ASIAN DEVELOPMENT FOUNDATION COLLEGE

Tacloban, City

COMPREHENSIVE REPORT
FOR
STATISTICS

Submitted by:

JUSTINE CASTIL MARGALLO, LPT

Submitted to:

Dr. ROGELIA FIRMO

MAY 13, 2023

 MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

Study Guide
1. Describe the nature of statistics, with your knowledge of statistics learned this
module, how do you apply it in life situation?

Statistics is both science and art. Statistical methods are systematic and
have general application which makes it a science. Further the successful
application of these methods requires skills and experience of using the
statistical tools.
Invidual use statistics to make decision in financial planning and
budgeting, while organizations are guided by statistics in financial policy
decisions. Banks use statistics to lower risk in lending operations analyze
activity in the financial market, and predict the impact of economic crisis.

2. What are statistics?

The practice or science of collecting and analyzing numerical data in large

quantities, especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a whole from
those in representative sample.

3. Summarize the historical origin of statistics.

Centuries ago, the word statistics was used to refer to kings needing
information about land, agriculture, population and their military. However,
the interpretation of the word statistics has changed many times throughout
history. In the 16th century, Girolamo Cardano calculates probabilities of
different dice rolls. In the 18th century DeMoivre noticed that as the number
of coin flips increased, the binomial pdf approached a very smooth curve.
DeMoivre reasoned that if he could find a mathematical expression for this
curve, he would be able to solve problems such as finding the probability of
60 or more out of 100-coin flips easily. This is exactly what he did, and the
curve he discovered is now called the “normal” curve. Later in 1778, LaPlace
formulated the central limit theorem. In 1808, the mathematicians Adrain and
Gauss independently developed the formula for the normal distribution and
showed that many natural phenomena abide to the normal curve.
LEARNING CHUNK 2

Study Guide

1. What is population? Define.

Population refers to a group as aggregates of people, animals, object,

materials, happening or thing of any form. This means that there are
population of students, teachers, supervisors, principals, laboratory
animals trees manufactured articles, birds’ insects and many others.

2. Differentiate Population from Sample.

A population consists of all elements, individuals, items or objects whose

characteristics are being studied. The population being studied is called the
target population. A portion of a population selected for study is referred
to as sample. A sample that represents the characteristics of the population
as closely as possible is called representative sample. While a sample
drawn in such a way that each elements of the population have equal
chances of being selected is called Random Sample.

MODULE 2
THE VARIABLE

Study Guide
1. What is meant by variable?

Variable is a characteristic under the study that assumes different values

for different elements. A variable may be classified as quantitative or
qualitative variable.

2. Differentiate qualitative from quantitative variables; discrete from

continuous variables.

Quantitative variables are numeric. They represent a measurement

quantity. For example, when we speak of the population of a city, we
are talking about the number of the people in the city-a measurable
attribute of the city. Therefor, population would be a quantitative
variable. In algebraic equation, quantitative variables are represented
by symbols (e. g. X, Y, or Z)
Quantitative variables can be further classified as discrete or
continuous. If a variable can take on any value between its minimum
value and maximum value, it is called a continuous variable; otherwise,
 it is called a discrete variable. Some examples will clarify the difference
between discrete and continuous variables.

3. Discuss the classification of variables.

A. According to continuity of Values

1. Continuous Variables. These are variables that can take the

form of decimals.
Example: weight, length, height, school achievement
2. Discrete or Discontinuous Variables. These variables cannot
take form of decimals.
Example: number of students, number of houses, size of a
family.
B. According to Scales of measurement
1. Nominal Variable. This property allows one to make
statement of similarities or differences.
2. Ordinal Variables. These variables refer to a property
whereby members of a group are ranked.
3. Interval Variables. This property allies one to make statement
of equality of intervals,
4. Ratio Variables. This property permits making statement of
quality of ratios.
C. According to Functional Relationship.
• Independent Variables. This is sometimes called criterion
variables,
• Dependent Variables. This is sometimes called I. Q.. I.Q is
dependent variables and academic achievement is the
dependent variables,

4. Discuss the uses of statistics.

Statistics is a branch of Mathematics that can be used for

many purposes. Some of these are briefly described below.
➢ It can give precise description of data. This is a
functional of statistics which enables us to make
accurate statement or judgements about averages,
variability and relationship.
➢ It can predict the behavior of individuals, in school,
the grades of students can be predicted through a
scholastic aptitude test.
➢ It can be used to test hypothesis. We can determine
wether a variable or not to another through a test of
inference such as correlation.
 5. Match column A with column B.

Column A
1. A characteristic under study that assumes different
values for different element.
2. A variable that can be measured numerically.
3. A variable whose values are countable.
4. A Variable that can assume any numerical value over a
certain interval or intervals.
5. A variable that cannot assume a numerical value but
can be classified into two or mire non-numerical
categories.

Column B
a. Discrete Variable
b. Continuous Variable
c. Quantitative Variables
d. Qualitative Variables
e. Variables
f. Classified Variables.

Answer. 1. E 2. C 3. A 4. B 5. D

MODULE 3
DATA PRESENTATION
Study Guide
1. In what year(s) was there a marked increase in enrollment?

2003, 2004, 2005,2006, 2007, and 2008

2. In what year(s) was there a marked decrease in enrollment?

None

3. Can you speculate in the possible reasons for the increase and decrease in
enrollment?
I think the possible reason of increase in enrollment because of the good
teaching strategies of the teacher that are giving to their students, and
also the good facilities of the school. While the possible reason of
decrease in enrollment because of the increase in tuition that the parents
cannot afford anymore to pay.
4. Predict the enrollment for school year 2010-2011
I think there well the an increase in the enrollment in 2010 to 400
enrollees and 450 enrollees in 2011.

Learning Chunk

1. How will you present and arrange gathered data in a tabular form?
What are the concepts needed in a tabular presentation?

Methods of data presentation is one of the most important aspects in any

statistical investigation as the matter by which the researcher presents and
interpret data collected.
Data presentation is critical portion of making proposals, reports and other
essential demonstration during the course of daily meetings and important
presentation. Most presentations are either visual in nature or rely on
strong visual elements for clarity and information conveyance. In the past,
the visual transfer of data was accomplished through projectors and slides,
with crude hand-outs.

2. What is graphic presentation.

Graphic presentation is a visual form of presenting statistical data. Graph

acts as a tool of analysis and make complex data simple and intelligible.
Graphs are mire appropriate in the following cases – a lf tendency of real
measurement is important.
Some of the various types of graphical representation are line graph, bar
graph, and histogram.

3. Based in a given sample data, construct a textual presentation of data.

Textual presentation of data arranged it in ordered formal, such as lowest
to highest. It can also use a stem and leaf plot for presentation. Other forms
of data presentation include tabular and graphical.
Data is the collection of information on a certain subject. There are both
textual and visual forms presenting data to a group of people. Although are
effective, you must take into consideration your audience. If you are
presenting data to a school child, the best way to do so is in visual firms so
it keeps their interest. With high school students or older audiences, textual
data can be presented in the form of PowerPoint Presentation to keep it
interesting.
 MODULE 4
SCALES MEASUREMENT

Study Guide

1. Define and give the difference of nominal data, ordinal data, interval
data, and ratio data.

Nominal data is the data that can be labelled or classified into mutually
exclusive categories within a variable.
Ordinal data is categorical, statistical data type where variables have
natural, ordered categories and the distances between the categories are
not known.
Interval data is measured along a numerical scale that has equal distance
between adjacent values.
Ratio data is a quantitative data, having the same properties as interval
data, with an equal definitive ratio between each data and absolute zero
being treated aa a point of origin. In other words, there can be no
negative numerical value in ratio data.

2. Give example of each of the following scales measurement.

a. Example of nominal
Mode of transportation, you may have categories of car, bus,
tram , or tricycle.

b. Example of ordinal data

Socio economic status (“ low income”, “middle income”, “ high
income”) , education level (“ high school” , “BS” , “MS”, “PhD”)

c. Example of interval data includes temperature in Celsius or

Fahrenheit), mark grading IQ test and CGPA.

d. Example of ratio data

Income, height, weight, annual sales, market share product defect

rates, time to purchase, unemployment rate, and crime rate.

3. Classify the type of data that will obtained from the following variables
as real nominal, artificial, ordinal, interval and ratio.

a. Breeds of cattle – real nominal

b. Electric power consumptions of household appliances – ratio
data
c. Competitive test result (pass/fail) – artificial nominal
 d. Types of beans – real nominal
e. Efficiency rating of employees -ratio data
f. Popularity ratings of government officials – ratio data
g. Scores if a entrance examination – ratio data
h. Heights of high school students -ratio data
i. Scores of basketball players – ratio data
j. Popularity ratings of basketball players – ratio data
k. Ranks in the army- ordinal
l. Levels of schooling( elementary, secondary, tertiary,, graduate -
ordinal
m. Types of personality – real nominal
n. I, Q – real nominal
o. Aptitudes
p. Attitude towards the teaching profession
q. Grades in high school

MODULE 5
SEKECTING APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES

Study Guide

1. What are the primary considerations you have to include in the choice of your
statistical test?

The use of the statistical test for the analysis of your data requires careful and
deliberate judgement of your part. The following primary consideration will
prove to be useful, the choice of statistical test is dictated by the questions for
which the research is designed, and the level distribution and dispersion of data
also suggest the type of statistical test to be used.

2. How can you tell if you are using an appropriate statistical technique in you
study? Explain your answer.

One of the most efficient and effective methods of analyzing your data in
connection your research objective is the use of statistical techniques. Statistics
is efficient because it provides a systematic structure for organization of
research data. It requires a minimum of resources for the attainment of your
research progress.
Statistics techniques are very effective in the sense that you get answers to your
questions without feeling that subjectivity has gotten into result of the analysis.

3. Discuss briefly the primary and secondary considerations in the choice of

Statistical Test.
 The primary considerations in the choice of statistical test, the choice of
statistical test for analysis of your data requires careful and deliberate
judgement on your part. The choice of statistical test is dictated by the
questions fir which the research designed, and the level of distribution and
dispersion of data also suggest the type of statistical test to the used. The
secondary considerations are, the extent of your knowledge of statistics, and
availability of resources in connection with computation and interpretation of
data.

MODULE 6
DIFFERENT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Study Guide

1. What are the two properties of Random Sampling?

The two properties of random sampling are:

a. Systematic Sampling is a frequency used variant of simple random
sampling. When performing systematic sampling every element from the
list is selected stating point.
b. Stratified Sampling is a variant on simple random and systematic
methods and is used when there are numbers of distinct sub group, within
each of which it is required that there is full representation.

2. What are the steps you have to follow in using the Table Random
Numbers.

a. Number each member of the population 1 to N.

b. Determine the population size and sample size.
c. Select a starting point on the random number table.
d. Choose direction in which to read ( up to down, left to right, or right to
left.)
e. Select the N numbers ( however many numbers are in your sample )
whose last X digits are between O and N.

3. What are the steps you need to follow in using the Lottery Sampling
Technique?
 There are 4 key steps you need to follow in using lottery sample
technique:

Step 1: Define the population

Start by deciding on the population that you want to study.

it is important to ensure that you have access to every individual member
of the population, so that you can collect data from all those who are
selected from the sample.

Step 2 : Decide on the sample size

Next, you need to decide how large your sample size will be. Although
larger sample provide more statistical certainty, they also cost more and
require far more work.

Step 3: Randomly select your sample

This can be done on one of the two ways: the lottery random or random
number method.

In the lottery method, you choose the sample at random by drawing from
the hat or by using a computer program that will stimulate the same
action.

In the random number method, you assign every individual a number. By

using a random number generator or random numbers table, you then
randomly pick a subset of the population.

Step 4: Collect data from your sample

Finally, you should collect data from your sample.

To ensure the validity of your findings, you need to make sure individual
selected actually participate in your study. If some drop out or do not
participate for reason associated with the question that your studying, this
could bias your findings.

4. When are you going to use Systematic Sampling Technique

Systematic sampling technique is a frequency used in variant of simple

random sampling. When performing systematic sampling every element
from the list is selected starting point.

5. Give the process of Stratified Sampling Techniques

 In a stratified sample, researches divide a population into homogeneous
subpopulation called strata, ( the plural of stratum) bases on a
characteristics (e.g., race, gender, identity, location, etc.,). Every member
of the population studied should be in exactly one stratum.
Each stratum is then sampled using another probability sampling method,
such as cluster sampling or simple down sampling, allowing researcher
to estimate statistical measures of each sub-population.

6. How do you use Cluster Sampling Technique

The sample is generally done by first sampling at the higher levels e.g.
randomly sampled countries sample, then from the subsequent level in
turn e.g. within the selected countries sample, then within these post
codes, then within these households, until final stage is reached, at
which point the sampling is done in a simple random manner, e.g.
sampling people with in the selected households.

7. What are other types of Non-Random Sampling?

In statistics bias in which a sample is collected in such a way that some

members of intended population are less likely to be included than
others. It results in a biased sample, non -random sample of a
population (or non-human factors) in which all individuals or instances
were not equally like to have been selected.

8. Define the following sampling techniques.

a. Random sampling – is a part of the sampling

technique in which each sample has an equal
probability of being chosen.
b. Lottery sampling – is one of the oldest ways and is
a mechanical example of random sample.
Researches draw numbers from the box randomly
to choose samples. In this method, the researches
gives each member of the population a number.
c. Systematic sampling – is a probability sampling
method where researches select members of the
population at a regular in regular interval.
d. Stratified sampling – is a method of sampling from
a population which can be partitioned into
subpopulations.
e. Cluster sampling – is a sampling plan used plan
used when mutually homogeneous yet internally
heterogeneous groupings are evident in statistical
population.
 f. Purposive or Deliberate sampling – is a form of
non-probability sampling in which researches rely
on their own judgement when choosing members of
the population to participate in their surveys.
g. Quota sampling - is a non-probability sampling
method that relies on the non-random selection of a
predetermined number or proportions of units.
h. Convenience sampling- is a non probability
sampling that involves the sample being drawn
from that part of the population that is close to hand.

MODULE 7
MEASURES OF CENTRALITY, LOCATION, AND VARIATION

Study Guide

Solve the following problems

1. The grades of students on 12 examinations were 90, 78, 85, 88, 75, 92, 86, 85,
94, 84, 91, 83.

1031/12= 85.916

2. Find the mean of the number of hamburgers sold in days: 25, 28, 23, 28, 25,
27, 24

180/7 = 25.714

Study Guide

If in one hour of fishing, nine fisherman caught the following number of tilapia
7 4 8 6 5 8 10 7 8

Find the two measures of central tendency, mean and median.

Mean
63/9 = 7

Median is 5.

Study Guide

1. How do we compute for the mean group and ungroup data?

 For ungroup data, the mean is simply the sum of all values divided by the
number of cases. For grouped data, the sum of all values is obtained by
multiplying the frequency or percentage of occurrence by the value of the
variable.

2. When do we need to compute for the median? How do we compute for the
median?

The median is the most informative measure of central tendency for skewed
distributions with outliers.
The mean can be calculated only for numeric variables, no matter if they are
discrete or continuous. It’s obtained by simply dividing the sum of all values
in a data set by the number of values
3. How do we compute the standard deviation?

The standard deviation formula may look confusing, but it will make sense
after we break it down. In the coming sections, we’ll walk through a step-by-
step interactive example. Here’s a quick preview of the steps we’re about to
follow
Step 1: find the mean
Step 2: for each data point, find the square of its distance to the mean
Step 3: sum the values from step 2
Step 4: divide the number of data points
Step 5: take the square root
From the formula above is for finding the standard deviation of a population.
If you’re dealing with a sample, you’ll want to see a slightly different formula
which is N-1 instead of N. The point of this article, however is to familiarize
you with the process of computing standard deviation, which is basically the
same no matter which formula you use.

4. How do we determine the degree of relationship between attributes?

By seeing an E-R diagram, we can simply tell the degree of a relationship the
number of an entity type that is connected to a relationship is the degree of that
relationship.
5. What is the important implication given by the measures of central tendency?

Calculating the measures of central tendency provide researchers with the

ability to summarize data clearly and succinctly. Researchers often describe
their data sample with basic information before moving to test their hypothesis
and research questions.
 MODULE 8
STATISTICAL TEST AND THEIR USES

Study Guide

1. What statistical analysis should you use when we are conducting a

research?

Two main statistical methods are used in data analysis: descriptive

statistics, which summarizes data using indexes such as mean and median
and another is inferential statistics, which draw conclusions from data
using statistical test such as student’s test.

2. How do we compute for the Z-test of One Sample Mean?

A one- sample z test is used to check if there a difference between the

sample mean and the population standard deviation is known. The test
statistics is a z= (p- P) ò where P is the hypothesized value of population
proportion in the null hypothesis, p is the sample proportion, and ò is the
standard deviation of the sampling distribution
3. How do you know what kind of test to use?

The t-test for independent sample mean is used to determine if an observed

difference between the average of two independent groups is statically
significant. The t-test for dependent sample mean is used to determine if
there is a significant difference between two groups of correlated scores in
terms of their means.