COURSE TITLE: GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

COURSE CODE: BIO 101

TOPIC: General Reproduction

OBJECTIVE: At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to understand

 The principle of General reproduction.

 Differentiate between the two types of reproduction
 List the advantages and disadvantages of the two types of reproduction
 Discuss cell division and stages involved

ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss reproduction in animals and plants and unicellular organisms together to

investigate shared mechanisms
2. Describe the reproductive system of both man and woman
3. Discuss the processes involved in the development of the embryo after fertilization has
taken place.

We cannot begin to discuss reproduction without introducing the very science of biology.
Biology is the study of living things and by living things we mean man, animals and plants.
According to Carolus linneaus (1707-1778) who introduced the Binomial system of
classification, living things are classified into 7 distinct groups (Kingdom, Phylum, class, order,
family, genus, specie). They can also be classified based on their cellular structures. Every living
thing is made of small box like structures which we call cells and they are divided into two:
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. The cell is the origin of life and has greater significance in the
characteristics of every living thing.

Reproduction, one of the vital characteristics is a process by which an organism gives rise to an
offspring that is biologically similar to the parent organism. This process is seen in all living
organisms- both plants and animals. It ensures the continuity of species, generation after
generation and is the main characteristic of life on earth. There is a large diversity in the
biological world and each organism has evolved its own mechanism to multiply and reproduce
an offspring. In lieu of this, the organism’s habitat, its internal physiology and several other
factors are collectively responsible for how it reproduces.

Based on whether there is participation of one organism or two in the process of reproduction, it
is of two types.
 1. Asexual Reproduction
2. Sexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction refers to the type of reproduction in which only a single organism gives
rise to a diploid new individual by a process of cell division called mitosis. It involves one
individual which divides into two or more portions or cut off bits of its body to produce new
individuals. It does not involve the fusion of gametes. Therefore, offspring produced are
genetically identical to the parent (clones). The organisms produced by asexual reproduction are
less diverse in nature. It is practiced mostly by unicellular organisms. There is rapid population
growth and no mate is required for the process. However, a lack of genetic diversity makes
organisms more susceptible to diseases and nutritional deficiencies.

Asexual reproduction is further divided into:

1. Binary Fission: The cell splits into two. Each cell carrying a copy of the DNA from the
parent cell. This kind of asexual reproduction is seen in prokaryotes and single celled
organism. The circular DNA begins to replicate and the original and replicating DNA are
attached to different parts of the cell membrane, at same time it begins to grow in size
and divide to form an identical daughter cell eg. Amoeba, Bacteria
2. Budding: A small bud-like outgrowth gives rise to a new individual. The outgrowth
remains attached to the organism until it is fully grown. It detaches itself and lives as an
individual organism. eg. hydra
3. Fragmentation: The parent organism splits into several parts and each part grows into a
new individual. eg. Planaria
4. Sporogenesis: In this type of reproduction, a new organism grows from the spores. These
can be created without fertilization and can spread through wind and animals e.g Fungi
5. Parthenogenesis – In this type of asexual reproduction, the female organism produces
eggs without fertilization, and offspring are created. Lizards, some fishes, and insects are
the common examples of Parthenogenesis asexual reproduction.
6. Gemmules – In this type, the parents release a specialized mass of cells that develop into
offspring. These gemmules can be formed at a time when parents feel harsh
environmental conditions around them.
7. Regeneration – It is the formation of the whole body of an organism from the small
segment (morphallaxis) or the replacement of the lost part (epimorphosis). It is mainly
found in amoeba, hydra, sponge, planaria, and many more organisms.
8. Vegetative reproduction: The formation of new plants from the vegetative parts of the
plant called vegetative propagules is called vegetative propagation or reproduction. Only
one parent is involved, it doesn’t involve meiosis and fusion of gametes, the offspring are
genetically similar to the parents.
Binary fission
NB. Please find out other diagrams representing the other types of asexual reproduction

Advantages Of Asexual Reproduction

 The process requires less energy.
 It takes place in various environments.
 It allows for the survival of species since a higher number of offspring is produced.
 A single organism can develop a colony.
 All the positive traits of the species are transferred to future generations.
 The organisms mature rapidly.

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

 Lack of genetic variation leading to lack of diversity
 Lowered resistance to disease
 Loss of hybrid vigor
 Competition for resources due to overcrowding
 They have short lifespan
 Since the offspring is an exact copy of the parent, any negative mutation will also pass on
to the offspring.
 It is difficult to control the increasing population
 The organisms produced cannot adapt to the changing environments
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction involves the formation of male and female gametes, either by the same
individual or by different individuals of opposite sex. These formed gametes then fuse to form
the zygote, which develops into a new organism. It is a complex and slow process compared to
asexual reproduction. The offspring are not identical to the parents or between them. The process
of sexual reproduction is fundamentally similar in all organisms. However, the structures
associated with sexual reproduction are quite different. Sexual reproduction is considered a
better mode of reproduction as there is a variation in the population, along with the evolution of
species. Genetically speaking, sexual reproduction involves both the process of mitosis and
meiosis.

All organisms go through general growth before reproductive growth. General growth is called
the juvenile phase and in the case of plants, the vegetative phase.

In Flowering Plants:

In sexual reproduction in plants, the reproductive organ is the flower. The flower produces both
the male and female reproductive parts. Stamens (Androecium) which produce pollen are the
male part and contain male sex cells. Each stamen (Androecium) has two parts. The upper part is
known as anther which bears pollen and is held on the lower part known as the filament. The
pistil (Gynoecium) is the female part and its basal part is the ovary carrying eggs or ovules or
female sex cells. Its parts include the stigma, style and ovary. In most plants, each flower bears
both male and female parts and are called bisexual while in some plants there are male flowers
with only androecium and female flowers bearing only gynoecium and are termed as unisexual.

Fertilization is said to occur when the pollen and ovule are fused together by agents like the
wind, water, and insects which brings about the transfer of pollen grain from anther to the stigma
of a flower (pollination). Self pollination is when pollen of a typical flower falls on its own
stigma and fertilizes the ovule. In Cross pollination pollen from one flower falls on the stigma of
another flower of a different plant of the same species and then fertilizes the ovule of that flower.
The fertilized ovules develop into seeds which are capable of germinating into fruits and new
plants.

IN ANIMALS

The juvenile phase is the phase of growth and development till the animal reaches its maturity,
after which it can reproduce sexually. In different animals, there are some cyclical changes that
occur during reproduction. In animals such as cows, dogs, deer, sheep etc., it is called the
Oestrus cycle and in mammals like humans, apes, and monkeys, it is called the Menstrual cycle.
Old age often signifies the end of the reproductive phase.
For the sake of simplicity, these sequential events can be examined as three different stages,
namely pre-fertilization, fertilization, and post-fertilization.

 Pre-Fertilization Events
This is a stage that occurs prior to the fertilization. The two events that occur at this stage
are gametogenesis and the transfer of gametes.

1. Gametogenesis

Gametogenesis is defined as the process of the formation of gametes. There are two types
of gametes; male and female gametes derived from male and female parents,
respectively. Gametes are the haploid (n) in nature. Gametes that are similar in
appearance are called isogametes or homogametic. They are morphologically and
physiologically similar (e.g. Cladophora, Ulothrix). Most sexually reproducing organisms
have two morphologically and physiologically distinct types of gametes called
heterogametes or anisogametes. The male gametes are smaller and more active whereas
the female gametes are larger and sluggish. The male gametes are called antherozoid or
sperm and the female gamete is called egg or ovum. Gametes are always haploids. The
parent may be either haploid or diploid. A haploid parent produces gametes which are
haploid by mitotic division. Various organisms of the Monera, fungi, algae, and
 Bryophyta, gymnosperms, angiosperms, and most animals are diploid and meiosis occurs
to produce haploid gametes.

In diploid organisms, when meiosis occurs, only one set of chromosomes is built into
each gamete.

2. Gamete transfer
After their formation, the male and female gametes must come into contact for
fertilization. The male gamete is generally mobile and the female gamete is generally
stationary. Gamete transfer requires an appropriate medium to transfer.

 Fertilization
The fusion of both gametes i.e male and female is known as fertilization or syngamy. As
a result of this fertilization, a diploid zygote is formed. In algae, fish, and amphibians,
syngamy occurs outside the body. This type of gamete fusion is called external
fertilization, where large numbers of young are produced. Syngamy also occurs inside the
body of the organism in plants (ie fungi, mosses, and pteridophytes) as well as in reptiles,
birds, and mammals. Hence, the process is called internal fertilization.

 Post-Fertilization Events
All the events that occur after the formation of the zygote are called the post-fertilization
events.

1. The formation of the zygote

The formation of the zygote is common in sexual reproduction. It is diploid. The further
development of the zygote depends on the life cycle of the organism and the environment
to which it is exposed. In organisms such as algae and fungi, the zygote develops a thick
wall that is resistant to desiccation and damage and usually goes through a dormant phase

2. Embryogenesis

Embryogenesis is defined as the process of development of the embryo from the zygote
stage. During embryogenesis, the zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and cell
differentiation. Cell divisions will lead to the increase in the number of cells in the
developing embryo; while cell differentiation helps group of cells undergoes certain
modifications to form specialized tissues and organs to form organisms.

Depending on where the zygote develops, animals are classified as viviparous and
oviparous animals. In oviparous animals, development takes place outside the body.
Examples are reptiles, birds etc. When the fertilized eggs are laid in a safe place, after a
period of incubation, they hatch into young ones. In viviparous animals such as human
 beings, development occurs inside the body. After some specific gestation period, young
ones are born.

Advantages of Sexual Reproduction

 The offsprings produced through sexual reproduction has greater adaptability and
survival changes due to its variations.
 Since there is a fusion of male and female gametes in sexual reproduction, the offspring
produced are genetically diverse.
 It leads to the evolution of new species.
 It increases the variation in the population due to the genetic diversity, which is not
possible in asexual reproduction as there is no fertilization

Disadvantages of sexual reproduction

• Fusion is difficult if two individuals are isolated.
• Some variations may have undesirable qualities.
• Population growth is slow.

CELL DIVISION

Sexual reproduction involves fusion of gametes from male and female but after
fertilization, a unique process evolves to build up body cells and sex cells of the new
formed zygote. This process is termed cell division in genetics.

Cell division begins with the division of the nucleus i.e. the chromosome before the
division of the cytoplasm. In unicellular organisms the cell divides into two separate
daughter cells while in multicellular organisms the cell first divides into two and
continues to divide progressively in the same way.

Chromosomes are a number of thread-like structures inside the nucleus not visible to the
naked eye but visible under the microscope. Each cell has a fixed number of
chromosomes with each chromosome having two parallel strands called chromatids
which are connected at one point by a structure called centromere.

Chromosomes occur in pairs (homologous chromosomes) and each pair has a distinct
length. They are similar in appearance although their genetic composition may differ.
Along the length of the chromosome is a series of structures called genes. These genes
determine the characteristics of the cell and its progeny. They are made up of a protein
chemical substance called DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) which in turn contains coded
information of instructions that dictate the characteristics of the progeny.
The sequence of events leading to cell division in plants and animals is basically the same.

There are two types of cell division namely mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis
This is a type of cell division whereby a cell divides into two daughter cells each having the
same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. It occurs in body (somatic) cells of an organism
in order to increase number of cells involved in growth and repair. Mitosis is usually described
as a series of continuous stages which do not interfere with the activities of the next stage. The
stages include Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase.

Interphase

The term Interphase is used to describe the state of the nucleus when the cell is just about to
divide. Chromosomes are seen as long, thin, coiled thread-like structures while the nuclear
membrane and nucleolus remain intact.

During this time the following take place:

 Multiplication of genetic material so that daughter cells will have the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell.
 Manufacture of cell organelles such as mitochondria, golgi bodies, centrioles, ribosomes
and centrioles.
 Energy for cell division is synthesised and stored in form of Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP) to drive the cell through the entire process.
Prophase

 The chromosomes shorten and thicken.

 Each chromosome is seen to consist of a pair of chromatids joined at a point called
centromere.
 Centrioles (in animal cells) separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.
 The centre of the nucleus is referred to as the equator.
 Spindle fibres begin to form, and connect the centriole pairs to the opposite poles.
 The nucleolus and nuclear membrane disintegrate and disappear.

Metaphase

 The nuclear membrane disappears hence chromosomes are free in the cytoplasm.
 The spindle fibres lengthen. In animal cells they attach to the centrioles at both pole
 Each chromosome moves to the equatorial plane and is attached to the spindle fibres by
the centromeres.
 Anaphase

 Chromatids separate and migrate to the opposite poles due to the shortening of spindle
fibres.
 The spindle apparatus begins to disappear.
 In animal cells, the cell membrane starts to constrict towards the end of the anaphase.

Telophase

This is the final phase of cell division

 The chromatids collect together at the two opposite ends of the spindle.
 A nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromatids and are now referred to as
chromosomes.
 The cytoplasm divides into two leading to the formation of two daughter cells.
 Chromosomes later become less distinct.
Significance of Mitosis

 It brings about the growth of an organism:

 It is a basis of asexual reproduction.
 Ensures that the chromosome number is retained.
 Ensures that the chromosomal constitution of the offspring is the same as the parents.

Meiosis
Meiosis involves two divisions of the parent cell resulting into four daughter cells. The mother
cell has the diploid number of chromosomes. The four cells (gametes) have half the number of
chromosomes (haploid) that the mother cell had. In the first meiotic division there is a reduction
in the chromosome number because homologous chromosomes separate. Each division has four
stages; Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase. This type of cell division takes place in
reproductive organs (gonads) to produce gametes.

Interphase
As in mitosis the cell prepares for division. This involves replication of chromosomes, organelles and
builds up of energy to be used during the meiotic division.

First Meiotic division

Prophase I
• Homologous chromosomes lie side by side in the process of synapsis forming pairs called
bivalents.
• Chromosomes shorten and thicken hence become more visible.
• Chromosomes may become coiled around each other and the chromatids may remain in contact
at points called chiasmata (singular chiasma).
• Chromatids cross-over at the chiasmata exchanging chromatid portions. Important genetic
changes usually result.
Metaphase I
• Spindle fibres are fully formed and attached to the centromeres.
• The bivalents move to the equator of the spindles.
Anaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to opposite poles.
• This is brought about by shortening of spindle fibres hence pulling the chromosomes.
• The number of chromosomes at each pole is half the number in the mother cell.

Telophase I
• Cytoplasm divides to separate the two daughter cells.
Second Meiotic Division
Usually, The two daughter cells go into a short resting stage (interphase) But sometimes the
chromosomes remain condensed and the daughter cells go straight into metaphase of second
meiotic division. The second meiotic division takes place just like mitosis.

Prophase II

 chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down, if needed.

 The centrosomes move apart, the spindle forms between them, and the spindle
microtubules begin to capture chromosomes.
 Each chromosome is seen as a pair of chromatids.

Metaphase II
• Spindle fibre is formed and are attached to the chromatids at the centromeres.
• Chromatids move to the equator.

Anaphase II
• Sister chromatids separate from each other
• Then move to opposite poles, pulled by the shortening of the spindle fibres.

Telophase II
• The spindle apparatus disappears.
• The nucleolus reappears and nuclear membrane is formed around each set of chromatids.
• The chromatids become chromosomes.
• Cytoplasm divides and four daughter cells are formed.
• Each has a haploid number of chromosomes.
Significance of Meiosis
• Meiosis brings about formation of gametes that contain half the number of chromosomes as the
parent cells.
• It helps to restore the diploid chromosomal constitution in a species at fertilisation.
• It brings about new gene combinations that lead to genetic variation in the offsprings.

The differences between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis
• Maintenance of chromosome number
(diploid)
• Takes place in somatic cells/growth
• No crossing over/no variations
• Results into 2 daughter cells
• No pairing/no synapsis/no bivalent formed • There is paring/synapsis/bivalent
• A one division process of four stages
Meiosis
• Reduction/halving of chromosomes (haploid)
• Occurs in reproductive cells/gonads/produces
gametes
• Crossing over takes place/variation occurs
• Results into 4 daughter cells
• A two division process of four stages each

Similarities between mitosis and meiosis

• both occur in cells
• both involve division of cells (cell multiplication)