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A Suggested Alternative to Dark Matter in Galaxies: I. Theoretical Considerations

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 A Suggested Alternative to Dark Matter in Galaxies:
I. Theoretical Considerations
Hanna A. Sabat1*, Raed Z. Bani-Abdoh2 and Marwan S. Mousa2
1 Regional Center for Space Science & Technology Education for Western Asia (RCSSTE-WA), Amman, Jordan

2 Mu’tah University, Department of Physics, Karak, Jordan

* Email addresses: sabat@aabu.edu.jo ; hahanna70@gmail.com

ABTRACT

Since the dark matter paradigm is not so satisfactory at the galactic scales, we have resorted to a form of Modified

Newtonian dynamics (MOND). We have assumed that either (i) the gravitational constant is a function of distance

scale, or, (ii) the gravitational-to-inertial mass ratio is a function of distance scale. We have used a linear approximation

of each function, from which two new parameters appeared that have to be determined: G1, the first-order coefficient

of gravitational coupling, and C1, the first-order coefficient of gravitational-to-inertial mass ratio. We have generated

simplified theoretical rotation curves for some hypothetical galaxies by varying our model’s parameters. We have

concluded that our model gives a qualitatively and quantitatively acceptable behavior of the galactic rotation curves

for some values of those parameters: G1 between around 10-31 to 10-30 m2 s-2 kg-1; or, C1 between 10-21 to 10-20 m-1.

Our model also may imply the existence of a critical distance at which the MOND effects become significant rather

than a critical acceleration. Furthermore, assuming that the critical centripetal acceleration in our model is equivalent

to that in Milgrom’s MOND (𝑎0 ), we found that the 𝑎0 is not a constant but a linear function of the galactic baryonic

mass (𝑎0 ≈ 𝐺1 2 𝑀𝑏 /𝐺0 ), and we were able to re-derive Milgrom’s version of MOND (𝑎𝑐 2 /𝑎0 = 𝐺0 𝑀𝑏 /𝑟 2 ).

Keywords: Dark matter; Modified theories of gravity; MOND

PACS Nos.: 95.35.+d; 04.50.Kd

1
 1. INTRODUCTION

Dark matter is the generally accepted paradigm among astrophysicists and cosmologists to explain the higher rate of

rotation in galaxies than could be sustained by the amount of the observed normal matter alone, and to explain the

higher velocity dispersions of galaxies in galactic clusters than what is observed. For a historical review of the dark

matter issue, one may refer to [1, 2] Scientists also consider, in their modern cosmological models, such as the ΛCDM

model (which contains dark energy, cold dark matter, and ordinary matter) that dark matter is an essential ingredient

that plays a central role in our understanding of the large-scale structure of the Universe as well as of the microwave

background radiation. Recent studies based on the Planck mission data, for example, estimate that dark matter adds

up to 26.8 percent of the total mass of the Universe, whereas baryonic (ordinary) matter accounts for just 4.9 percent,

the rest being dark energy [3] That is, we have more than five times more dark matter than ordinary matter in the

Universe.

1.1 Galactic Rotation Curves

By the 1970s, it was confirmed that the observed rotation curves for galaxies did not follow the expected Keplerian

behavior in the outer regions of galaxies (in the sense that the circular velocities v of stars and/ or gas in the galactic

disc is proportional to r-1/2, r being the radial distance from the galactic centre); rather, it was found that the speed v

almost remains constant after peaking – what is known as flat rotations curves [4] To explain the observations, the

majority of researchers were led to accept the fact that galaxies contain unseen dark matter as an important component

of galaxies, where the dark matter’s mass should increase with radius in order for rotation velocities to remain constant.

That is, according to the standard view, most of the dark matter in galaxies is contained in the galactic halos [1].

1.2 Some Problems with Dark Matter

Despite the successes of the ΛCDM model in describing the large-scale structure of the Universe, the main problem

with dark matter remains that its nature is still unknown. There are many dark matter candidates from particle physics,

the most famous of which are the Weakly Interactive Massive Particles, or WIMPs. But the list of dark matter

candidates also includes super-WIMPs, light gravitinos, hidden dark matter, sterile neutrinos, and axions [5] But the

problem remains that all experiments to detect particles that might be dark matter candidates have given negative

results so far. For a review of the current situation of the research on dark matter candidates, (see, for instance: [6, 7]).

2
There are, of course, other problems with the dark matter paradigm, particularly at the galactic level, such as the core-

cusp problem, known as the cuspy halo problem, which refers to a discrepancy between the inferred dark matter

density profiles of low-mass galaxies and the density profiles predicted by cosmological N-body simulations (see, for

instance: [8]).

1.3 Some Suggested Alternatives to Dark Matter

For the above reasons, among other things, many researchers have attempted to find some alternatives to the dark

matter paradigm in order to explain observational results, particularly at the galactic scales.

Perhaps the most popular of these attempts is the Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND), which was put forward

by Milgrom [9, 10, 11] in the early 1980s. Milgrom proposed a modification of Newton's laws to account for the

observed properties of galaxies as an alternative to the invisible dark matter halos at the galactic level. His idea is

based on the assumption that at accelerations well above a certain critical acceleration, a0: a/a0 >> 1, Newton’s second

law applies, whereas at very low accelerations: a/a0 << 1, that law becomes: F = m a2/a0, which eventually leads to

constant circular velocities at large radial distances from the galactic centre. MOND fully describes the rotation curves

of some galaxies given only it is baryonic mass, where it predicts a far strong correlation between the baryonic mass

distribution and the dark matter hypotheses [12].

Since Milgrom's original proposal, proponents of MOND have claimed to successfully predict a variety of galactic

phenomena that they state are difficult to understand as consequences of dark matter (See, for instance [13, 14]).

Bekenstein [15] also suggested a relativistic generalisation of MOND known as the Tensor–Vector–Scalar (TeVeS)

Theory. However, MOND and its generalizations do not adequately account for the observed properties of galactic

clusters, and no satisfactory cosmological model has been constructed from the MOND hypothesis. On the other hand,

many researchers found that the critical acceleration a0 cannot be constant in individual galaxies whose rotation curves

were used to obtain its best-fit value (See, for instance: [16, 17]). Furthermore, experiments at extremely low

accelerations (below a0) have been conducted, finding no departure from Newton's second law [18].

Moffat [19, 20] suggested a theory of Modified Gravity (MOG), not only to account for galactic rotation curves

without invoking dark matter [21, 22] but also as an alternative to dark matter in general and to dark energy on the

cosmological scales.

3
Fahr [23] suggested using a gravitational analogue of the Lorentz force of electromagnetism by introducing a “gravo-

inductive” term to the usual “static form” of the force of gravity, which would give rise to flat rotation curves without

the need of dark matter. Sivram [24], however, concluded that such gravo-inductive effects are too small to account

for flat rotation curves. More recently, Arbab [25] also suggested using a gravitational analogue of the Lorentz force

by introducing a “gravito-magnetic” term to gravity in what he called the generalized Newton’s law of gravitation,

and he compared it to Milgrom’s MOND. Altaie & Suleiman [26] suggested the existence of a drag force in the outer

regions of spiral galaxies, due to some sort of a dynamically generated viscous medium, which would counterbalance

the centripetal force and thus give terminal velocities to stars in those regions.

Other researchers suggested a scale-dependent, or varying, gravitational constant G. For instance, Bertolami &

Garcia–Bellido [27, 28] argued about the possibility of a scale-dependent gravitational coupling that may have many

consequences in astrophysics and cosmology, among which the flatness of galactic rotation curves—though their

model required the existence of some dark matter to be compatible with observations. Christodoulou & Kazanas [29],

using the baryonic Tully-Fisher and the Faber-Jackson relations, concluded that the gravitational constant G is

inversely proportional to acceleration a. Vagnozzi and some other researchers used “mimetic gravity” as a tool to

obtain MOND-like acceleration laws that might explain flat rotation curves (see, for instance: [30]).

In fact, a scale-dependent gravitational constant (as mentioned above) may provide a theoretical background for the

model we are suggesting in this research, as will be shown below.

1.4 About this Work

We shall use a new approach to Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND). In this part of our work (Part I: Theoretical

Considerations), we shall only investigate the theoretical aspects of our model and its implications. We shall start by

presenting the physical and mathematical basis of our work (Section 2), in which we detail the mathematical

framework of the classical Newtonian dynamics of galactic rotation and our version of MOND. In Section 3, we shall

generate some theoretical simplified rotation curves based on our model using computer coding, by varying our

model’s parameters, and contrasting them to the classical Newtonian approach. Then, we shall discuss all the obtained

results in Section 4, and present our conclusions in Section 5.

4
In the second part of this work (Part II: Observational Considerations), we shall analyze some observational rotation

curves for a number of galaxies, and try to evaluate our model’s parameters from them.

2. THE PHYSICAL-MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATION OF THE MODEL

We shall start here by considering the orbital speed of a star, or a blob of gas, which lies outside the galactic bulge of

a galaxy, at a distance r from the galaxy’s center (GC). Assuming that this star (or blob of gas) has an inertial mass mi

and a gravitational mass mg, and that it is only influenced by the gravitational pull of the galactic bulge’s mass, Mb,

the orbital speed of the star or blob of gas vc can be estimated by using Newton’s 2nd law as follows:

𝑣𝑐 2
Σ𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑖 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑚 𝑖
𝑟

ac being the centripetal acceleration. Then, using Newton’s law of gravitation:

𝐺𝑀𝑏 𝑚𝑔 𝑣𝑐 2
𝐹𝑔 = 2
=𝑚𝑖
𝑟 𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑏 𝑚𝑔 /𝑚𝑖 1/2

𝑣𝑐 = ( ) (1)
𝑟

Eq. (1) above is the well-known Keplerian speed with its r-1/2 dependence, but where we did not cancel the gravitational

mass with the inertial mass in the equation, for reasons to be explained below.

In order for the speed, vc, in eq. (1) to divert from the Keplerian behavior, the terms in the numerator should somehow

be a function of distance in one of the following ways:

 either the gravitational constant, G, is a function of distance: G = G(r), probably as a result of a scale-

dependent gravitational coupling, or,

 the gravitational-to-inertial mass ratio, or 𝑚𝑔 /𝑚𝑖 , is a function of distance, that is: 𝑚𝑔 /𝑚𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑟), which

means that the equivalence principle is somehow violated at some large distance-scales.

However, before using this sort of Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND), we shall rederive the basic equations of

the Newtonian dynamics in galaxies, since they will be needed in both parts of our work.

5
2.1 Purely Newtonian Behavior

2.1.1 Within the Galactic Bulge

Let us start with a star that lies at a distance r from the galactic center (GC) of a certain galaxy, but within its galactic

bulge; the volume of the galactic sphere of radius r that is concentric with the GC is:

4𝜋 3
𝑉𝑟 = 𝑟
3

The total mass of matter contained within this spherical volume is:

4𝜋
𝑀𝑟 = 〈𝜌〉 𝑉𝑟 = 〈𝜌〉 𝑟3 (2)
3

Where 〈𝜌〉 is the average mass density of the galactic bulge. That is:

𝑀𝑏 𝑀𝑏
〈𝜌〉 = = 4𝜋 (3)
𝑉𝑏 𝑟𝑏 3
3

Mb & rb being the total mass of the galactic bulge and its radius, respectively.

Assuming that the star lying at a distance r from the galactic center has a mass m, it will therefore experience a force

of gravity Fg only from the mass contained within the sphere of radius r and mass 𝑀𝑟 , which is concentric with the

galactic center. Using Newton’s law of gravitation and eq. (2), we get the gravitational force acting on the star as:

4𝜋 3
𝐺𝑀𝑟 𝑚 𝐺〈𝜌〉 3 𝑟 𝑚
𝐹𝑔 = =
𝑟2 𝑟2

4𝜋
𝐹𝑔 = 𝐺〈𝜌〉 𝑚 𝑟 (4)
3

Assuming that stars inside the galactic bulge experience a purely centripetal acceleration due to the influence of

gravitation, we may use Newton’s 2nd law to calculate the orbital (or circular) speed, 𝑣𝑐 , of this star:

𝑣𝑐 2
Σ𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑚 𝑟
(5)

6
From the previous two equations (4) & (5), we get:

𝑣𝑐 2
Σ𝐹 = 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑚
𝑟

4𝜋 𝑣𝑐 2
𝐺〈𝜌〉 𝑚 𝑟 = 𝑚
3 𝑟

4𝜋
𝑣𝑐 2 = 𝐺〈𝜌〉 𝑟 2
3

1
4𝜋 2
𝑣𝑐 = ( 𝐺〈𝜌〉) 𝑟
3

= 𝑘𝑔 𝑟 (6)

4𝜋 1/2
Where: 𝑘𝑔 = ( 3 𝐺〈𝜌〉) (7)

Noting that 𝑘𝑔 , the constant of proportionality between the rotational speed and distance r, may vary from one galaxy

to another, since it depends on the value of the mean mass density of the galactic bulge, 〈𝜌〉. If 𝑘𝑔 is estimated

observationally for a given galaxy, the mean mass density 〈𝜌〉 of its galactic bulge may be estimated using eq. (7) as:

4𝜋 −1
〈𝜌〉 = 𝑘𝑔 2 ( 𝐺) (8)
3

Furthermore, if the radius of the galactic bulge, rb, is also estimated for the same galaxy, its total mass, Mb, may be

determined using eq. (3).

The centripetal acceleration in this case, using eq. (6), will be:

𝑣𝑐 2 (𝑘𝑔 𝑟)2
𝑎𝑐 = =
𝑟 𝑟

𝑎𝑐 = 𝑘𝑔 2 𝑟 (9)

7
2.1.2 Outside the Galactic Bulge

If a star of mass m lies at a distance r from the galactic center (GC) of a certain galaxy, but well beyond its galactic

bulge, we may assume that this star is mainly influenced by the gravitation of the total mass contained within this

galactic bulge, 𝑀𝑏 , if we neglect the influence of the disc stars. In this case, the gravitational force upon this star will

be:

𝐺𝑀𝑏 𝑚
𝐹𝑔 ≈ (10)
𝑟2

Applying Newton’s 2nd law to calculate the circular speed 𝑣𝑐 of this star and inserting eq. (10):

𝑣𝑐 2
Σ𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑚
𝑟

𝑣𝑐 2
Σ𝐹 = 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚
𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑏 𝑚 𝑣𝑐 2
= 𝑚
𝑟2 𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑏 1/2
𝑣𝑐 = ( ) (11)
𝑟

Which is the normal Keplerian speed, with its r-1/2 dependence.

2.2 Using our Version of Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND)

In this work, we shall not use the MOND treatment as proposed by Milgrom [9, 10, 11] which considers that the laws

of mechanics deviate from Newtonian mechanics at very low accelerations, rather, we will assume either that the

gravitational coupling has a sort of scale-dependence, or that the equivalence between the gravitational and inertial

masses has a sort of scale dependence.

8
2.2.1 Using a Scale-Dependent G

Motivated by works that considered a scale-dependent gravitational coupling (see, for instance: [27, 28, 29, 30]), we

will assume here that the gravitational constant, G, has some sort of dependence on the scale considered, that is, it is

a function of distance as G(r). But since we do not know the exact dependence of the function G(r) on distance, we

will use a Taylor series approximation of the function as:

1
𝐺(𝑟) = 𝐺0 + 𝐺1 𝑟 + 2 𝐺2 𝑟 2 + ⋯ (12a)

Where G0 is the Newtonian constant of gravitation, which we will designate here as the zero-order coefficient of

gravitational coupling; G1 is the first-order coefficient of gravitational coupling, G2 is the second-order coefficient of

gravitational coupling, and so forth …

However, for our purposes in this research, where we are interested in distance scales within galaxies, we will limit

our treatment to the first two terms of the series and neglect higher-order terms, that is:

𝐺(𝑟) ≈ 𝐺0 + 𝐺1 𝑟 (12b)

Now, if we consider a star that lies at a distance r from the galactic center (GC) of a certain galaxy, but well beyond

its galactic bulge, and neglecting the gravitational influence of matter outside the bulge (as a first approximation), the

star will be mainly influenced by the mass of the galactic bulge, 𝑀𝑏 , in which case, using the modified form of

gravitational coupling – eq. (12b), the gravitational force upon this star will be:

𝐺(𝑟)𝑀𝑏 𝑚 (𝐺0 +𝐺1 𝑟)𝑀𝑏 𝑚

𝐹𝑔 = ≈ (13)
𝑟2 𝑟2

To calculate the circular speed, 𝑣𝑐 , for this star, we apply Newton’s 2nd law and insert eq. (13) into it:

𝑣𝑐 2
Σ𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑚
𝑟

𝑣𝑐 2
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚
𝑟

9
 (𝐺0 + 𝐺1 𝑟)𝑀𝑏 𝑚 𝑣𝑐 2
≈ 𝑚
𝑟2 𝑟

(𝐺0 + 𝐺1 𝑟)𝑀𝑏 1/2

𝑣𝑐 ≈ ( )
𝑟

𝐺0 𝑀𝑏 1/2
𝑣𝑐 ≈ ( + 𝐺1 𝑀𝑏 ) (14)
𝑟

The latter equation expresses the modified form of the circular speed 𝑣𝑐 . But it should be noted here that (using the

same system of units) the value of G1 should be many orders of magnitude smaller than the Newtonian constant of

gravitation, G0, in order to be consistent with experiments and observations, as will be shown.

At distance scales much smaller than a certain critical distance, rc (at r << rc), the 1st term under the square root in eq.

(14) is dominant, so that the circular speed 𝑣𝑐 reduces to its Keplerian form with its r-1/2 dependence.

At distance scales comparable to that critical distance, rc (at r = rc), the value of the 2nd term under the square root in

eq. (14) becomes comparable to the 1st one, that is:

𝐺0 𝑀𝑏
≈ 𝐺1 𝑀𝑏
𝑟𝑐

𝐺0
Or: 𝑟𝑐 ≈ ⁄𝐺 (15)
1

When we consider distance scales that are much larger than the critical distance (𝑟 ≫ 𝑟𝑐 ), we may neglect the 1st term

under the square root in eq. (14), so that the circular speed of a star at such a distance, the asymptotic speed, becomes:

1
𝑣𝑐,𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚 ≈ (𝐺1 𝑀𝑏 )2 ≈ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (16)

Noting here that we have neglected the possible effects of the coefficient G2 and higher terms in eq. (12a).

At the critical distance, rc, the critical centripetal acceleration can be estimated using eqs. (14) & (15) as follows:

𝑣𝑐,𝑐𝑟 2 1 𝐺0 𝑀𝑏
𝑎𝑐,𝑐𝑟 = = ( + 𝐺1 𝑀𝑏 )
𝑟𝑐 𝑟𝑐 𝑟𝑐

𝐺0 𝑀𝑏 𝐺1 𝑀𝑏
𝑎𝑐,𝑐𝑟 = +
𝑟𝑐 2 𝑟𝑐

10
 𝐺0 𝑀𝑏 𝐺1 𝑀𝑏
= 2
+
(𝐺0 /𝐺1 ) 𝐺0 /𝐺1

2 𝐺1 2 𝑀𝑏
𝑎𝑐,𝑐𝑟 = ≈ (𝐺1 2 /𝐺0 )𝑀𝑏 (17)
𝐺0

That is, the critical centripetal acceleration here is proportional to the total (baryonic) mass of the galactic bulge, unlike

Milgrom’s MOND, where his critical acceleration is assumed to be constant [16].

2.2.2 Using a Scale-Dependent Gravitational-to-Inertial Mass Ratio

It is possible to obtain similar results as above if the equivalence principle is violated at large distance scales. Let us

start by using eq. (1) to express the circular speed of a star at a distance r from the galactic center (GC), while retaining

the ratio mg/mi:

𝐺𝑀𝑏 𝑚𝑔 1/2
𝑣𝑐 = ( ) (18)
𝑟 𝑚𝑖

Let us assume here that the gravitational constant does not vary here with distance, as in the classical Newtonian

approach, but that the equivalence principle is somehow violated at some large distance scales, i.e., the gravitational

and inertial masses are no longer equivalent at such scales, and that the gravitational-to-inertial mass ratio may be

expressed as a function of some distance scale: 𝑚𝑔 /𝑚𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑟). Since that function is unknown to us, we may expand

it as a Taylor series approximation as:

𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑖
= 𝑓(𝑟) ≈ 1 + 𝐶1 𝑟 + 𝐶2 𝑟 2 + ⋯ (19)

If we neglect the second-order and higher terms in eq. (19) – as we did with the gravitational coupling function above

– and only take the first two terms in the equation, then by inserting it into eq. (18), we get:

1/2
𝐺𝑀𝑏
𝑣𝑐 = ( [1 + 𝐶1 𝑟])
𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑏 1/2
𝑣𝑐 = ( + 𝐶1 𝐺𝑀𝑏 ) (20)
𝑟

11
It should be noted that the value of the coefficient C1 should be very small in order for eq. (20) to reduce to the

Keplerian speed at distances much smaller than the critical distance rc. At the critical distance, r = rc, the two terms

under square root in eq. (20) become equal, so that:

𝐺𝑀𝑏
≈ 𝐶1 𝐺𝑀𝑏 ⇒ 𝑟𝑐 ≈ 1⁄𝐶 (21)
𝑟𝑐 1

At very large distances from the galactic center, much larger than the critical distance (𝑟 ≫ 𝑟𝑐 ), we may neglect the

first term under square root in eq. (20), so that the asymptotic circular speed of a star at such a distance becomes:

1
𝑣𝑐,𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚 ≈ (𝐶1 𝐺𝑀𝑏 )2 ≈ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. (22)

-- neglecting the probable effects of the coefficient C2 and higher terms in eq. (19).

By comparing eq. (16) with eq. (22), i.e., the asymptotic circular speeds of stars (or gas) within galaxies at large

distances from the galactic center, we notice that:

𝑣𝑐 ≈ (𝐺1 𝑀𝑏 )1/2 ≈ (𝐶1 𝐺𝑀𝑏 )1/2 = (𝐶1 𝐺0 𝑀𝑏 )1/2

That is:

𝐺1
𝐶1 = ⁄𝐺 = 1⁄𝑟𝑐 (23)
0

-- using eq. (21).

2.3 Relationship with Milgrom’s MOND

To illustrate the relationship between our approach to Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) and Milgrom’s

MOND – as mainly described in Milgrom [16] [17] [18], let us start with the critical centripetal acceleration we have

introduced in eq. (17). By assuming that it is analogous to Milgrom’s critical acceleration, or, 𝑎0 ≈ 𝑎𝑐,𝑐𝑟 , we may

rewrite eq. (17) as:

𝐺1 2 𝑀𝑏
𝑎0 ≈
𝐺0

12
From which:

1
𝐺1 = (𝑎0 𝐺0 /𝑀𝑏 )2 (24)
Then, applying Newton’s 2nd law, and inserting the modified law of gravity – eq. (13), we get

(𝐺0 + 𝐺1 𝑟)𝑀𝑏 𝑚
Σ𝐹 = = 𝑚 𝑎𝑐
𝑟2

From which, at large enough distances (so that 𝐺0 may be neglected), we get:

𝑎𝑐 ≈ 𝐺1 𝑀𝑏 /𝑟 (25)
By inserting 𝐺1 from eq. (24) into eq. (25), squaring both sides and rearranging, we get:

1
𝑎0 𝐺0 2 𝑀𝑏
𝑎𝑐 = ( )
𝑀𝑏 𝑟

𝑎0 𝐺0 𝑀𝑏 2
𝑎𝑐 2 =
𝑀𝑏 𝑟 2
𝑎𝑐 2 𝐺0 𝑀𝑏
= (26)
𝑎0 𝑟2

Where eq. (26) is exactly Milgrom’s MOND equation.

Furthermore, starting by eq. (17), we have: 𝑎0 𝐺0 ≈ 𝐺1 2 𝑀𝑏 . By multiplying this equation by the mass Mb, we get:

𝑎0 𝐺0 𝑀𝑏 ≈ 𝐺1 2 𝑀𝑏2 = (𝐺1 𝑀𝑏 )2

Then, by taking the fourth root of the latter equation, we get:

𝑣𝑐,𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚 ≈ (𝑎0 𝐺0 𝑀𝑏 )1/4 ≈ (𝐺1 𝑀𝑏 )1/2 (27)

Where both parts of eq. (27) give the asymptotic circular speed in the outer regions of the galaxy, 𝑣𝑐,𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚 , the middle

part using Milgrom’s MOND, and the right part using our model – from eq. (16). In fact, the middle part of eq. (27)

turns into its right part by simply expressing the critical acceleration as a0 = (G12/G0) Mb, from eq. (17).

13
 3. THEORETICAL ROTATION CURVES

As a first approximation, and in order to study the pure effect of our Modified-Newtonian approach, we have assumed

that the total galactic mass is centered in the galactic bulge, thus neglecting the effects of mass distribution outside the

bulge. The goal here was to see which combination of values of the galactic bulge (baryonic) mass, Mb, and the 1st-

order coefficient of gravitational coupling, G1, may yield reasonable values of circular speeds for stars or gas outside

the galactic bulge.

Based on the above, we shall present below the results of the theoretical (simulated) rotation curves that we have

generated for our hypothetical galaxies:

1. Using the purely Newtonian behavior for the inner region of the galaxy (galactic bulge), eq. (6), and for its

outer region, eq. (11); and,

2. Using our approach to MOND, eq. (14) or eq. (20).

In Table (1), we list the physical constants and fixed parameters that we have used in our model’s calculations. In

Table (2), we list the input and output parameters for the case of a galaxy that has a constant number of stars in its

galactic bulge (i.e., a constant mass), which was fixed to 1010 stars, but where we have varied the values of the 1st-

order coefficient of gravitational coupling, G1 – as shown in the same Table. In Table (3), we list the input and output

parameters for the opposite case: a galaxy that has a constant value of the 1st-order coefficient of gravitational

coupling: G1 = 1×10-30 m2 s-2 kg-1, but where the number of stars in the galactic bulge (or, its total mass) was varied

as shown in the same Table. Figures (1) to (7) represent the theoretical rotation curves for each case, using both

classical Newtonian dynamics and our model.

14
 4. DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Table (2)

Referring to Table (2), for the case of a galaxy with a constant number of stars in the galactic bulge (i.e., constant

mass): NG=1010, but using different 1st-order coefficients of gravitational coupling, G1, it is noticed that:

 In general, the critical radius rc increases with decreasing the value of the coefficient G1, because there is an

inverse relationship between them.

 In Case I, when G1 has the largest value (G1 = 10−29 m2 s-2 kg-1), the critical radius of the galactic bulge Rc

will be 0.21 kpc. But according to observational results (as will be shown in Part II of this study), this value

is too small for ordinary galaxies.

 In Case IV, when G1 has the smallest value (G1 = 10−32 m2 s-2 kg-1), the value of rc was around 215 kpc,

which is too high for real galaxies.

 In general, the values of the mean density of the galactic bulge, < 𝜌 >, decrease with decreasing the value

of G1, which is expected since the number of stars is constant (the mass is constant), whereas the radius of

the galactic bulge increases (i.e., the volume of the galactic bulge increases).

 The values of the proportionality constant kg decrease with decreasing the value of the coefficient G1, which

is also expected, since the mean density < 𝜌 > is decreasing in this case, and the constant kg is proportional

to the mean density as: 𝑘𝑔 ∝ (< 𝜌 >)1/2 .

 For every one order-of-magnitude decrease in the value of G1, there are three orders-of-magnitude decrease

in the value of < 𝜌 >, which is also expected, since the density (at constant number of stars or bulge mass)

is inversely proportional with cubic rc: < 𝜌 > ∝ 𝑟𝑐 −3 .

15
  The values of the first-order gravitational-to-inertial mass ratio C1 decrease with decreasing the value of G1,

which is expected, since 𝐶1 = 𝐺1 /𝐺0 , and G0 is constant.

 In general, the values of the critical acceleration, 𝑎𝑐,𝑐𝑟 , decrease with decreasing the value of G1, which is

expected since the number of stars is constant (the mass is constant), whereas the radius of the galactic bulge

increases:

𝐺0 𝑀𝑏 2 𝐺1 2 𝑀𝑏
𝑎𝑐,𝑐𝑟 = = .
𝑟𝑐 2 𝐺0

4.2 Table (3)

Referring to Table (3), for the case of a galaxy with a constant value of the 1st-order coefficient of gravitational

coupling, G1 = 1×10-30 m2 s-2 kg-1, using different numbers of stars in the galactic bulge, NG (i.e., different masses), it

is noticed that:

 The values of the critical radius rc are constant throughout the three cases, since the 1st-order coefficient of

gravitational coupling G1 is constant, with a value of around 2.2 kpc, which is of the same order of magnitude

as the observational values, as will be shown in Part II of this study.

 Values of the mean density < 𝜌 > increase with increasing the number of stars in the bulge NG (i.e.

increasing the galactic bulge mass), which is also expected, since the galactic bulge radius rc is constant (i.e.,

the volume is constant), whereas the mass (number of stars in the bulge) is increasing.

 The values of the proportionality constant 𝑘𝑔 increase with increasing the number of stars in the bulge NG

(i.e. increasing the galactic bulge mass), which is also expected, since the mean density RHOBAR is

increasing in this case, and the constant 𝑘𝑔 is proportional to the mean density as: 𝑘𝑔 ∝ (< 𝜌 >)1/2 .

 The values of the first-order gravitational-to-inertial mass ratio C1 are constant throughout the three cases,

since the 1st-order coefficient of gravitational coupling G1 is constant.

16
  The values of the critical acceleration 𝑎𝑐,𝑐𝑟 increase with increasing the value of the number of stars (i.e.,

bulge mass), which is expected since the radius of the galactic bulge is constant, whereas the number of stars

𝐺0 𝑀𝑏 2 𝐺1 2 𝑀𝑏
is increasing (the mass is increasing), where: 𝑎𝑐,𝑐𝑟 = 2
= .
𝑟𝑐 𝐺0

4.3 Figures

It should be noted at the outset that all the generated rotation curves have a sharp edge at their maximum values of

circular speed, which is unlike the observational rotation curves. This is due to the fact that in our model, we assumed

that all the stars are concentrated inside the galactic bulge, which has a spherical shape of a specific (critical) radius

and with a constant (average) mass density everywhere, which is not really realistic, of course. But this is done as a

first approximation, since our goal here was not to fit observational data with our theoretical model, but rather, to see

the general qualitative and quantitative behavior of the generated theoretical rotation curves based on our model’s

assumptions alone.

Referring to the theoretical rotation curve for Case I in Figure (1), it is noticed that the values of the circular speed are

very high compared to observational galactic rotation curves – as will be shown in Part II of this study. For example,

the maximum speed is around 400 km/s in the purely Newtonian curve, and around 600 km/s in the modified

Newtonian curve. Also, the value of the critical radius is too small (around 0.2 kpc).

Referring to the theoretical rotation curves for Case II and Case III in Figures (2) and (3), respectively, it is noticed

that when the number of stars in the galactic bulge is around NG=1010 stars, and the values of the 1st-order coefficient

of gravitational coupling G1 is between 10−30 and 10−31 m2 s-2 kg-1, the values of rotational velocities are compatible

with observational values (between around 200 km/s to around 60 km/s); and so are the values of the critical radius

(galactic bulge radius), which fall between around 2 kpc to around 20 kpc.

Referring to the theoretical rotation curve for Case IV in Figure (4), where NG=1010 stars, and the value of G1 is 10−32

m2 s-2 kg-1, it is noticed that the values of the circular speed are very low (no more than 20 km/s). Also, the value of

the critical radius is too large (around 200 kpc), which has never been observed in any published literature.

Referring to the theoretical rotation curves for Case V and Case VI in Figures (5) and (6), respectively, it is noticed

that when we have a constant value of the 1st-order coefficient of gravitational coupling G1=10−30 m2 s-2 kg-1, and a

17
number of stars in the galactic bulge between NG = 109 to 1010, values of the theoretical rotational velocities (60 km/s

– 200 km/s) are compatible with observational values, but with a constant value of the critical radius (bulge radius) of

around 2 kpc.

Referring to the theoretical rotation curve for Case VII in Figure (7), where the value of G1=10−30 m2 s-2 kg-1 and the

number of stars was increased to 1011 (with a galactic bulge radius of 2 kpc), it is noticed that the values of the circular

speed are too high (up to around 600 km/s), which may not be compatible with observations.

Considering all the theoretical rotation curves, it is noticed that for the inner region of the galaxy (i.e., the galactic

bulge), the modified Newtonian curve is a bit higher than its corresponding purely Newtonian curve, and a little bit

curved rather than linear.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Based on the above results and discussions, we may conclude the following:

 Using our version of Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND), which consists of either: using a linearized

function of the scale-dependent gravitational coupling: G(r); or, using a linearized function of the scale-

dependent gravitational-to-inertial mass ratio f(r); the model gives a qualitatively and quantitatively

acceptable behavior of the galactic rotation curves for certain values of the model’s parameters.

 At very small distance scales, either of the following occurs: the effect of the first order coefficient of the

scale-dependent gravitational coupling G1 becomes negligible, and we turn back to classical Newtonian

dynamics, or, the effect of the first order coefficient of the scale-dependent gravitational-to-inertial mass ratio

C1 becomes negligible, and we turn back to classical Newtonian dynamics.

 The values of the first-order coefficients that give quantitatively acceptable description of galactic rotation

curves are as follows: For the first-order coefficient of gravitational coupling G1, it falls between around 10-
31
to 10-30 m2 s-2 kg-1. As for the first-order coefficient of gravitational-to-inertial mass ratio C1, it falls between

18
 around 10-21 to 10-20 m-1. Both values should be further refined by comparison to observations – which is left

to Part II of this study.

 Relationship with Milgrom’s MOND: Assuming that Milgrom’s critical acceleration [16] is the same as the

critical acceleration we estimated from our model (𝑎0 ≈ 𝑎𝑐,𝑐𝑟 ), we conclude the following:

o The critical acceleration and the 1st order coefficient of gravitational coupling are related thus:

𝐺1 2 𝑀𝑏
𝑎0 ≈ – eq. (17’).
𝐺0

𝑎𝑐 2 𝐺0 𝑀𝑏
o Milgrom’s equation of Modified Newton’s Dynamics (MOND) can be derived: = – eq.
𝑎0 𝑟2

(26).

o The asymptotic circular speed in the outer regions of the galaxy can be expressed in terms of the

critical acceleration, or, in terms of the 1st order coefficient of gravitational coupling as:

𝑣𝑐,𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚 ≈ (𝑎0 𝐺0 𝑀𝑏 )1/4 ≈ (𝐺1 𝑀𝑏 )1/2 – eq. (27).

o Unlike Milgrom’s version of Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) that requires a fixed value

of critical acceleration to reach before the MOND effects play a significant role (of the order of 10-
10
m2 s-1), our version of MOND implies that there is a critical distance at which the MOND effects

become significant and that the critical acceleration 𝑎0 is proportional to the baryonic mass of the

galaxy – according to eq. (17’).

o However, if Milgrom’s critical acceleration 𝑎0 is indeed a constant, then the 1st order coefficient of

gravitational coupling 𝐺1 depends on the baryonic mass of the galaxy, according to the following
1
formula: 𝐺1 = (𝑎0 𝐺0 /𝑀𝑏 )2 – eq. (24).

 Our version of MOND may be further extended to deal with the scale of galactic clusters and superclusters,

up to the cosmological scales. But, in order to deal with such large scales, we need to estimate the higher-

order coefficients of the scale-dependent gravitational coupling (or the scale-dependent gravitational-to-

inertial mass ratio), which is left for future studies.

19
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21
 Table (1):
Fixed Constants and Parameters Used in the Model’s Calculations
Constant/ Parameter Symbol Value Unit
Newtonian G0 6.674E-11 N m2 kg-2
Gravitational Constant = m3 s-2 kg-1
Solar Mass MS 2.000E+30 kg
Light-Year LY 9.500E+15 m
Kilo-Parsec KPC 3.26E+03 light-year

Table (2):
Input and Output Parameters for the Case of a Galaxy
with a Constant number of Stars in the Galactic Bulge (Constant Mass): NG=1.000E+10,
Using Different 1st-order Coefficients of Gravitational Coupling, G1

Case I Case II Case III Case IV

Input G1i = 1.000E-29 G1 = 1.000E-30 G1 = 1.000E-31 G1 = 1.000E-32
Parameters NGii = 1.000E+10 NG = 1.000E+10 NG = 1.000E+10 NG = 1.000E+10
RGiii = 9.500E+20 RG = 9.500E+20 RG = 4.750E+21 RG = 2.850E+22
RC1iv = 6.674E+18 RC1 = 6.674E+19 RC1 = 6.674E+20 RC1 = 6.674E+21
RC2iv = 2.153E-01 RC2 = 2.153 RC2 = 2.153E+01 RC2 = 2.153E+02
Output RHOBAR1v= 1.606E-17 RHOBAR1 = 1.606E-20 RHOBAR1 = 1.606E-23 RHOBAR1 = 1.606E-26
Parameters RHOBAR2 = 2.39E+11 RHOBAR2 = 2.39E+08 RHOBAR2 = 2.39E+05 RHOBAR2 = 2.39E+02
KG1vi = 6.701E-14 KG1 = 2.119E-15 KG1 = 6.701E-17 KG1 = 2.119E-18
KG2vi = 2.08E+03 KG2 = 6.57E+01 KG2 = 2.08 KG2 = 6.57E-02
C1vii = 1.498E-19 C1 = 1.498E-20 C1 = 1.498E-21 C1 = 1.498E-22
ACRviii = 2,997E-08 ACR = 2,997E-10 ACR = 2,997E-12 ACR = 2,997E-14
Output
Rotation Figure (1) Figure (2) Figure (3) Figure (4)
Curves
(i) G1: 1st-order coefficient of gravitational coupling, in m2 s-2 kg-1.
(ii) NG: number of stars in the galactic bulge.
(iii) RG: total galactic radius, in m.
(iv) RC: critical radius, (1) in m; (2) in kpc.
(v) RHOBAR: mean density of the galactic bulge, (1) in kg m-3; (2) in M⊙ kpc-3.
(vi) KG: constant of proportionality between speed and distance, (1) in m s-1 m-1; (2) in km s-1 kpc-1.
(vii) C1: 1st-order coefficient of gravitational-to-inertial mass ratio, in m-1.
(viii) ACR: critical acceleration, in m s-2.

22
 Table (3):
Input and Output Parameters for the Case of a Galaxy
with a Constant Value of the 1st-order Coefficient of Gravitational Coupling, G1=1.000E-30, Using Different
Numbers of Stars in the Galactic Bulge, NG (Different Masses)

Case V Case VI Case VII

Input NGi = 1.000E+09 NG = 1.000E+10 NG = 1.000E+11
Parameters G1iI = 1.000E-30 G1 = 1.000E-30 G1 = 1.000E-30
RGiii = 9.500E+20 RG = 9.500E+20 RG = 9.500E+20
RC1iv = 6.674E+19 RC1 = 6.674E+19 RC1 = 6.674E+19
RC2iv = 2.153 RC2 = 2.153 RC2 = 2.153
Output RHOBAR1v = 1.606E-21 RHOBAR1 = 1.606E-20 RHOBAR1 = 1.606E-19
Parameters RHOBAR2v = 2.39E+07 RHOBAR2 = 2.39E+08 RHOBAR2 = 2.39E+09
KG1vi = 6.701E-16 KG1 = 2.119E-15 KG1 = 6.701E-15
KG2vi = 2.08E+01 KG2 = 6.57E+01 KG2 = 2.08E+02
C1vii = 1.498E-20 C1 = 1.498E-20 C1 = 1.498E-20
ACRviii = 2,997E-11 ACR = 2,997E-10 ACR = 2,997E-09
Output
Rotation Figure (5) Figure (6) Figure (7)
Curves
(i) G1: 1st-order coefficient of gravitational coupling, in m2 s-2 kg-1.
(ii) NG: number of stars in the galactic bulge.
(iii) RG: total galactic radius, in m.
(iv) RC: critical radius, (1) in m; (2) in kpc.
(v) RHOBAR: mean density of the galactic bulge, (1) in kg m-3; (2) in M⊙ kpc-3.
(vi) KG: constant of proportionality between speed and distance, (1) in m s-1 m-1; (2) in km s-1 kpc-1.
(vii) C1: 1st-order coefficient of gravitational-to-inertial mass ratio, in m-1.
(viii) ACR: critical acceleration, in m s-2.

Figure (1): Theoretical Rotation Curve, Case I.

23
Figure (2): Theoretical Rotation Curve, Case II.

Figure (3): Theoretical Rotation Curve, Case III.

24
Figure (4): Theoretical Rotation Curve, Case IV.

Figure (5): Theoretical Rotation Curve, Case V.

25
 Figure (6): Theoretical Rotation Curve, Case VI.

Figure (7): Theoretical Rotation Curve, Case VII.

26

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