"Could radically

change our concept

of learning."
- J<..'1 ntuc Bf Hilt r

The Power of
. ------
_ _ _ earn 1n ~

ELLEN J. LANGER
 . 'I'< .l t<>UlC'

A p.1,th to rel1ef. .. A fresh. thoughtful plea- notab l)' free of 'e<Jubahble ' for
exploring strateg.1es Clf teaching and lean,ing."'
-'I he 1\Jc,,· }'ork l'unes 13ooJ: Hel 1ew1

"Jerome Bruner showed that \\o'C often go beyond infoTTTiation given . Ellc-n
Langer teaches us how to do it, eH1cient ly and syste1nat ically ··
- Robe rt Zajo11e. Stanford l lnl,·er~,f,

"Like Freud ~Piaget, Wern er, and Vygotsky, Lang er is well on her v,iay
to const ructin g a grand theory of hun1an functionj11g With nnpo rtant
in1plications for such diverse areas as educa tion and learning, devel op-
ment and aging, group relati on s. and psycho- and neuro -path ology..,
- ~d,I h Kapb n. C o11 t c ,n/n1rc1 r v Psv{·hoifJgy

"Or. EIJen Langer has alw;1)rs been a source of great inspuaflon to mt·.
\\1ithelegant simplicity, she can con1plctcl)' change yow life aud transf onn
your cxpcricnc~ of reality."
- [)~cpak Chop ra, ~I.I).

,.Orig inal and liberating, opens the door to a lifetime of creativity. n

-C.n ol (;1llu;ar1. H:u , .lfcl l 1111\·c r'- 1t,

"Deli ghtfu lly s1n1ple, renaarkably profound.''

llot_t't Sc:h.111k. l11, t1 tutc for th~ Lc ;.111 111,g. Srrc ntc,

,,:1.1.EN J. I. \ ,ta•:R. Ph.D., lS Profes sor

of Psychology at I larvard University
and the 3utho r of Mar,d/i,lness.
•
(:0.W ~ ,,, S IUlVlPK' , ' "'" '
Co•._, pc,rnl,n& by ltu(41 OlbJ,,,..,

s,, ~ US I S19J;O CAN

 PRAISE FOR
Th e Power
of Mindful Learning

t tradirionaJ me tho ds
"The Power ofMind_fu l l earning argues tha
because they ten d to
of learning can pro duce min dless behavior
suggest tha t there is
get people to 'ov erl eam · a fact or a tas k and
por tan t to teach
only one wa y to do ir. Sh e argues rhat it is im
stage for dou bt and an
skills and facts con dit ionally, set ting the
y call for different
awareness tha t dif fer ent si tua tio ns ma
s make the poi nt sci-
a pproar hes or ans we rs... . La ndm ark studie
enrjficaHy... - The New York Times

"Li ke Fre ud, Pia get , We rne r, and Vygors

l-y. La nge r is well on
of hum an fun ctio nin g
her way to constr uct ing a gra nd the ory
erse areas as edu ca-
wit h im por tan t implicatio ns for such div
gro up relatjon s, and
tio n and learning, development and aging.
before has soc ial psy-
psycho - and neuro- parho logy.... Never
int o ncu rop syc hology
cho log y pro vid ed n1o re sub tle ins igh ts
and rel ate d fields tha n in La ngc r•s pro
vocative wo rk.... He r
tio ns poi nr our pro -
see mi ngly sim ple exp eri me nta l ma nip ula
and how we as peo -
fou nd tru ths abo ut the hum an con dit ion
ple can dcvdop ." - Edith Kaplan
Contemp()rary Psych<Jlogy

an.d thi nk it has

"1vf any edu cators find her theory intr igu ing
chi ng ar all levels. ,.
profow1d implications for revolutio nizing tea
- AP A !Ylonitor
"lvlost of us are often mindless in our learn ing. How this hap-
pens and what can be done about ic-.rhese are Ellen Langer's
important questions. Her livdy answers could radically change
our concept of learning."
- Jerome "Brun.er
The New School for Social Research

*A wonderfully thoughrful anJ thought -provokjng follow-up

to the author's earlier srudy /v!i,uifulnt ss. this time exploring the
ill effects of nlindlessnt:ss in cducation ....An cxccllenr introduc-
tion to what mig ht be (and c•crtainly shouJd be) the next para-
digm .shift in education."'
- Kirku1 Rei.1iews

"An rnteresting and very readable proposal ... Each of the seven
chapters cakes up a lt aming 'nlyth·... to reduce the mindlessness
pervasive in traditional education."
-Choic.e

.. I'm a firrn believer in the power of rnindful learning. ''fh1s

book should be required reading for teachers at every level,
bot·h in acaden1ia and the business world."
- 1-loward Stevenson
Harvard Business School
 The Power
ef Mindful Learning

•
 •

•
 a arct;iNe.oJg

INTERNET
1111
~ ARCHI VE

Return now

The Power
of Mindful
Learning

Ellen J. Langer

A MERlOYD IAWRENCE BOOK

LIFELONG BOOKS• DA CAPO PRESS
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Fo ur Arrful Brotheri.," and "'The Old ~1an and His Grandson" 1n 1'ht
Co-mpkte Fairy Toles efth~ BrotherJ Grimm, tTanslatcd by· Jack Zipes
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Excerpts from "The Lost H orse" and "The ((jng's Favorire" in Cbi-
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 C o n te n ts

Achtowlt dg~ nts x,

INT R O D UC TI O N 1

9
1 W H E 1' P R A c T I C f; M .'\ K ES I ~I f' 1-: R F E CT
Overlearned Skills 11
Whose Basics? 15
Th~ Value of Doubt 15
Sidew.1ys Learning 22
Can a Text Te3ch Mindfully? 28

2 CRE /\T I VI,; DI ST RA C TI ON 33

n u~Puzzle of "Att entio n'" 37
Enha ncin g Nov dty 40
Soft Vigilance 43
44
Rethinlcing Atte ntion Defi cit Hyperactivity Disorder

3 Tt l l lVI YT II O F D EL/\ YEO GRA T IFI C ATI O N

5]
All \ i\lork and No Piaf 52
Tun1ing Play into Work 56
Turning Work into Pb~, 58

.
'"
C o ;-,.: ·rt-:NT S

4 1066 WH A'r? O R THE H AZARD S OF' R oTE. M E~I O RY 67

Lodun g Up Jnformat:Jon 69
Kccpjn g Inform ation Available 73
Drawing Distin ctions 75

5 A N Ew LOO K AT F O R G ~: T T I ~ C 83
Staying in the Presen t 85
The Dange_rs of l\it ind less l\ileroory 87
Absen tminde d versus Other Mjnde d? 89
Docs l\tlemory Decline? 90
Altern ative Views of Memo ry a.nd Aging 93

6 M tNDFU L~f,S S AND l :'IITE. Lllt.;~: ~c-F 99

Ninete cnth-C enrury ~rheories of Intelligence l 02
The Notion of Optim um F'it 106
An Alternative Ability 107
Linear versus 1\1.indful Proble m Solving 111

7 Tttl~ l ' LLUS ION O F RJ C II T A N S WfR. S 11 7

I lobbied by Outcomes 120
Actor/ Observer and Orhcr Perspectives 122
Uncert ainty and Crearivc Thoug ht 129
When Right Becom es Wrong 132
rvl.ndfulness and Self- Definition 135
Learning as Re-im agining the World 137

Nott!, 141
Inda 157
Abo11t tht Autho-r 169
 Acknowledgments

Each chapter of this book relies in part on the mindfulness

of various students with whom I've had the pleasure of work-
ing. Their contribu tions are noted through out where our ex-
perimen ts arc described. Even more exrc:nsive collaboratio n
and thus special thanks are extended to Douglas DeMay and
Paul Whitmo re re chapter 1; to Mathew Lieberm an re chap-
ter 4; Becca Levy re chapter 5; and Justin Brown re our work
on intellige nce.
Taken as a whole, this book has benefite d greatly from
the comn1ents and question s given to me by Roger Brown
and Lenore Weitzm an. Katherin e Jatgl"r, Trina Soske, John
M yers, Albert C arnasale, Marie Tatar, Phyllis Katz, and
Nancy Hemenway also provided useful insights. I extend my
gratitud e to each for their advice and my appreciation of
their friendship.
I also want to thank Sophia Snow and Brian Ericcson for
their mindful technical help.

xr
 •
A C k N O W I, E D C ~I £ N T S
and friend,
Last, but foremost, J am indebted to my edi tor
hel ped
Merloyd Lawrence, whose skill, patience, and wisdom
me with each draft.

'

..
rff
 Introduction

Onct upon a time there ~M, S a mindltJJ li11/e gir l

,,anzed Lillie &t i Rid ing Hood. On e day. wh
en
she wa it to vis it her ail ing grandmothtr, sht wa
s
greeted b), a wo lf dressed ;,, her grandmother's
nightc/otb es. • U'h at hig eyes you hav e, Grandn,a
, ..
1h~ exclaini~d, dut!leM as ever. although s~ had sttn
her gra ndm oth ers ~•es countleu timeJ before. •W hat
big ean you havt', Crand111a, "she said, alt hcu gh
it
wa:1 unlike~'t' tha t the y wo uld h.av e rha
ngt d since
her !tut v isit. "W hal a d.eep v oire you have,
Grandn1a, • 1h, snid, stil l ohlii,iifJu1 to the sha
ggy
imposter heneath tht_fa mil iar lacy nightcap. "W hat
big teeth you hav e,• she 1aid, lco late, alas. to beg
in
paying attentifJn.

Certain myths and fuiry talcs help advance a

cul tur e by
passing on a profound and con1plcx wisdo m to suc
ceeding gen -
eration s. Oth ers , ho-..vever, deserv e to ~ que stio
ned . Th is bo ok
TH E P o w t R O F M1 N n1: u1. L E AR N l fl;G

is about seven pervasive myths, or mindsets, that undermine

the process of learning and how we can avoid their debilitating
effects in a wide variety of settings.

1. The basic.s must be learned so well that they become second

nature.
2. Paying attention means staying focused on one thing at a
nme.
3. Delaying gratification is in1portant.
4. Rote memorization is necessary in education.
5. Forgetting is a problem .
6. Intelligence is knowing "'what's out there.""
7. There are right and ,vrong answers.

These myths undermine true learning. They stifle our cre-

ativity, silence our questions, and diminish our self-esteen1.
Throughout this book we will examine them, sometimes
through expe.rimcnts carried out at Harvard and elsewhere and
sometimes ,vith insight drawn from fairy tales and folktales from
around the world. The process of overturning these myths leads
to certain questions about the nature of intelligence. In the last
h\'O chapter s we will explore these que.c;tions and the. ways in
which our view of intelligence may support inhibiting mindsets.
The ideas offered here to loosen the grip of these dehilitat-
ing myths are very simple. Their fundamental simplicity points
to yet another inhibiting myth: that only a n1assive overhaul
can give us a nlore effective cdue:ational system.
We can change school curricula, change standards for test-
ing students and teachers, increase parent and community

2
 lntrt){J11,1i<>11

invo lvement in t~ process of education, and increase the bud-

get for education so that more students c:an become part of the
computet age. N one of these mea·sures alone will make enough
difference unle$S students are given the opportunity to learn
more mindfully. With such opportunity, some of these e~pen-
sivc= measures might well be-come unnecessary.
\1/hcrcver learning takes place--in school, on the job, in
the home-these myths are also at work and the opportunity
for mindful learning is present. Whether the learning is practi-
cal or theoretical, personal or interpersonal; whether it involves
abstract concepts, such as physics, or concrete skills, such as
how to play a sport. t he way the info rmatio n is learned will
determine how, why. and when it is used. The succeeding chap-
ters explore the way each of these myths locks us into rigid
habits of learning and o ffer keys to a more tlexible and ptioduc-
tivc approach.
This book takes more of a "why-to" rhan a "how-to,. ap-
proach. Nevertheless, the examples and experiments described
implicitly suggest ways to learn mindfully. These are intended
to guide our choices and to be adapted to each unique context.
rather than to be followed mindlessly.
Not only do we as individuals get locked into single-
minded views, but we also reinforce these views for c-ilch other
until the culture irself suffers the same mindlessness. T-here is
an awareness of this in science. Scientists proceed along a path
gathering data that builds on accepted wisdom. At some point
someone turns everyone's anent.ion to a very different view of
the previously acknowledged truth. This phenomenon happens

J
 Jrvoter

13. Burstein, L ., Fisher, K. B., and lvfiller. M. 0 ., ' The Mul ti-
1

level Effe cts of Bac kgro und in Science Achievement: A Cros s-

national Com pari son, " Sociology ofEduu1tion 53 (1980): 215- 25.

14. De Rive ra,). , Fiel d Theory as Hu"zan Srience: Co11tributwns

ofLew in's B~r/i11 Group (Ne w York: Gar dne r Press, 1976).
15. Langer, E., Jani s, I. L., and Wol fer, J. A., "Re duct ion of
Psychological Strc~s in Surg ical Pati ents ," jour nal of E'xperi-
men tal Social Psychology 11 (197 5): 155 -65.

16. Lan ger. E., 1\lli,uljul11ess {Re adin g, M l\ : Add ison - Wes ley,
198 9), 2, 8; Can tor, N ., and Kihl stron1, J. F., Pn-sonality and
Soci,1/ ln1elliger1ce (Eng le,vood Cliffs, NJ : Pren tice - Hall ,
198 7).

17. Stau b, E., Turs ky, 8 ., and Sch war tt, G . E ., 0

Self -Co ntro l
and Pred ictab ility: The Effe cts of Rea ctio ns to Aversive Stim -
ulat ion," jour,,a/ of P~rronality a,zd Soci al Psychology 18, no. 2
( 1971): 157 -62.

18. Edwards , B., Dra win g on lht Right Side o_f the Brain (Los
Ang eles: ] . P. Ta.rc her, 1979), 12, 13.

19. Ibid .

20. Gui lfor d, J. P., "Th e Srru ctur e-of -lntc llc<:t Model," in
Handbook of /11/e/ligen(e: Theories, Measurements and Applica-
lio-n.f, ed. B. B. Wol man (Ne w York: John Wil ey & Son s, 1985 ),
225 -66.
21 . Langer, E., and Ben even to, A .• ~Se lf-In duce d Dep en-
den ce," Journal of Perso11al il)· and Social Ps)'chclogy 36, no. 8
(Aug. 1978): 886 -93; Lan ger, E ., and Avo m,J. , "Ind uced Dis-
ability in Nur sing f1om c Pati ents: A Con trol ltd "'f rial,"Journal
of tht A"1erica11 Geriatric S()(iety 30, no. 6 (1981 ): 397 -400 ;
155
Steele, C. l\'L, and Aronson, J. 1 ·'Stereotype Threat and the
Intellectual Test Performance of African Amt:ricans," Journal of
Persr;,nality and Social P1ychology 69, no. 5 (1995): 797-811.

22. Taylor. S. E .. Wood, J., and Ljchtman, R., "It Could Be

\Vorse: Selective Evaluation as a Response to Victimization."
Journal~( Sofia/ ls1ues 39 no. 2 (1984): 19-40; Wills, T. A.,
... Social Comparison in Coping and l--lelp-Seeking," in New
DirettionJ in I-le/ping, ed. B. ~I. lkPaulo, A. Nadler, and J. D.
Fisher, vol. 2, Hclp-Stckittg (Ne'"' York: 1\caden1ic Press, 1983).
109-141.
23. Langer, E., "The Illusion of Incompetence." in Choice and
Perceiwd Control. ed. L. C. Perlmuter and R. A. Monty (Hills -
dale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1979), 301-13; Langer, E., and Park, K_,
"lnco1npetence: A Conceptual Reconsideration," in Competencr
Comidered, ed. R. J. Sternberg and J. Kolligian (New Haven,
CT: Yale University Press, 1990), 149--66.
24. Langer, E., and Chanowitz, B., "A New Perspective for the
0
Study of Oisah1lity. in Attitudes Towards Person; w ith Disahili-
ties, ed. H. E. Yukcr (Ne\~· York: Springer. 1987), 68-81;
Langer, and Park, .. lnco1npetence," in Competence Considtred,
ed. R.J. Sternberg and J. Kolligian (Ne,v Haven C'f: Yale Uni-
1

versity Press, 1990), 149-66.

156

A Andcrson,J., 142, 145
Absolute, versus condihonal learn-
ing, 79-81
Acth,irics.ltasks
making distinctionS-, 59-60
penpccti~:s, rnindful learning
1tnd. 13&-Ji
Actol'lobscrver and other pc:r,spec-
rives, right answers anJ,
123-30
1\ ge, aging
;ttti rudes/srcrt'otypcs tO\,,arck,
91-92,93,95
memory, alternative vi1;."W$ of,
93-98
n1emvry decline in, 90-93
mindfulness, life expectanc.:y .and,
4 meaning8 at,t~ched rot 38
Ahlgr~n. A~, 146
Alexander, Chart~, 157
J\n1biguiry
right aruwcrs and. 133- .35
tolerance for, 63- 64
Am~ri'l~n Psychuur,c Association,
143
Index
Anderson. Norman, 26
Anticipation, dday~d gratification
and, 54-55
Aristotlt:. 134
ArooRon, J., 144, 155
Assoc;acivc: stage, in learning a new
skill, 26
As~ucnptioni
abour "facts." 19-20. 71
about intellig~ncc:, 127
about work and ph1y, 52-56
context , uncerc-ainty and. 130-
31
Attention/.1ttentil1CDC$S
diffi,-ultit$ wirh, 37-40
di,srr.1crion and, 35-3 7
lC2f'll.ing myth about, 2, 33-35
novelry and, 40-43
soft VLgilttncc and, 43-44
Attention deficit hvneracrivit'\
1 ,, • dis-
1
order (ADI ID). 6-7, 37,
4+-49
Aurhoricy, olxdience to, exper-i2ne,1t
in. 20-21
157
·1 H E P O \V E R O F l\'l J N D F U L. L E 1\ R I\ I N (J

Autonomous st:a.gc, learning a new Bottom-up tca.crung merhod, 22

skill~ 26 Brandt, D., 18, 141
Avom,J., 19,155 B~atbing,. attentivtness and, 39
Brock. H.R., 148
Brown, A.L., 122, 154
B Brm,,•~ Rogcc, 54
Bruhn, P., 143
Baddeley, A., 149 Burger, C.D., 148
Baltes, P.B., 152 Butke. D., 148
Bashncr. R., 64,145 Burstein, L., 127, 155
Basic skills. pn,ctice of
context, uncertainty, doubt and,
15-22 C
learning myth about, 2, 10
memorization and, 73 -Campbdl, E.~ 154
mindfuJ learning and, 22-28 Catnpionc,J.C., 122, 154
overlearncd,11-14,17 C~ncor, N., 154
sideways learning, 22-28 Ca:r$0n, S., 47, 144
Batshaw,M.L., 143 Cattcll,Jamcs, 104, 11 3
Baumg-ardncr, M. 1--t, 148 Cattell, R~B., 152
Bayli$t, 1\1., 41. 143 Cerrick, L., 146
Beck, P., 149 Change. unintenrionlllt mindful
Becker, H.J., 146, 150-51 lC.l!rung and. 16-17
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 27 Chanowitz. 8 ., 64, 145, 156
Bellezu, F.S., 147 Cheong, Y.F., 146
Benevento, A., 15 5 Children. 44, 47-48. 55
Bercircr, C .• 146 Cognition
Berg, S., 148 ~ ~ging aod, 90
Ben1stci11, S., 147 coping skilk. $tigtnarizcd status
Binet, Alfred, 104 and,94
Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, con'CSpondcncc with enviro n-
104 ment, intelligence ancL 101.
Bishop. Elizabeth,. T~ Coll~tted 104,107
Pro~,. 51 Cognitive COff)rnitments, premature,
Bodner, T .• 18, 28, 40, 141, 142 92
Boredom • Cogniti\rc st2gc, in le-Arning n~
mere cxposore effe~t and, 64 s.kill, 26-27
rote mcmorizarion and, 71 Colcman,J.S., 154
Boring, E .G ., 151 Collins, A., 153-54
BomS-tein, R.F., 145 Competition, 57. 136

Concentration. Sa Attention/atten-
tiveness
Conditional learning
versus amolutc, 19-20
memory is function ot: 79-81
Condoor, S.S., '148
Contcxt{s)
ADHD, novelty and paying
ancntion in. 46
ambiguity, right answers and,
133-35
basic skills, doub, and, 1S-22
delayed gratificaoon and, 57-59
dra"'ing distinctions and, 75, 79.
81
jnformation. presentation artd,
70-71
mind.less memory and, 88-89
outcomes and, 121- 22
$1.dcways learning~ ba&ic ski.lb
and,23
Control
coping strategics.. experiment in.
128-30
decision making, experiment in.
s advannig~ othtt, 65
pcnxption and, 100, 101-2, 108
predictions and, 123, U8
Cox,J., 143
Craik. F., 146
Crane, l\ii., 147
Creativity
knowledge, dt~.e,t on perfor-
mance, 85-8,6
uncertainry1 riglhr answers and,
130-33
Cripe, F.F., 46, 144
Critical thinking, 133
Culture
aging, attitudes toward, 93-97
l n tl ~X
categories C>f work :u1d play and,
61-62
myths/fairy ~cs 2.11d. 1-2
Curriculum_, 2, 127
Cu_rier, S., 148
D
Darwin, C., 104, 152
Davis. D .• 15(}-51
Oc-<:i, E., 144
Dedsaon mikin~ 5
lkbying gratifiation
all work and no pla}', 52-56
learning myth about, 2, 6, 51- 52
turning play into w ~ 56-59
ruming work into pby, 59-66
DeMay~ Douglas., 26
DePaulo. 8.f\it.. 155
DcR.ivcr-a,J., 155
Dcttcnnan, D.K.. 153
Disability, functioning as ability.
138- 39
Distincrion(s)
as alternative to rote memoriza-
tion, 75-81
making noveL conformity and,
63-64
mindful alertness to, 23
work t.t$kS ;&nd. 60-61
O;!ltracti<>n, 46, 49. Su alv.1 Attcn ~
tion/attentivc~
Diversity, mindfuJness and, 98
Dixon, R.A., 152
Domilin-specific intclligcnccp 106-7
Doubt, mindful learning o( ~ic
skills an<i 15- ll
Douglas. Stephen, 79
T fl ~: P o ,,v F. R o F :Vl I N n F u 1. L E A R r-.. 1 \l G

L>ror, 1.. 85, 147 E:stes, W.K., 148

Dud.kin, D., 18, 141 E\•olutio·n, intelligence 2nd, 104,
Duncker. K., 148 105
Dweck, Carol, JS? Experience
individual, versus group data,
127-29
F. sc:lf-defrnirion ~nd 1Tiindfulneu,
1.35-.17
Eck,].. 80, 147 sideways learning, basic skills
Educ~rion and,24-25
:ambiguity, mutriplc perspoct•ves, s,ages of. ~cquisition of a new
stability an<L 133-.35 skill and, 25-21
basic skills and. 12 uncertainty, crcarivc thought and
contcxt- frtt inform116on 11nd, 70 right answcrs.130-33, 135
intelligence, desirable outcomes Expen 's perspecti"e, right answen
and., 12~22 and,120, 122- 30
labeling students, intdligence . H.J., 152-53
Evsenck.
,
tests and, 13(1- 37
linear versus mindful problem
solving.111- 15 F
rnind~ t~/n,,-rh~ ilbout learning,
2-7 facts
rde\'ancc in► 74- 75 a~~umptions about, 19-20, 71
sidew11ys lc~ing, basic skills conditjon,l teac hing, doubt and,
and, 22- 28 15-16
soci-0cconomic status, stUdents' mindless mc:mnry• and, 88- 89
achic,,cmcnt and, 126- 27 as truth, 130
Edw.trds. B., 155 Fair)' ttles/m~·ths, l~ng and,
Elderly. Su Age, aging 1-7
Em,rironmc:nr Feld.man, D., 142
indi\•idual 's optimun1 fit W1th, Fis-chhoff. B., 153
intelligence ~nd. 106-7, Fislier,J.D., 155
137- 39 Fis.h«, K.B., 154
perceptions of, inrc:Uigence and, Focusi.ng. s~~ Artention/attenti\.•e ..
100-107, 115 ncss
8elf-de6nition, mindfulness and, Ford, M., 46~143
136 For~uing
Epsrcin,J.L., 146 knowledge, e:tTcct on creative per-
&,,111/itJ' ofEdurahonal Opportunity formance, 85- 86
(report ), 126-27 learning rnyth about. 2

1/,/}
 memory, mindless. dangers of. H
87-89
memory and aging, 90-98 Hall, S.• l50
provokes mindfuJneS>, 89-90 Hlltbluk.J.L, l-18
sleever c::Ht'ct. source credibility H echt. H., 148
.-nd, 86-87 I ldler,J .• 144
usefuloe.,s ot: 83- 85 HdmhoJrz. l·lcrn1ann von. 1() 1,
Frecd.ma~ I., 144 102.151
Frensch. P.A_, 153, 154 Henriben,L., 143
Frost, Rob<-rt>54 Hcr<:d1ry. S"' Genet1cs/Ju~red11y
1\vo TT11mpr in tvJu.rl Timt , 53 Higgins, P., 150
Furth, 11., 1S l Hilg-Md. E .• 146
H(x:hberg,J., 103, 109 ( Fig.)
I lolbnd, C., 149
G H c>lmes,J., 144
H olwo, C.j., 154
"g" factor, cognitive abiliry, l OJ Horn,}., 151
Galileo, 134 I fumphric."S, T., 149. 15(>
G:ilton~ ff".Ulcis, 11 3 Hyperactivity.~
Galton1 Sir Francis, 104 Hypothest11 tcist1ng, 122, 123
Gardner. H., 101. 121 , l SJ. 153
Gender, lo.ming skills 4'nd, 21- 22
Genetics/heredity. 25,.104, 108 I
Glanzer, J\1., 149
Gol~n, D.. 151 ldc:ll.-S, ~t~gf'-' of adopting, 3- 4
Gould, G lenn., 27 Ignorance, jntdligcnr, 112
Gr-;ims. A.. , 148 lkcls, c., 149, 150
Gr.itificadon. s~~ Delaying gratifi- lmages, anentiveut3$ and. 38- 39,
cation 43,49
Greene. D .. 144 Irnbcr, L ., 17, 141
Greenwald, A.G .. 148 Inference: making, 122
Grinun, the btothe,s, 93 Lnfonnation. Set n}J,1; Fact-s; Rote
Four Artjul Brot/J<.-rs_. Tiu, 120 nlelllOT17.:&{iOn
J-lon.ud and Grrtd, 67-68 rnindfuJ learning and, 76
Thn-e La,1g1u1gts, Th,·, 35 mindfulncs5 and, 4, 111
Gros-5,, 'l\•l.. 143 o,.-c:rle-arned, 71, 88
Group Ui\t~. verws m~Jiv1dual ~xpc- reducing and l>rga_ni-ting, a_.s_ b:uir
rience, 127- 29 iloll, 12
Guilford,J.P., 135,155 unoondirion;1J. mindle&, Jc:uoing
c:;urtman, ~·1.. 9], 149 -and, 16-18

161
 " , • I t U I.
J ., 1 I ,, l l L £ J\ I{ ~ I )'I; (..;

Intellihrcncc
Kit\g, C. A., 143
1ssun'lprions, 127
Kirker, W ., 147
lea rni ng my t~ abo ut, 2, 1()(}-101
Kit e. ~1., 14 9
mindful problem tol\'ing, versus
Kolligar,J ., 15 6
lin ear , 111- 15
Kran,er. D.A .. 152
m1 nJf uln ess . alt ern ati ve ability,
KrugJ41nsiu, A.• 144
10 7-9 , 111. 138- 39
Kuipcf", N., 147
mi ndf uln ess , sel f-d efi nit ion and ,
135-3 7
mindf\llneu and. difl~rcnccs
L
bc ~t tn , 110 (Table)
op tlm um fit, ind1vidu'1l :u1d en\-i-
La mb , Charles., IV4T.t, 56
ron me nt1 10 6-7 , 13 7-3 9
Landau, S.. 46 , 143
outcome$ and , 12 0-2 3 L1u\gcr. EllenJ ., 14 1.1 42 , 143, 144,
tM<>rics of, nin ete ent h cen tur y. 145 , 147, 149, 153, 154, t55 ,
101-6 156, 157
Intelligence testing, 104, 105-6, Larson. Gary. 58
122. 136, 137- 38 Le ..m crs
lnt cll igc nt ignor~oce, 112
bu i~ skills. 12
Irv ine , S.H ., 152
lab din g, int ell igt nce tes ts and~
136
overlc::arned ski lls :uid, 14
J ~odoc<onomic sta tus , achie-ve-
mcnc and , 12 6-2 7
Jacobs., L., 1S0 L<".arning. &t alsr, ~1.indful learning
Jac obs on, L., 1S1 con dit ion al, 19 -20 , 79 -81
James. W .• 38, 107, 114, 153 fo ~t tin g/ mc mo ry -and, 85
Jan is, I.. J6, l 42t 15 4 mi nds ets /m yth s abo ut, 2- 7
Jcl lis on ,J.M ., 145 as rt- im.aginiog the world,
Jen sen, A. R. , 120, 152. 153
137 -39
Johansson. B., 148 :sideways, bu ,c skills and , 22- 28
John.son. 8 .. 149 LeiJ>pe. M. R., 148
Jones.. E ., 153, 154 ~p cr .M .. 144 I
Le rne r, ~1.. 144 I
L~Vinc. R., 61, 145 I
K Lc,rv. I
.• B., 93, )43 , 150
Llcbcn stc in, S., 154
K~hr\emm, D., 153 , 154 I ,achtman, R., 156
Kcplcr.Joh.2JU1cs. 13 4 Lieberman~NL , 77, 78. 147
Kihlitro1n,J.F., 154 Light, L., 148
 ,,, ... ,,..

Line ar prob lem 90lvi ng. versus

pcrspccti,rc and, 136- 39
rote: memorizatio n, as alter native
mi ndful , 11 l-15
to, 73-75
L iu, T., 148
Llo~n5 Torn-s. Luis. Psalm s, 83
textbooks IU'\d, 28-31
l\•lmdf ul move ment . hypo thesi s of.
Lorch, E.P., 143
Lou, H.C.t 143 in .WH D, 46-4 9
[\11.indfuJncH
ilctor/obse:rver and o rher persp ec-
tives, nghr an~·crs and,
M
123-2 9
l\ilaclvcr, D.J., 146 conc ept of. 4, 76, 111. 137-39
f\•laic:r, N . R.F., 147 conte xr, nght an~wcn; and. 135
M~rc us, A.. 62-6 3, 145 di\rcrsrty provokes. 98
Markus. H ., 73. 146, l47 forgetting pro,·okcs, 89- 9()
Marquis, D.G .. 146 intelli1,ren cc and, 107- 9, 110
Mcl achl:in, D .R., 148 (T.lblc), 1 l 1, 137- 39
McP2rtland.J., 154 linea r prob lem solvi ng vemas,
Meditation, 39, 138 111- 15
l\1em ory. Su 11/so Forgc u1ng~ Rote mere exposure effect and, 64-6 5
mcm oraa rion psychologica.l state s of, 23
age, aging ~d. 90-9 8 self-d efini tion :Arid. 135- 37
iging and, alcem~ti,T views 1..>f. sidew af$ learn ing and. 23
93-9 8 unce tnint y, crc-a ri~ thou g ht :&nd
atten ti~ncss :anti, 41-4 2, 48-4 9 righr anffl' Cr5, 130-33
c.o ndition.al lcun ing, as fu nction J\1,ndfulners (book ), 4 , 19
of. 79-8 0 l\.1ind.Jcssn esi$
mind less-. d11ngers of. 87- 8'9 cont ~r- frcc inforrn:ui on, process-
usefulness of, 84 ing of, 70-- 71
Men uhin . Yehudi , 27 dcfin w, 4
Mere expo sure effec t. ~ 5 examples of, 4-5
Mc:thylpheoicutc ( Ritalin ), 45 memory and. 87- 89
r\'lilgram, S., 20, 61, 141 ovcrlcarncd skill&, 13
~liJich, R., 143 unconditional 1nfo nnat ion. leam -
l\itillc:r, D.• 144 ing a.nd. 16-19
Mille r, ?YI.D., 154 ~ indscr(s)
l\1inJful :atten non. 41. 44 :alX'lut lc:mung. m)'ths and. 2-7
l\,f indful lc.2m ing abou t m-cmory decline, 90
basic skills and, 15- 22 .ibout work and play, SJ, 61 -62
char-acteristic~ of: 4-6, 87 prernarurc cogn itive eotn, nit-
dra"' mg distin ction s and, 76 menc s, 92
 rH£ .I-' U \\' F R O F l\ 1I N D F U L LE A RNJNG
l'v1 ubiu.s <Strip, 109 Okakur·.a, Kikuzo, 139
Mooty, R.A., 155 Opcic:il illusion s, 104. 109
Mood. A., 154 Outcomes, iotcUigcncc and, 120-23
~loorc. B.. 148
1
O\•Crlearntd infomu tion, 71, 88
f\llostofsky, 0.1 .. 103 {Fig.), 109 Overleamcd skills, 11- 14, 17
(Fig.)
~•lovcment and mindfulnes!
hypothesis tn ADl-lD. 46-49 p
Mourt , Wol(grog Amadeus, 27
Mueller, C ., 79. 14i P-.adden,C., 149,15 0
rvtultiplc intdlsgcnccs, theory of, P.ilmorc, E., 148
121 ParacJjgm shift, 3
~·lyths/fairy taJcs. leuning and, 1-7 Park. K.., 155-56
Paying :.ttention~Su
Ancnti on/ 2tttnti\ 'cn~s
N Pay-z.ant, G ., 142
Percept ion
Nadler, A., 155 :anentivcness :and, 38
Natural scl«tio n, 105, 108 automatic oq,ranization of, 102- 4,
N2\'t:1tilov,, fvlartirui. 14 103 (Fig.). 109 (l~ig.)
Neurolingui!Ui( progrmuning, 26 cmiron mcnt, intellig ence thconc s
Ncurotr.msmittcr~, 45 ~nd,10 0-106, 108
Nt'W Yuri Times, 4 Perdue, C ., 91. 149
New York Time-1 Magazt nt. 141 Pcnorm iucc
N~tca d. S.E., 152 cttarivc , effec1 of knowle dge on ,
Nis~tt . R., 144, 153 85-86
Noice, H., 145, 147 memor y/ mcmon zation and. 73,
Nonbh l. T.E., 143 96- 97
Novclt)· novelty, attcntiv rncss and, 49
attcntil1enc:ss ind. 39, 40-43, 46, ovcrlca rncd $kills and, 14, 18
48, 49 t«hruq ue, pnacticc and, 24-25
nundfuJ optnnc ss ro, 23 Pcrlmutcr. L.C ., 15S
problern so]ving and, 113 Perret, Y.~1t.. 143
Pc~--,,ecrive(s)
actor/obser.·cr and oth~. right
0 aniWt?f"5 anJ. 123-29
awarcn~ of dj ffcring/ ,nultiple, 4,
Observ~r/actor. :ind other perspec- 23.76,111,133-35
tives, right answers .&od, infomu1tion, presentation and, 71,
122- 29 81
 Index

V'aJ')'-ing., :1ttc:nri1-·e:nc~ :and. 42-43, Reder, L., 145

48,49 Relc-.•ancc, learning and. 74-75. n,
Phillips, L.D.1 153 79
Pierce,/\., 142 Rc-rncmbering. Str Forgetting;
Pic:rte, R., 142 tvlen,ory
Pietr-~n, L., 21, 62,142, 145 Repetition. 57
Piptr, Alison, 19 R~-ards, delayed gratification and,
Pittman,T ., 144 5-6, 53-57
Pby. Su Delaying grarificar;on Right answers
Poe. V., 143 actor/observer and other per6pcc-
Pr.lctice. See Basic skills tiVC$, 123--30
Pratbnis, A.R., 148 :unbiguity and, 133-35
Predictions, actor/ob~ :.lnd lcuning myth abuut, 2, 6, 117-
other,s, right :answers and, 20
123-JO outc.omes and, 120-23
Prejudice, 74-75 uncertainty, creative thought and,
Prernarur~ cogniti"-c: comrnirmcnts, 129-32
92 Risscnbetg, l\•l., 149
Pr~nt~mindful orie-nt.uion to. 23, Ritalm (mcthylphc::nidacc), 45
89 Rodin,J • 149
Principle of univcr:sal de"el-0ptncnt, Rogen;, T.. 14 7
105 Rose:nth21. R_. 151
Problem sol\·tng Ro te memorization
intelligenc-e as ability for. 120, drawing <ljstinctions, as alternl.l-
123 ti\·e to, 75-81
linear versus mindful, 111- 15 information, keeping available,
Proffitt, D.R.. l 48 73-75
~hornetric (intelligence) tcscing. information, Jocking up, 69--73
104, 105 learning myth about, 2, 6, 67-
69
Rowan. B.• 14(,
R Rutherford, F.J., 146
Rv-~n,
, E., 148
Rabbit, P., 149
R2cfin. Dean, 4
Rapport, !\11.D., 14.3 s
RAudc:nbus.h, S.\\I., 146
Re;al.iry, external.. i:atdlagenc.c Sacgan. S.C, 145
rhcory and, 100-101, Sa.int-Exupiry, A. de, 1-41
107 Lttt& Pri11u . Tltr. 9-10

165
 T HE POWER O f ..,11 :-..ur P 1. L.,r• .- \ "
1
" " ' ~ '

S2linas, K.C., 146 T

Scat'damalia, M .• 146
Schacter, D .L., 148 Tarchcr, J.P.• 1S 5
Schank, R.• 154, 157 Tayloe, S.E., 156
Schumann, Robert-., 27 Ttaching. &, Educarion
Schwartz, G.E., 155 Testing. &c lnrclligcnce testing
Self-esteem, mjndfulness and.. Texrbooks, mindful l.earnjng and,
135-37 28- J l
Self-reference dfccr, 74-75 Thau. Amy, 48
Sher, A.-. 150 Thomclike, E .L., 105, 152
Shcr-od. D., 148 Top-<lown teaching merhod, 22
Sbih, ~t. 47-48, 144 T rackj rtg. sel~ctive. 12 7
Sideway~ learning, 22-28 Training. flee f.,<lucarion
Siladi, N., 147 , B., 155
Turskv,
Skills> learning. S« al,$~ Basic skills Tven;k~ A ., 153, 154
;

intelligence and, 121- 23 Tw:1i n, 1\11.uk, Ad'inn.lUrti ttj'H~db-

overlearned, 11- 14, 17 htrry F;n,:_, 60
stages of experience in, 26-2i
Sleeper effect, 86-87
Slob<>da,John, 142 u
Skwic, P., l 53
Smith. E.E .• 153 Uncutainry
Snow, S., 58, 145 basic skills, doubc a_nd, 15-22
Socioeconomic st:lrus, snidenrs· creati\•c thoughr and right
achie\•ement and, 126-27 an.iwers. 13(}-33
Soft ,,jgjfancc, attentiveness and, Uncondit1on:u informauon, 88,
43-44 92
Source c1ed.ibilit)·, 86-87 Underwood~B~, 148
SouthaU,J.P..C., 151 Unit of anal~-sis, 127
Spcannan. C., 10'1, 151 U nJ\rcrsill <levdopmc:nt, princip)c of,
S~nccr. H., 104, 105.152 105
Spincr. L., 149
Staub, E,, 155
Stcdc1 C.M ., 57, 144, 155 V
Sternberg, RJ., 152) 153, 154, 156
Stimuli, unfamiliar, in~ased expo- VigiJance. soft, attentiveness and
sure to, 63-64 43-44 '
Srudcnt5. Ste Learners Vogel, E., 1SO
Survival, intelligcnc_c and, 105, 115 Vysc, S.A .• 143

166
 /tu/a

w y

Wang Ken, Song of/fJY. 66 Yubu:t, A.L., 142

Wau:rtidd, R.•28, 142 York, R.L., 154
WeutfelJ, E.D., l54 Yukcr, H .E., 156
Wejn ~ C., 147. 149
Whitmore, P.tul 26
Wilcox, S., 1S0 z
Wills. T.A., 155
Wolfer,]., 36,14 2,154 Zajon c, R., 145
Wo)n an, 8.8 ., 152, JSS Zamctk.an, A.J,, 14J
Wood .J., 156 Zari,, S., 148
Work. &L Delaying gr.1aficat100 Zcc:\ri. G., 144
Wron g ans:w m. S« Right answers Ze.ntall, S.S., 46, 144
 Ab ou t the Au th or

£ LLEN J. L A N G E R is Professor of PsychoJogy at Har -

vard University. The recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship,
Professor Langer is auth or of approximately l 00 journal arti-
cles and chapters in scholarly works. She is author of Personal
Politics (with Carol Dwe ck), Tht PI"ycholagy of Control, and
Mindfulness. which has been publish ed in ten countries. She
has also edited Higher Stages of Development \Vith Charles
Alex ande r and Belitji, Attitude.1 and Decision Mol ing with
Roger Schank. In 1988 she received the Award for Distin-
guished Contributions to Psychology in the Public Interesc
from the Ame rica n Psyc hological Association. In 1996 she
received the Award for Distinguished Contributions in Basic-
Science to the Application of Psychology from the Associati on
of Applied and Preventive Psyc hology.