say to them
6. Drops toys to be retrieved, handed back, then dropped again/looks in direction of dropped toy
7. Smiles at image in mirror
8. Likes playing with water
9. Shows interest in picture books
10. Understands gestures/responds to ‘bye bye’
11. Listens with pleasure to sound-making toys and music
12. Notices difference and shows surprise
Infants receive the same information as everyone else but perceive it differently based on abilities,
experiences and developmental level. Perception is an infant’s way of interacting with all the possibilities in
their environment.
 Socio-emotional development in infants
Through early relationships with nurturing and responsive adults, infants and toddlers learn how to be in
relationships, how to get their needs and wants met, and how to identify and regulate emotions. Social and
emotional development both include behaviors that represent children’s emotional growth and their ability to
successfully navigate their world through interactions with adults and peers. Since these skills develop
together, this area of development is referred to as social-emotional development. Social-emotional
milestones focus on children’s developing abilities to regulate their attention, emotions, and behavior, and to
form positive relationships with adults and peers. It is important to highlight that within this area of
development, infants and toddlers are creating a strong sense of self and building relationships with others at
the same time. Socioemotional development in infancy involves the emergence of emotional and social
abilities. Here are some key aspects:

1. Emotional Development:
Infants begin to express a range of basic emotions, including joy, sadness, anger, fear, and surprise.
They learn to regulate their emotions with the help of caregivers, who provide comfort and support. At birth,
infants exhibit two emotional responses:
attraction and withdrawal. They show attraction to pleasant situations that bring comfort, stimulation, and
pleasure. And they withdraw from unpleasant stimulation such as bitter flavors or physical discomfort.
At around two months, infants exhibit social engagement in the form of social smiling as they respond with
smiles to those who engage their positive attention. Pleasure is expressed as laughter at 3 to 5 months of
age, and displeasure becomes more specific to fear, sadness, or anger (usually triggered by frustration)
between ages 6 and 8 months. Where anger is a healthy response to frustration, sadness, which appears in
the first months as well, usually indicates withdrawal .
The fear is often associated with the presence of strangers or the departure of significant others known
respectively as stranger wariness and separation anxiety,
Stranger wariness: fear is often associated with the presence of strangers where an infant expresses concern
or a look of fear while clinging to a familiar person
Separation anxiety: fear or distress caused by the departure of familiar significant others; most obvious
between 9-14 months
Emotional regulation can be defined by two components: emotions as regulating and emotions as
regulated. The first, “emotions as regulating,” refers to changes that are elicited by activated emotions (e.g.,
a child’s sadness eliciting a change in parent response). The second component is labeled “emotions as
regulated,” which refers to the process through which the activated emotion is itself changed by deliberate
actions taken by the self (e.g., self-soothing, distraction) or others (e.g., comfort).

2. Social Interaction:
Infants engage in social interactions with caregivers and other familiar adults, such as smiling, babbling,
and responding to social cues. They also start to show interest in other infants and may engage in simple
forms of social play.
3. Self-awareness
During the second year of life, children begin to recognize themselves as they gain a sense of the self as an
object. The realization that one’s body, mind, and activities are distinct from those of other people is known
as self-awareness (Kopp, 2011).[2] The most common technique used in research for testing self-awareness
in infants is a mirror test known as the “Rouge Test.” The rouge test works by applying a dot of rouge
(colored makeup) on an infant’s face and then placing them in front of the mirror.

4. Empathy and Theory of Mind:

While still rudimentary, infants demonstrate early signs of empathy, such as responding to others’ distress
with concern. They also begin to develop a basic understanding of others’ thoughts and intentions, laying the
groundwork for more advanced social cognition.

5. Attachment Patterns:
the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual . Infants may develop
different attachment patterns based on their interactions with caregivers.
A secure base is a parental presence that gives children a sense of safety as they explore their surroundings.
Bowlby said that two things are needed for a healthy attachment: The caregiver must be responsive to the
child’s physical, social, and emotional needs; and the caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable
interactions (Bowlby, 1969).

• Insecure-avoidant attachment (type A): a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids

connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence,
departure, or even return. With avoidant attachment, the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not
use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent
the same way they react to a stranger. When the parent does return, the child is slow to show a
positive reaction. Ainsworth theorized that these children were most likely to have a caregiver who
was insensitive and inattentive to their needs
• Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment (type C): a pattern of attachment in which an infant’s
anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the
caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion . In cases of resistant attachment, children
tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure’s attempts to interact with
them (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970). These children do not explore the toys in the room, appearing too
fearful. During separation In the Strange Situation, they become extremely disturbed and angry with
the parent. When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. Resistant attachment is
thought to be the result of the caregivers’ inconsistent level of response to their child.
• Secure attachment (type B): a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence
from the presence of their caregiver. In this type of attachment, the toddler prefers their parent over a
stranger. The attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out
in times of stress. Securely attached children were distressed when their caregivers left the room in
the Strange Situation experiment, but when their caregivers returned, the securely attached children
were happy to see them. Securely attached children have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive
to their needs.
• Disorganized attachment (type D): a type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent
reactions to the caregiver’s departure and return. Finally, children with disorganized attachment
behaved oddly in the Strange Situation. They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try
to run away when the caregiver returns (Main & Solomon, 1990). This type of attachment is seen
most often in kids who have been abused or severely neglected. Research has shown that abuse
disrupts a child’s ability to regulate their emotions.
Psychosocial development
1. Temperament:
Temperament is an inborn quality noticeable soon after birth. Temperament is not the same as personality
but may lead to personality differences. Generally, personality traits are learned, whereas temperament is
genetic. Of course, for every trait, nature and nurture interact.
According to Chess and Thomas (1996), children vary on nine dimensions of temperament. These include
activity level, regularity (or predictability), sensitivity thresholds, mood, persistence or distractibility, among
others. Infants exhibit individual differences in temperament, These temperamental traits influence how
infants interact with their environment and caregivers. Babies are born with different temperaments. Some
are slow-to-warm-up while others are easy-going.
on this study, babies can be described according to one of several profiles: easy or flexible (40%), slow to
warm up or cautious (15%), difficult or feisty (10%), and undifferentiated, or those who can’t easily be
categorized (35%).

• Easy babies (40% of infants) have a positive disposition. Their body functions operate regularly
and they are adaptable. They are generally positive, showing curiosity about new situations and their
emotions are moderate or low in intensity.
• Difficult babies (10% of infants) have more negative moods and are slow to adapt to new
situations. When confronted with a new situation, they tend to withdraw.
• Slow-to-warm babies (15% of infants) are inactive, showing relatively calm reactions to their
environment. Their moods are generally negative, and they withdraw from new situations, adapting
slowly.
• The undifferentiated (35%) could not be consistently categorized. These children show a variety of
combinations of characteristics. For example, an infant may have an overall positive mood but react
negatively to new situations
Goodness-of-fit: the notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children’s
temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised . When there is
a good fit between a child's temperament and the caregiving environment, it can lead to better socio-
emotional development and a more positive parent-child relationship.

Erikson’s Stages for Infants and Toddlers

Trust vs. mistrust Erikson’s first crisis of psychosocial development, during which infants learn basic trust
if the world is a secure place where their needs (food, comfort, attention) are met. Exploring the
environment allows the toddler to develop a sense of autonomy and independence.
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt: Erikson’s second crisis of psychosocial development, during which
toddlers strive to gain a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies

Connection of Social-Emotional Development to Other Areas of Development

Through nurturing and trusting relationships, infants and toddlers learn about the world. Their brains mature
through interactions, and they learn how to form relationships, communicate, respond to challenges, and
how to recognize, experience, and regulate their emotions from their relationships with caregivers.
When infants and toddlers feel safe and have their needs met, they are more likely to observe, explore, play,
interact, and experiment with people and objects. These experiences lead young children to learn and
remember new things. This foundation for learning depends greatly on the quality of infants’ and toddlers’
early environments and relationships.