Zoology (English Version) Chapter- 11 Uric selene ae Introduction Generations of organisms are conserved by reproduction. Characteristics of parents and ancestors are ‘manifested in children. An organism only gives birth to an organism similar to its own shape and other characteristics; so child of a dog will be a dog and child of cow will be a cow. Characteristics of one generation is transmitted to the next generation. The process by which characteristics of parents such as size, shape, face, body structure, behavior etc. are transmitted to children is called heredity. During the successive sequence of inheritance, some physical changes occur in the animal body due to various reasons. Over time, these changes in genetic characteristics give rise to a new species. A new species evolves from another species in a very slow process over a long duration of time. In this chapter, the inheritance and evolution of living beings have been discussed. Genetics ‘The branch of biology in which structure, function, nature and consequences of transmission of gene from generation to generation are discussed in detail, is called Genetics or hereditary theory. William Bateson (1861-1926) first introduced the word “Genetics” in 1905. The word Genetics came from Greek ‘word 'gen which means to become or to grow into, Importance of genetics Genetics is the most important and interesting branch of science currently applied for the human welfare. Some special aspects regarding importance of genetics are — 1. Crop plants with high yielding capacity and much nutritive values are being produced by making necessary structural and quantitative change of genes. 2. Innovation of improved variety of cattle is an ongoing process by hybridization with genetics. 3, More plants and animals with high adaptation capacity, rapid growth and immune power are being produced by elimination of defective genes and replacement by suitable gene. 4, Many species including human are being modified for improvement by controlled hybridization through observation of heredity. 5. Man is now very hopeful of finding out the genetic cause and the cure of many human diseases such as’ cancer, 6, Infectivity of microbes are being lessened by gen changes, 7. Genetics is now applied for identification of criminals as well as patemity or maternity. 8, Genetics plays a vital role for placing animals into different taxa and also in taxonomical analysis of the animals. Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) nae Gregor Johann Mendel-Father of Modern Genetics ‘Who was Mendel? Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884), is considered as the father of modern geneties, was a church bishop in Austria. He formulated two laws of genetics after seven long years of experiment on pea plants. His laws are known as Mendelism or Mendel’s law. Laws formulated by Mendel is presently considered as the basis of genetics. Brief life history of Mendel: Johann Mendel was born in Austria as a son of a farmer in 1822, He dreamt to be teacher and scientist, But poverty levelled all his dreams to soil. Without completing university education, he took a job as a church bishop apprentice at Brunn of Austria. In 1957, Mendel started his experiment on genetics by collecting 34 varieties of pea plants (Pirium sativum) around the church garden. He invented two laws of genetics after hard toiling for seven long years. He ‘submitted all his papers into Natural History Society of Brunn in 1866. But at that time nobody could realize the importance of his apparently ordinary experiment. Much earlier than his laws got recognition, he dies on 6 January, 1884, After 16 years of his death, on 1900, three scientists of three different countries re- discovered the results of Mendel’s experiments. These scientists were: i. Netherlands’s botanist Hugo de Vries (1848-1935), fi, German professor of botany Carl Correns (1864-1933) and fii, Austria's agricultural scientist Erich Tschermak (1871-1962), Surprisingly, the scientists, all of them were aware of Mende!'s research at the end of their experiment. Thus depending on the basis of invention and publication of Mendel experiment, an important branch of biology named Geneties developed, For this reason, Mendel is called the ‘Father of Genetics’, Mendelian Inheritance Mendel began his experiment with two pea plants (Pisum sativum) of opposite characteristics (altemative character). One kind of plant was tall and another type was short (dwarf), He observed the purity of pea Plants before starting his experiment, ‘Then he made artificial pollination between a pure or wy homozygous tall plant and a pure or homozygous short plant, Tall plant's pollen was placed on the —> mt stigma of short plant. Plants that emerged from the Pollen Felten seeds as a result of pollination were allt james tomate identified the plants of first pollin FFig: How Mandel provoke hybridization fillial generation or F, generation. After that Mendel made hybridization among the plants of F, generation. Second polination produced second fillial generation or F generation, Among the total 1064 plants of Fz Seneration, 787 plants were tall and 277 were shot; the ratio of tall and short plants was 3:1. Thus Mendel made hybridization with seven pairs of reciprocal ( (dominant and recessive) characteristics, la Scanned with CamScanner| _ Size leaves = ize Tour aa bee [Length "noe sey % Round Yellow White Smooth Yellow Orbital. Tall Crinkly Green Purple. Grooved Yellow Top Short BATTS Blips oD a 4 5 gee fendel experiments with the above 7 pairs of contrasting traits in beans Mendel’s experiment (in every case) was done betwee! n pea plants of one pair of opposite characteristics and this type of experiment is called monohybrid eros ‘Then Mendel began experimenting with pea plants of two pairs of opposite characteristics, After the Pollination of homozygous pure yellow-round seeds producing plant and homozygous shrinked green seed Producing plant; it was seen that all the plans of F; generation was yellow-round seeds. But in F, generation, among 16 plants- 9 were yellow-round, 3 were yellow-shrinked, 3 were green-round and 1 was green. shrinked seed producing plants.This experiment of Mendel (occurred between plants of two pairs of opposite characteristics) is called di-hybrid cross. The above mentioned research and result of Mendel is known as Mendelian inheritence, The reasons for selecting pea plants as sample by Mendel were: 1. As pea plant has one annual longivity,, it can be grown easily in the garden soil and pots. 2. Due to theshort life time of each generation of pea plant, the result of hybridization is available in very short time. 3. Self:pollination is easy to occus in pea plants as they arebisexual . 4. As pea plants are self-pollinating , foreign characters cannot easly be blend with them and thus they can produce relatively pure offsrpings, 5. Cross pollination can also easily occur as the flowers of pea plants are large. 6. Conspicuous comparative hereditary characters are noticed in pea plants, riflcatht ewok therefore there are manyvarinats of pea plants. 7. Generations produced via hybridization arefertile, so they can reproduce regularly, Reasons behind Mendel’s success Many scientis experimented on genetics before Mendel did. But Mendel was the one who first obtained correct results. The main resons behind his success are — 1._He experimented with pea plants which are sel pollinating and chance of cross pollination is less, so possibility of error was also less. 2, Heused pure and homozygous plants in his experiments, In his experimnts, one gene was completely dominant over the another gene. 4, Seven pairs of chromosomes are present in diploid cell of pea. 425 Heof oarsta farerer Scanned with CamScannerst}BLUL-xe} 100i Fp REPT of -]U10| elas rs Chapter- 11 di ‘The seven pairs of characteristics, those Mendel dealt with, are located in seven differnet chromosomes, So, no linkage occurred. If any linked character would have been present, Mendel would possibly be unable to explain his second law. But fortunately no character was linked. 7. Before hybridization, he repeatedly checked the purity of the plants. 8. He committed reproduction of the plants in several generations before reaching to any definite decision. 9. Mendel documented the results of his experiments with exclusive care and dedication. 10, Mendel explained his result in meaningful way with the help of methemetics. (Linkage: The tendency of the linked genes located on the same chromosome to stay together, that is to be transmitted to the same gamete during meiosis). Terms and Definitions Used in Gen To understand genetics easly, clear idea about the following words is needed: 1. Factor or Gene: The controlling unit of characters of organism is called gene. Gene is thereby the holder and carrier of heredity. Gene is basically any functional unit of chromosome that can take part in recombination and undergo mutation. According to modem concept, the special portion or base sequence of DNA contains the code at least one polypeptide production, is called gene. Locus: The specific location of gene in a chromosome is called locus. Alleles of a specific gene are located in the same locus of homologous chromosomes. Allele of Allelomorph: The specific paired genes situated in specific locus of homologous chromosome pair are alleles of each other. Two alleles may be of same charectiristies (eg TT) or ‘opposite (eg Tt) variant of each other. When there are two opposing alleles, one is called dominant, allele (ie. T) and the other is called recessive allele (1). . Homozygous: When two alleles controlling a particular trait of organism are homogenous or types, they are called homozygous. For example, BB=black fur, bb=brown fur, ete, Heterozygous: When two alleles controlling a particular trait of organism are different, they are called heterozygous. For example, person having T and tie Tt gene is tll but stil is heterozygous. Dominant character: As a result of crossing of homozygous organisms of two opposite characters (TT and tt), the character which is expressed in the heterozygys organism produced in F, generation is called dominant character. For example- though in F generation of pea plant, there isa gene for both tall and short trait (T1), only the tall trait is expressed, So the tall trait is dominant in pea plant. Recessive character: In heterozygous organism, inspite of having two opposite characteristic together, only one character is expressed and other one remain unexpressed. The unexpressed characteristic of| organism is called recessive character or trait. For example- though in F generation of pea plant, there is a gene for both tall and short trait (Tt), only the tal trait is expressed, So, the dwarf character ‘was recessive in pea plants. ia Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Chapter- 11 9. Genotype: The structure of the paired genes controlling the chracterstics of any organism is called genotype. An organism's genotype is known from the previous or next generations. If the organisms holding the same genotypes live in the same environment, their phenotypes will be also similar. Genotype of a tall tree may be TT or Tt and genotype of short plant will be tt. Phenotype: Controlled by genotype, the external characteristic of organism is called phenotype [MAT!09-10}. It reveals the size, shape and colour of organism. Genotypes of two organisms having similar phenotypes can be same or different. For example: After the pollination of two homozygous tall and short pea plants, all the plants are tall in F, generation, although they have both types of factor (10). Here the phenotypes are tall. 10. Parental generation & Filial generation: The parents used in any cross are called parental generation or P, and offsprings produced are called first filial generation or Fy. Again cross between F generation produces second filial gneration or F, generation. characteristics of the organism is called monohybrid cross. For example- cross between black and nn ross: Hybridization or cross-breeding which is done focusing on a pair of opposite N ry e \ yrown colored Guinea pigs. In 2™ generation (F) of monohybrid cross, ratio of dominant and recessive sis usually 3:1. Mendel stated his first law based on monohybrid cross. Dihybrid cross: Hybridization or cross-breeding which is done focusing on two pairs of opposite f characteristics of the organism is called dihybrid cross. For example: cross between black colored- ne short haired Guinea pig and brown colored-long haired Guinea pig. As a result of independent assortment in the dihybrid cross, generally four types of progeny are found at a ratio of 9:3:3:1 in 24 generation of dihybrid cross. 13, Test eross: It is the hybridization or cross betweeh A of F) generation and homozygous recessive <> organism of maternal lineage to know whether the F, or F, generation is homozygous or heterozygous. Thus their genotype of F; or Fz generation is identified. Such as- if hybridization is done between heterozygous long pea plants (Tt) and homozygous short pea plants (t), the ratio of their phenotypes _and genotypes are 1:1. 14" Back cross: Hybridization of a heterozygous plant of Fy generation with a member of father or ‘© maternal lineage. 15, Genome: collection of genes present in the chromosomes in a single germ cell ofthe organism. Mendelian Law In fact, Mendel himself did not introduce any theory or formula. He elucidated in his research paper about theoretical and statistical explanation of the crossing. Later Carl Correns (who in 1900 published research- results similar to Mendel) published that Mende!’s discovery is worthy for presenting as the two basic law: of heredity.As this two laws are based on the Mendel's research. So, these laws are called Mendel's Laws. Mendel's laws are explained below. Mendet’s first law Law: Ina hybrid organism, the paired factors (genes) of opposite characteristics affecting a Phenotype reside together without mixing or changing and during the formation of germ cells (gametes), they separate from each other and enter into different gametes. » ‘This law is called Law of Monohybrid Cross or Law of Purity of Gametes or Law of Segregation, Scanned with CamScannerJQUUBIGUIED YM PSUULDS [53 Zoology (English Version) 4 Chapter- 11 / Mendel’s second law Law: When cross occurs between two or more pairs of opposite character, then in first hybrid male (Fi generation) only the dominant character will be expressed, but during the production of gametes, the characteristics will break the pair to be separated and arranged independently from each other and will enter into different gametes. This law is known as Law of Independent Assortment. This type of cross produces organisms with new characteristics. Explanation of first law -monohybrid cross To explain the frst law, Mendel conducted several experiments on pea plans. He pollinated between plants with one pair of opposite characters in these experiments. The cross which is conducted by focusing on only one pair of opposite character is known as monohybrid cross. In this type of experiment, Mendel pollinated a pure tall homozygous plant with a pure dwarf homozygous plant. Below the results of the experiment are mentioned ~ Let, for pea plants ~ 1. Factor or gene for tall character = T 2. Gene for dwarf character = t 3. First hybrid male or first filial generation = F generation 4, Second hybrid male or second filial generation = F generation According to Mendel, two factors are fixed for each characteristic, therefore — Genotype of tall plant = TT and genotype of dwarf plant =tt ‘The factors become segregated during formation of germ cell, so factor “T” enters the germ cell of tall plant and factor ‘t” enters germ cell of dwarf plant. As a result of fusion of pollen and ovule, all members of F, generation show tall character (Tt), where “T” is dominant and ‘tis recessive trait, ‘Then hybridization is made among members of F, generation. As they contain both type of factor (Tt), during formation of gamete, half the gametes will have factor “T’ and the rest will have factor ‘t, In F, generation, there will be 3 tall and one dwarf pea plants and the phenotypic ratio will be 3:1. But the ‘genotypic ration of the pea plants of Fz generation is - TT: Tt: t= 1 Results show that, opposite characters do not get blended in hybrid organism rather the dominant character is expressed and during formation of gamete, gene responsible for each trait assort into separate gamete. As every gamete receives only one allele (factor) for each trait, it becomes pure. Therefore, it is called pure gamete and the law is referred as law of purity of germ cells. — Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English version) Result of the experiments of Mandel's first law by Pea plants Parental Parental generation seacaton Male: an g fale plant X a plant S| tueta an 3) Genoype> TT ot Tall Short Bl Gamete & é i ELigeneration + Sry ‘ = Fi generation All plants are tall x q | Fiseneration (tll) Fi generation (tal) ‘i =) Genotype 1 nm Tall Tall 3 Hybridization between first generation (P:) EB] Gamete — 2 ( 5 \ @ Fgeneration + TT Tt Tt it Fageneration i td Tall ‘Short 3 tall; I= short Ratio=3:1 Tall Tall Tall Short Fig: Mandel’ frst law Fig: Explanation of Mandel’ first law by Picture Persuasion of the ‘st law of Mendel in here: of animals Law: In a hybrid organism, factors or genes responsible for opposite characters reside side by side without mixing or changing and during formation of gamete they enter into separate gamete after segregating from each other. Genetic explanation If the gene responsible for black colour in guinea pig is marked as B and for brown colour it is b, the genotype of pure (homozygous) black guinea pig will be BB and that for pure brown one will be bb. Ifa homozygous or pure black (BB) female guinea pig is hybridized with a pure brown (bb) guinea pig, all filial guine pigs of F, generation will be black (Bb), because, allele of black color (B) is dominant over the allele of brown color (b). Both genes remain unchanged with their uniqueness rather than being fused or destroyed, even after staying together for a long period. ‘Among the daughter guinea pigs in F, generation, three are black and one is brown i.e. phenotypic ratio of black and brown guinea pigs is 3:1. Scanned with CamScannerJOUUEBSGWED YUM PSsuUueds, Zoology (English WD) Chapter- (On analysis of the genotype of members of F, generation, itis noticed that among three dominant (black) 'uinea pigs, only one is homozygous (BB) and rest two are heterozygous (Bb). The recessive trait (brown) which was hidden in Fy generation, returns in F, generation (bb). Similarly, the pure dominant character (BB) which was absent in F, generation, has also returned back in F, generation. This proves that, the individuality of B and b did not get destroyed during first filial generation, though staying together, rather they became segregated during gamete formation. The following table shows the result — Black colored female guinea pig (BB) Brown colored male guinea pig (bb) vs aa) Sy ‘generation (P:) Male (Bb) Gamete produced by P B QO F, generation (Bp) —»_ [Female (Bb) all are black 5 Guinea pig Se = (Gamete produced by BAP poe ant ace OO Union of Fi generation [SQ), B Q b to produce Fz generation | “> 7B Bb Genotypic ratio of Fz a generation guinea Pig | = 1BB:2Bb: 1bb S = and phenotypic b Bb bb faio=3 Buck: 1 Brown SS ES ( Fig: Explanation of Mandel first law in ease of animal Mendel’s second law or Law of Independent Assortment Law: If hybridization oceurs between organism with two or more opposite characteristics, then in the Erst generation (F,), only the dominant traits will be expressed but during gamete formation, th traits will break their pairs and enter into different gametes independently. In other words ~ Factors of genes responsible for two or more characters of an organism get assorted freely and independently during gamete formation. In this matter one pair is mot dependent on other pairs. To prove this law, Mendel hybridized between pea plants with two Pairs of opposite traits. The cross which is conducted considering two pairs of opposite traits is known as dihybrid cross, Genetic explanation ‘Two pure homozygous pea plants (Pisum sativum) are taken, one of which is eapable of yielding rounded and yellow seeds whereas the other yields wrinkled and green seeds. et, for seeds, R denotes round nature, r shows wrinkled nature; Y for yellow color and y for green color; first filial generation is F, and second generation is Fy. According to Mendel, two genes are responsible for each character so, genotype for plant with round and yellow seed is RRYY and genotype of plants with wrinkled and green seed is myy. aa = a Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Chapter- 11 Round yellow x Weinkled green Parental generation —». RRYY stceaiy y sreround yon) ae | a LZ 4 olo | 9 Fi generation—> On z Ry | Roy Be a | 8 8|9 my | ow Results are shown in following checker board - Result: round-yellow = 9; round-green = 3; wrinkled-yellow = 3 and wrinkled-green = 1, Ratio = Persuasion of Mendel’s second law in heredity of animals Law: If hybridization occurs between organism with two or more opposite characters, in the first generation (F,), only the dominant traits will be expressed but during gamete formation, the traits will break their pairs to be separated and arranged independently and enter into different gametes. Results of research Hybridization between a pure (homozygous) guinea pig with black color and short hair and another pure ‘guinea pig with brown color and long hair produces all guinea pigs with black color and short hair in the first generation (F,). Because black color and short hair are dominant traits whereas brown color and long hair are recessive traits. Cross among members of F; generation produces guinea pigs with following four traits in F, generation — 1, Black color and short hair 2. Black color and long hair 3. Brown color and short hair and, 4, Brown color and long hair Ratio of their numbers is always 9:3 :3: 1. Explanation Let, Gene responsible for black color = B Second filial generation = F Gene responsible for brown color = b As, two genes control each character, Gene responsible for short hair = S Genotype for pure black color and short hair = BBSS. Gene responsible for long hair Genotype for pure brown color and long hair = bbss First filial generation = F Scanned with CamScannerMOS Chapter- Zoology (English Version) Guinea pig with BBSS genotype produces BS gamete and that with bbss genotype produces bs gamete. Fusion of these two types of gametes will produce daughter guinea pigs with black color and short hair (BbSs) because genes of black color (B) and short hair (S) are respectively dominant over genes of brown color (b) and long hair (5). ; It is seen that, four types of alleles are present in hybrid of F, generati brown color, S for short hair and s for long hair. During formation of gametes, these four types of alleles assort independently to form four types of gametes e.g. BS, Bs, bS and bs. During fertilization, gametes can randomaly ie, one male gamete can unite with four types of female gametes. As a result, 16 types of members can be produced in F generation. Phenotypic resit of the will be a follow - ion such as ~ B for black color, b for lack-short hair’ 3 = black — long hair 3 = brown - short hair 1 = brown — long hai This experiment concludes that members of two sets of alleles get separated in F, generation. One set of alleles does not depend on the other and unite independently during formation of zygote. Therefore, two pairs ‘of new characters are formed here namely, black color long hair and brown color- short hair. ‘The next page shows this result via checker board. Black-shorthair —<— Parent —> Brown-long hair bss Tiementin — A A GO MD. Male Female Black short hair Black short hair Second hybridization Black-short hair = 9 Black-long hair = 3 ‘Brown-short hair = 3 Brown-long hair = | Ration: 9:3:3 21 ‘generation | Fig: Explanation of Mandel's second law by picture remot rceia fear. Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) ’ Chapter- 11 Chromosomal theory of heredity Mendel realized from result of his crossing test that each characteristic of an organism is regulated by a factor. This factor stays in pairs in organism and during the formation of haploid gamete, this factor is reduced to half in number. But what is this factor, where it is located in the gamete and how the factor controls the traits from generation to generation? Mendel was not aware of these things. In 1900, after the re-discovery of Mendel’s law, many similarities were found between chromosome and Mendel’s factor. The shape and length of each chromosome are different and they are found in pairs in every cell. One is gained from father and the other is gained from mother. So, among the 46 chromosomes in the human body, 23 come from the father and the rest 23 come from mother. 23 chromosomes are present in both the sperm and in the egg, the zygote is formed with 46 chromosomes by the union of these two cells. Mendel stated about a pair of factors for each trait, one of which comes from a father and another from a mother; same thing occurs in case of chromosome. In 1902, scientist Sutton (W. S. Sutton, 1877-1916) and Bovery (Theodor Boveri, 1862-1915) separately ‘mentioned the obvious similarities between chromosomes and Mendel’s factors. A research about this was done on different animals for almost a decade. Later it was known that the location of Mendel’s factors or genes is chromosome. For this reason, there are similarities between chromosomes and factors which are concemed for hereditary transmission. They reached to a decision from the results of the research that genes and chromosomes act similar in many ways. Besides, genes and chromosomes show parallel behaviour in determining the heredity. This is called the chromosomal theory of heredity. According to Sutton and Bovery’s proposed theory, the basis of chromosomal thoery of heredity is mentioned below. 1. As egg and sperm act as only bridge of the heredity, so all the genetic traits are carried through them, 2. Since the nucleus of the sperm’s head takes part in the formation of. ‘Zygote, so it can be assumed that the nucleus of the gamete contains the hereditary material. Chromosomes are present in the nucleus, so chromosome carries the genetic materials. 4. Each chromosome or chromosome-pair plays a specific role in development of an organism. If a chromosome or a part of it becomes damaged or destroyed, malformation and functional disability may occur in organism. 3. Like the hereditary materials, chromosome maintains their number, structure and individuality in ‘organism for lifetime and from generation to generation, None of them are lost or ‘integrated rather behave as a unit, 6. Chromosomes and genes remain in pairs in somatic cell (diploid- 2n). 7. Gene is located at a specific site (locus) of chromosome. 8, During meiosis, homologous chromosomes and gene-pair are separated independently from one another and enter into gamete. 9. One gamete carries one set of chromosome and allele, 10. During formation of zygote through the union of sperm and egg’s nucleus by fertilization, diploid chromosome and gene number are restored in the body of newborn organism, Scanned with CamScannerABULEDSWeD YUM PSUULDS Zoology (English Version) Chapter- 11 Der ns of Mendel's Laws After the discovery of Mendel's laws of heredity, scientists examined the same test in variety of organisms and saw that result of Mendel's experiments have no similarities with their obtained results in many cases, These results are obvious exceptions to Mendel’s law of segregation and law of independent assortment, ‘Some of the deviations are described below: Deviation of first law 1. Incomplete dominance- result 1:2:1. When crossing occurs between two organisms with a pair of opposite characteristics but dominant Phenotype fails to be fully expressed in F, generation and an intermediate characteristic between two characteristics is expressed, it is called incomplete dominance. Genes responisible for incomplete dominance are called intermediate genes. Due to incomplete dominance, ratio of Mendel’s monohybrid ross becomes 1:2:1 instead of 3:1. Example: When crossing occurs between red flowered and white flowered plants of Mirabilis jalapa (Sandhyamaloti), pink flowered plants are produced in F, generation. As a result of crossing of plants of Fy ‘generation, the ratio of red, pink and white flower in F, generation becomes 1:2:1. Genetic explanation Let, symbol for red color of flower = R, symbol for white color Phenotype ——»Red flower co flower Genotype —> RR cance — O_O F, generation. ——> 1 Gore re pick rete a, % a Phenotype ——+Pink flower Genotype ——» Rr Gamete —+ @Q RRR Ra ower Pink fewer Pinkfower White Qower Fig: Incomplete dominance i Scanned with CamScanner a 1Jeuued: Zoology Coreen eer} Explanation: Here, RR. gene for red flower and rr gene for white flower are shown. If R has complete dominance, all the flowers of F, generation would be red and phenotypic ration would have been 3:1. But it is the incomplete dominance of R ‘gene that caused pink color of the heterozygous (Rr) and phenotypic ratio of 1:2:1 (red, pink and white) is created in F, generation. 2. Co-dor % When two heterozygous alleles of opposite characters located in the same locus of homlogous chromosomes are equally expressed instead of dominant-recessive relation, it is called co-dominance. In other words, when both the characteristics of two opposing genes are expressed equally in a hybrid ‘organism, it is called co-dominance. Here Mendelian 3:1 ratio is changed to 1:2:1. ‘Co-dominance can be found by crossing between black (BB) and white (ww) coloured Andalusian fowls. In this case, if crossing occurs between black (BB) and white feathered (ww) fowls, all the fowls of F generation has white patches in black feather (BW) due to co-dominance, instead of having either pure black or white feather. Genetic explanation- Genetic explanation Parents (P,): ——> Black rooster X white chicken Genotype —» BB ww Gamete —>» B \?” F, generation: Genotype. > Bw Phenotype ——> White checkered roosters among all black ones Parents(P,) > Checked rooster X checked hen Genotype —> BW BW. Gamete —> BW, F generati Genotype —> BB Bw Phenotype ——> (Black) (Checked) (Checked) (White) | 3, Lethal Gene Ratio of lethal gene is 2:1. Lethal genes are those genes which cause death of the organism is they are present in homozygous condition. After the mutation (sudden & permanent change in genetic characteristics) in any gene, if the synthesized protein (enzyme) is non-functional and the physiological importance of that protein is essential for living, the relevant organism dies in homozygous state. Efect of lethal gene is called lethality. Lethal gene has other effects other than lethal effect. During expression of lethal effect, lethal gene can be dominant or recessive. For dominant lethal gene, the organism dies in both homozygous and heterozygous states. This type of carrier usually dies in zygote or during development of embryo or shortly after bith, Therefor, this organism cannot produce any offspring and thus no organism ‘with dominant lethal gene is found in nature, On the other hand, organism with recessive lethal gene dies Only in homozygous slate, notin heterozygous state, Most ofthe organism contain one or more recessive fethal genes. But mostly they are heterozygous, hence not expressed. But reproduction between two oterozygous organism with same lethal gene can cause production of homozygous state ofthat lethal gene srt express its lethal effect. Therefore, marrlage hetween close relatives ean sometimes cause death anhetr children due to effect of homozygous state of lethal ene, Scanned with CamScannera as Zoology (English Version) Characteristics of lethal gene: . Lethal gene is a variety of mutant gene that is either dominant or recessive. 2. Dominant lethal gene can cause death or physical impairment of the organism in both heterozygous homozygous conditions. 3. Recessive lethal gene causes death only in homozygous condition. 4, Effect of lethal gene is not noticed if death occurs in zygote or embryo, but sometimes its effects are expressed with the aging of organism. Due to the effect of lethal gene, 2:1 ratio is expressed instead of 3:1. French geneticist Lucien Cuénot (1905) [MAT#12213] was the first to notice the presence of the lethal ‘gene in case of inheritance of skin colour of mice. His experiment showed that if crossing occurs between ‘two yellow mice, always yellow and agouti (blackish-brown) colored mice are found in 2:1 ratio, Later researchers proved that crossing between two yellow-coloured mice results in death of the 25% mice at embryonic state. So, phenotype ratio becomes 2:1 instead of 3: 1. Genetic explanation: Let's assume, Y = dominant gene responsible for yellow color fur in mice y= recessive gene responsible for agouti color fur in mice, According to Mendel’ law, genotype for pure or homozygous yellow color in mice is YY and that of pure agouti color is yy. But the yellow mice which are found in nature, none of them have homozygous genotype. Thisis because Y gene acts as a lethal gene in (homozygous condition that causes death of mice in embryonic stage. So, all the yellow mice that are found are heterozygous or hybrid (Yy) in nature, Parents: Phenotype —t Male yellow rt hybrid) X Female yelow rt (hybrid) Genotype —» Y! Yy AX eA Gamete > yy. Kio + Hew Fertilization results are shown through checkerboard S] Y y Dead Yellow ®| vy Yy alow ‘Agu @| vy y Fig: Ratio = 2 yellow (Yy): 1 agouti (yy) Scanned with CamScanneruiwers) Zoology (English Version) Chapter- 11 Semi-lethal & sub-vital gene ‘There are some lethal genes for which the carrier organism does not die at a very young age. They grow and sometimes they are able to breed. Lethal genes which cause death of more than 50% organisms are called semi lethal genes. On the other hand, lethal genes which cause death of less than 50% organisms are called sub-vital genes. Lethal gene that causes haemophilia in human is one kind of semi-lethal gene. Lethal gene that forms the vestigial wing in drosophila fly is one kind of sub-vital lethal gene. ‘Some congenital diseases of human due to lethal genes: Thalassemia: Children suffer from this disease [MAT? 21-22] due to recessive lethal gene. Main symptoms of this disease are anaemia, enlargement of liver-spleen, body growth retardation, enlargement of skull, reduction of size and number of RBC. Victims usually die at child age. It is also known as “Mediterranean disease’. Sickle cell anaemia: Children suffer from this disease due to expression of recessive lethal gene. Abnormal haemoglobin is formed in the blood of victim which causes suckle-shaped RBC and their rapid destruction causes severe anaemia, Besides patients suffer from weakness, mental diseases, heart problems, generalised pain, kidney disorders etc. Patient dies at tender age due to severe anaemia, Cystic fibrosis: Children suffer from this disease due to expression of recessive lethal gene. Symptoms usually starts to be expressed within 2-3 years of life. Sometimes itis expressed at advanced age. This disease usually involves respiratory, digestive and reproductive system. Mucous glands of walls of affected systems6 secrete very thick, viscid mucus that accumulates and blocks the lumen of the canal. These result in many problems such as — continuous cough, respiratory distress, thick sputum, bloody sputum, nasal blockade, sinusitis, severe pain in chest and abdomen, indigestion, gallstone, liver cirrhosis, male and female infertility etc. patients usually die within 30-40 years of age. Z 4 Retinoblastoma: (Doar Children suffer from this disease due to expression of a dominant lethal gene. But rarely carrier of survives and passes to adulthood. Therefore, this gene is called semilethal gene. ‘malignant tumour of eye and mostly dies in childhood. is gene Patient suffers from Brachyphalangy: }y\cov * Incomplete dominance of a lethal gene causes this disease in children. Fingers of the victims become v short. Middle phalanx of finger becomes fused either with proximal or distal phalanges. They have two joints, instead of three joints in thei fingers. This gene causes some problems but not death of the patient. So, it is also a semilethal gene. Congenital ichthyosis: Children suffer from this disease due to expression of recessive lethal gene. After birth, skin of child becomes thick, dry and cracks to seem like that of fish. The baby dies almost immediately after death Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Chanteradg Mutation: / ‘Mutation is a sudden and permanent change of hereditary characters. Mutation oceurs due to change in Structure of gene (base sequence) or number or structure of chromosome. Usually, mutation denotes gene mutation, Mutation creates possibility for production of new species. Ionised radiation and some chemicals can cause artificial mutation, Exception of Mendel’s second law 1. Complementary Gene Phenotypic ratio 9 : 7 ‘® Ifonly one characteristic of an organism is expressed due to the presence of two dominant genes located at two different loci, then these two genes are called complementary genes to each other and this state is called co-dominance. In sweet pea plant named Lathyyus odoratus, two different strains of white flower are found. Hybridization of these two strains results in violet flowers of all plants in F; generation, But in F, generation, the ratio of violet and white flower is 9 : 7, Genetic explanation Let's assume, genotypes of two strains of white flowers are AAbb and aaBB respectively. The results of hybridization are shown in checkerboard. Parents (P,): Phenotype ———» ©" White lowered sweet pea X White flowered sweet pea aaBB Genotype ——» AAbb x Gamete ——» Ab Ab x F,generation: Genotype» aaBb AaBb AaBb Phenotype ———> All sweet peas with purple flowers Cross between F, generation : Phenotype —> Gpurpe flower X Q Purple flower Genotype» AaBb ‘AaBb Gamete ————> AB Ab eB ab x AB) AB. aB) ab) Wale Fem e"] AB Ab aB ab @ B mes Ea AAbb Aabb Fremention—>| @ White ower White flower ® FS 5 aaBB aaBb White flower | White ower @ ‘Aabb aaBb aabb White ower | White flower | White flower Fig: Phenotype ratio = 9 purple flower : 7 white flower ——— 7 Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Chapter- ii Explanat Here dominant genes A and B act together. In the above checker board, itis seen that the phenotype is purple where genotype has dominant A and B gene together and the ones where only one of the dominant A and B is present or none is present, the phenotype is white, The ratio became 9:7 instead of 9:3:3:1 due to the action of complementary genes, 2. Epistasis % In some cases, two different genes participate in expressing one characteristic of the organism and one gene prevents the expression of another gene. Thus, when a gene prevents a non-allelic gene to express its character, the process is called epitasis. Gene that prevents the expression of characteristic of other gene is called epistatic gene and the gene which is prevented from expressing its characteristic is called hypostatic gene. A. Dominant epistasis- ratio 13:3: ‘When a gene prevents the expression of trait of a non-all dominant epistasis. In 1918, it was discovered in an experiment conducted by Bateson and Punnett that there is a dominant gene *C’ that is responsible for the formation of colourful feathers in Leghorn fowls. But the feathers become white instead of being colourful due to epistatic gene (1), Although all new-borns in F; generation are white feathered, in F, generation both white and colourful feathered fowls are produced in 13:3 ratio. dominant gene, then this process is called Genetic explanation: Let's assume, ‘C= dominant gene for colorful feathers of white Leghorn 1=dominant gene preventing the colorful feathers in white Leghorn So, genotype of white Leghom breed is CII and that of white Wyandotte is ecii, That is in this case C is the dominant hypostatic gene and I is the dominant epistatic gene. Parents (P,): GD White rhinoceros x White winedot Genotype —~ CCI colt Gamete —> Ct. ®@ F,generation —> Ceti (White) Cross between Fygeneration (P): _ FCelt (White)x Q Celt (White) > ao|a@al@/@ com | con | cen | cen White | White | White | white cen | con [cen [ecu White_|Colorful| White_| Colorful Celt] Celt | cclt | cclt White_| White | White | White Celt [Teen | cn | cc White_|Colorful | wi White Ql Fygeneration —> Fig: Ratio =13 (white) 3 (colorful) Analysis of the functions of genes responsible for the white and colorful feathers showed in checkerboard shows that the presence of gene I always inhibits the expression of colourful feather by gene C. Only in the absence of I, the phenotypic expression ofthe gene C occurs. Gene I produce special type of enzyme which inhibits & causes suppression of phenotypic expression of the gene C, 439 eof CHT Fe... Scanned with CamScannerv4 mg OOlOgy (English Version) B, Duplicate Recessive Epistasis- ratio of 9:7 Fepaciag BATES or eel % When two recessive alleles at different loci prevent expression of sp i is. So, only homozygoy other’s dominant alleles, then that is called the duplicate recessive epistasi vam Tecessive traits are expressed. In human, congenital muteness-deafness is an example of a dual recessive epistasis. ee recessive Benes located at two different loci are responsible for it. When one of these two genes remain in homozygous recessive state, then the expression of trait of other dominant gene is interrupted. So, Bresmce ofany te ‘wo airs of recessive gene and although inthe presence of dominant gene ofthe other pat, any individual will be deaf-mute, Here recessive gene pair inhibits the expression of characteristic of dominant gene. Genetic explanation: Let's assume, d and e are two recessive genes. So, a person having ddEE and DDee Benotype will be deaf-mute. Here due to presence of recessive genes d and ¢ in homozygous state, the character of dominant genes EE and DD are ‘suppressed. So, the deaf-mute character is expressed, Parents (i): Phenotype =} Deaf-mnie x Q Deaf-mute Genotype —> DDee ddEE Gamete De @ i ee F,generation : Genotype DdEe Phenotype —> All have normal speech. and hearing Cross between F; generation Rie Normal hearing x Q Normal hearing Genotype > DdEe DdEe ome Re « OF OS Male, 2 | Female-—~Sea DE De dE eames act DE de DDEE DDEe DdEE DdEe @ Nomat_| Noma | R&EE [Dae DDEe DDee DdEe Dade Fegenertion >| @® Normal__| Deatimute | _neGeS Deafamute DdEE DdEe ddEE ddEe” | @ Normal Normal Deaf-mute Deaf-mute @ DdEe |/jDdees | dake ‘ddee Normal | Deaf-mute Deaf-mute Deaf-mute | Results:9 Child has normal hearing and 7 children are deat TF deaf-mute man (DDee) marries a deaf-mute woman (4dEE), then all their ‘make and female of same genotype as the offspring get married (becatise in humans, mad), then their next generation will have normal and deaf-mute offspring in the ratio. in the checker board above. and 9 are the main symbols used in biology. Male organism is denoted with 3 and female one is denoted with ¢. d symbol indicates shield and spear of Roman war-god Mars, ‘Whereas, mirror of Venus, the Roman goddess of love. ren will be normal. If brother-sister don't get ‘of 9:7. This is explained 2 symbol indicates the hand ‘Aa Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Polygenic Inheritance According to Mendel, each characteristic of organism is controlled by a pair of factors or genes. But in case of some organisms, multiple genes located on different loci (non-allelic) are responsible for a single characteristic. For example, human’s height, skin color [MAT#18219], eye color, cow's milk, grain color of wheat or maize etc. quantitative traits are dependent on the combined effect of several genes. If a group of non-allelic genes situated on different loci control the quantitative trait of an organism collectively, then the gene group is called polygene. The inheritance of quantitative trait, controlled by polygene is called polygenic inheritance, Geneticist K. Mather introduced the name polygene in 1954. The effect of polygene is cumulative so such character is called quantitative character. Many human diseases are due to polygenic abnormalities e, autism, cancer, diabetes etc. a eee RES OS In 1908, Swedish scientist Nilsson-Ehle, while experimenting with color of wheat seeds, hybridized wheat of red seed with that of white seed, He obtained all wheats ‘medium red colored seeds in F, generation but, 15 red and one white seed wheat plants in the F, generation. He noticed the difference of density of red colors among red seeds and obtained the ratio of 1:4:6:4:1 (deep red: red: ‘medium red: faded red: white). Skin color in Man: ‘There are various races in the world starting from the black people (Negro) to white people (Caucasian). Marriage between a Negro parent and a White parent produces offspring of intermediate skin color named ‘Mulatto, Marriage between Mulattoes produces offspring of various skin shades. The inheritance of intermediate skin shade of the Mulattoes (bom from a White and a Negro parent) is an excellent example of polygenic inheritance. Let, two pairs of genes for color production of Negroes are AABB and those for whites are aabb. If a Negro ‘man marries a White female of this type, genotype of F, generation will be AaBb and phenotype will be ‘mulattoes. Cross between mulattoes of F; generation gives rise to humans of different skin colors in the Fz generation. There is no dominance in case of these genes. The more the number of dominant genes, the, more intense will be the skin color. C. B. Davenport proved in 1913 that the heredity of skin color of Negro & White people is controlled by 2 pairs of genes. Negroes have 2 pair of colouring genes which help to deposit melanin (melanin is the black oF deep brown coloured pigment found in the skin of vertebr ¢ animals). No dominance is found in these genes, But co-dominance and cumulative effects are observed. These genes don’t help in deposition of ‘melanin in case of Caucasians or whites. was Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Offspring of F: and F; generations of a Negro male & White female are as follows Genetic explanation of polygenic inheritance. Pauw)! Phenype x git peopl Genoyge > ABD Xt Fj> AaBb AaBb AaBb — AaBb All are mulatto (mixed race between negro and white) Cros beeen Fy muatoss(@) 2 Malato] ¢ [;pMalavo Genotype > AaBb ‘AaBb Gamcte > [ABs (Ab [AB j (ab GAED GAG) GED Gay Results of Fz generation are shown by checker board g AB Ab aB ab TRE AL Tabb AES el cP BEE al “s Outs (OD ratatos "(Musto Ab More back than] ABD a Mole Wie than rultoes |@ _Matato _|@ viato | ratauoce aoa a 208 os Morbiet tan] A8Bb BB | sort ie than mulatioes [QD Mulato [QD Mulatto mulatioes ‘AaBb Aap. oR, aabb 2 @® Maiato | Q mulatoes rulatoes White Fig :Negro= I person: dark colour = 4 persons: Mulato = 6 persons: Light skinned = 4 persons : White So, 14641 Analysis of the checker board shows that among 16 offsprings, (One is Negro containing genes for four colors (table 01). Four people are of deep color (blacker than mulattoes), containing genes for three skin colors (table 2,3, Sand 9). Six people are mulattoes, containing genes for two skin colors (table 4, 6,7, 10, 11 and 13). Four people are of light color (whiter than mulatioes), containing genes for one skin color (table 8, 12, 14 and 15). (One person is white, having no gene for skin color (table 16). This result above shows that, only one among 16 persons is Negro (B, B, B, By ) and one is white (brbibeb2)1t i also noted that tendency of expression of skin color increases with increase of the number ‘of dominant genes and phenotypic expression decreases with the decrease in their number. a Scanned with CamScannersh Version) Chapter- 11 Difference of important aspects Difference between First and Second laws of Mendel Mendel’s first law Itis known as law of segregation. Neen 7 It is known as law of independent assortment. tis applicable for monohybrid cross. Ttis applicable for dihybrid cross. Phenotypic ratio is 3:1. Phenotypic ratio is 9:3:3:1. Only segregation of genes oceurs. Tndependent assortment of genes occurs besides their segregation. Only parental type offspring are found in second filial | Besides parental type offspring, recombinants are also generation. found in second filial generation. First law does not follow the second law. ‘Second law follows the first law. Difference between Allelic gene and Non-allelic gene ‘Two genes at the same locus of paired homologous | Two genes at different locus of paired homologous chromosomes are known as allelic genes of one | chromosomes are known as non-allelic genes of one another. another. ‘They control different characteristics. They control different characteristics. Interaction of allelic genes is called dominance. Tnteraction of pop-allelic genes is called epistasis. Difference between Incomplete dominance and Co-dominance [meen (emi "The dominant allele shows ineomplete dominance. __| Both alleles show complete dominance. No pure characteristic is expressed among heterozygous organisms in Fy generation ie, @ different middle trait is expressed. Both pure characteristics are expressed among heterozygous organisms in F, generation. Both alleles show independent and universal influence. No allele has independent and universal influence. be = Difference between Monogenic inheritance and Polygenic inheritance ‘Transmission of characteristics controlled by more than one independent genes is called polygeni inheritance,“ ‘Monogenic inheritance occurs in qualitaiveeharacters of | Polygenie inheritance occurs in ‘quantitative organism. chargeters of organism. ae ae + Effects of yrdinated, quantitative, Effect of gene is independent here. eee Sa Disceie variation is seen among member of F; | Indiserete vasialion %een among member of Fz generation which helps them to clearly classify under | generation which prevents them fo clearly classify different types. under different types. Mendelian ratio js obtained; thus, it is Mendelian | Mendelian ratio is not obtained; thus, it is non- | inheritance. Mendelian inheritance. 443 merce aces PRET. gene is called monogenic inheritance. Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) pag) "The chromosomes by which sex Is determined, are called the sex chromosomes. Usually they are named Xand Y or O chromosomes. In every cell of human body, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes. Among them 22 pairs are the same for oth genders, they are called autosome, But the 23" pair of chromosomes are different for men and women and they are called heterosome or the sex chromosome. There are only X chromosomes in the gametes that are produced in female. For this reason, women are called homogametic sex and the gametes are called homogametes. On the other hand, two types of gametes are produced in male. X chromosome remains in one type of gamete and Y chromosome in another. So, men are heterogametic sex and theses gametes are called heterogametes. ‘There are two types of male heterogamesis process, described below. 1. XX-XY process (@etermine the sex of human, drosophila, and Father Mother (Asx) Axx) a diferent types of insects and Cannabis (weed), Telakucha, Elodea ete. plants): Come —— Ge According to this process, female is homogametic orXX and male are heterogametic or XY. Female jnst produces one kind of egg (X). But male produces two types of sperm (X and Y). If X Fig Seu era SCY fla carrying ovum fuses with the X carrying sperm, fat tei oa then a daughter (XX) and if X carrying ovum @Asxo) earn fuses with ¥ carying sperm, then ason (XY) will Gamste —» AUK ATO & be bom. 2.XX-XO process (Determine the sex of grasshoppers, bugs and Spouse —»- arian) plants of Diascorea class): The sex of Spouse > (2A+KX) @AHXY) Daughter ‘Son @2A+xo) Female Male arasshoppers, bedbugs ete. insect is determined Fig: Gender determination by XX-X0 system by XX-X0O process. Here female is homogametic ‘or with XX sex chromosomes. But Y chromosome is absent in male. Female chromosome is 2 + XX and male chromosomes is 2 + XO (there is no Y, so ‘O’- zero is written). Female is homogametic, so all eggs are similar (A + X). But two types of gamete [A + X) and (A +0)] are produced in male. : Fusion of first type of sperm with the egg produces daughter (2A + XX) but fusion of second type of sperm with the egg produces son (2A + XO). Usually such kind of gender determination is not observed in plants. But this kind of gender determination is observed in Diascorea sinuate plant. Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Chapter- 11 ked disorders There are some characteristics of organism that are controlled by the genes of sex chromosomes. The characteristics regulated by sex chromosomes are called sex linked characteristics. These characteristics are transmitted from generation to generation through sex chromosomes. The transmission of sex-linked Characteristics from generation to generation through sex chromosomes is called sex-linked inheritance. So far about(60}ex linked genes have been founy orders which are transmitted by sex chromosomes from géeration to generation are called sex linked disorders. Some X gene regulated disorders in human are- red green colour blindness, haemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy etc. ‘One Y linked characteristic in human is ear hair. —_—— Red-green colour blindness Retina of human eye contains some color sensitive cells those identify different colors. Two genes located on the X chromosome of human play special role in form: mn of these color-sensitive cells. Recessive alleles of these genes hinder formation of these cells. Therefore, humans with these recessive genes cannot understand several colors. This is called color blindness. Red Green color lindness is a sex-linked disorder. Victims of this disease cannot understand the difference between red and green color. John Dalton first described this disease in details. Therefore, it is also known as Daltonism. There is no definitive ‘treatment for color blindness, so patient is never completely cured, The best way to detect color blindness is Ishihara Color Test. Genetic explanation of color blindness: Males become color blind if their X chromosome contains recessive gene for color sensitive cells, as Y chromosome does not contain its dominant allele, On the other hand, if both X chromosomes of female carry recessive gene, she bécomes color blind otherwise if only one X chromosome contains recessive gene, she rather becomes carrier of gene for color blindness instead of being color blind. f normal gene for vision is XC and gene for color blindness is Xe, genotype of olor vision will be — Pa 1, Male with normal vision=XCY 2, Color blind male = XcY % eS 3. Female with normal vision = XCXC 4. Color blind female = XcXe ¥% 5, Carrier female = XCXe ‘Marriage between color blind male and normal female: If gene for normal vision is XC and for color blindness is Xe, genotype of color-blind male will be Xe and genotype of normal female will be XCXC. ‘After marriage between color blind male and normal female, all children of F, generation will have normal color vision, though the daughters wil be carters. Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Parents (P,) x 8 Phenotype —+ Colourblind male Normal female xeY XCXC Genotype —> ada Gamete —+ Ke Fesiliztion —+ Genotype of child —+ xcxe xCKe i Phenotype of child Carer Carrier daughter Normal son Normal son daughter Ifa normal male is married with a carrier female both with same genotype similar to the F, generation (as marriage is not allowed between siblings in human), among four children, two daughters will have normal color vision (of whom one will be carrier), one son will have normal color vision and the other son will be color blind, Recessive gene of color blindness affects the grandson by the father via his daughter through inheritance. This is called criss cross inheritance. I a Parents (22) —> a h c Phenotype —+ Normal male Carrer female Genotype ——> ‘xcY XCXe E 1 Gamete —+ Fertilization ——> : _ | Genotype of child —+ xeKC xO xcy Key ‘ d g : h Phenotype of child —» Normal Cartier Normal son Colour blind son daughter daughter P ( So, the matter of color blindness must be considered Prior marriage. Because colors are used as traffic signal g ‘on road for vehicles. Besides, the colour-blind face problems to gift favourite flowers to near and dear ones q or buy colourful fruits and vegetables and clothings from market. q x ig a 446 Teeter Ren... a hy Re Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Chapter- 11 Reason for predominance of color blindness male compared to females: Statistics shows that almost 8% males and 0.5% females in USA are color blind, Because — 1. As the gene responsible for color blindness is recessive and located in X chromosome, it is only expressed in homozygous state (XeXe) in females but presence of the gene for color blindness in X chromosome (XcY) of males is enough to cause the manifestation of the disease. 2. fone of the two X chromosomes carries the gene for color blindness (XCXe) in female, she possesses ‘normal color vision but is a carrier for color blindness gene. This is why males becomes more color| blind than females. There is no definitive treatment for color blindness, so patient is never cured. Ishihara Color Test helps to diagnose color blindness in medical science. Fig: Ifsomeone cannot read the number 73, then he is Fig: How normal and colour blind people see the red-green colour bind colour ofan apple Haemophilia Haemophilia is a genetically transmitted or inherited blood clotting disorder or abnormality. Blood of affected people don’t clot and affected person can die due to haemorrhagic cause. Colour blind people don’t have the life risk but due to haemophilia, affected person can die. A recessive mutant gene of X-chromosome causes haemophilia Haemophilia isthe following two types: 1, Classic Haemophilia or Haemophilia A: This occurs due to absence of blood clotting factor VIII or antihemophilic factor. nel 2. Christmas Disease or Haemophilia B: This disease occurs due to absence of blood clotting factor IX [DAT!19°20] ot plasma thromboplastin component or Christmas factor. Males are more affected by haemophilia than females. In every 10,000 men, there is chance of one man getting affected by haemophilia. Most hacmophilic patients are affected by Haemophilia A. Normally hhaemophilic male and female die by the age of 16 due to bleeding. The normal and haemophilie alleles present in X chromosome are X" and X* respectively. The females can have three kinds of genotype-X"X! (completely normal), X""X* (normal but carrier) and XX? (haemophilic). Incase of males, two types of genotypes- X"Y (normal) and X*Y (haemophilic). I is mentionable that Queen Vietoria of England had four daughters two of them Alice and Beatrice were cartiers of hemophil Ifa haemophilic man marries a normal woman then only their daughters will be carriers and through them it ‘will be transmitted to their sons in their next generation. A normal but carrier when married to a normal man, all the daughters will be normal but among the sons, 50% have a chance of being affected by hemophilia, It is given below with example [MAT: 1617/1314] Oe Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Parents — Normal male ‘Normal but carrier female Genotype — xity x Gamete —= xy x , Generation — ra @ xx H 3 % (Normal daughter) __[(Normal but carrier daughter)| WT ra ¥ (Netra on) (Hlaemophilic son) ked Disorders in man| 1. Red-green colour-blindness lifferentiate between red and green colors 2. Hemophilia Blood clotting is delayed so profuse bleeding occurs from the wound area The movements and normal function of the muscles of various 3. Muscular dystrophy organs is reduced. 4 Night blindness Can't see during the night ime = 5. Diabetes insipidus Polyuria, abnormal urination, physical fatigue 6. Fragile X syndrome There is autism and mental instability 7. Hypertrichosis Excessive hair growth all over the body 8. Testicular feminization “Male individuals slowly turn into female, Duchenne Muscular dystrophy {tis a genetic disorder. Muscular dystrophy is @ hereditary disease caused by abnormality of a sex linked gene, manifested by reduced activity of the muscles of hands, legs, trunk, heart and intestines, {tis more common in male child. There are more than thity kinds of muscular dystrophy. Among these, 9 are important, the rest are rare. The general symptoms are- muscle weakness and loss of balance, obesity, rapid muscle degeneration, fatigue and paralysis of muscle, joint stiffness, frontal baldness, cataract of eye, Ptosis (dropping of eyelids), mental abnormality, gonadal atrophy ete. Children with muscular dystrophy during their adolescence period show some significant features related to mental health, Not all of them need {treatment to improve their mental health. Parents need to observe and counsel their children based on the following behavioury (1) Teachers’ report related to behavioural problems and loss of concentration in class. (2) Too much dependency on guardians or caretaker. (3) Irritable mood, not willing to walk, (4) Being frustrated and emotional about the disease. (5) Frequent incidences of short temper. (6) Ré or visit to the doctor. (7) Not taking part in activities with kids of same age, or avoid taking medicines Muscular dystrophy i rare genetic disorder. As mentioned earlier, there ae more than thinty different types. Among these Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is the most dangerous type. This disease is seen in one person out of 50,000 people. The rest of the dystrophies are rarer. Muscular dystrophy has some connection with cognitive reaction. Ifa child with muscular dystrophy is mild intelleetual disable, an continue studies and ob like any other normal person even he ean use regular Vehicles like normal people. 'f the intellectual disability is moderate, then a help or support will be required to do those jobs. And those ‘with sever intellectual disability are more prone to autism. then he Scanned with CamScannerTIN eee / Chapter- 11 The sad thing is this genetic disorder doesn't have any treatment. The researchers are working on inventing Senetic therapy to correct the mutated gene in muscular dystrophy. Their goal is to correct joint stiffness, to increase mobility and ensure a longer painless lifetime for the patient. But recently, different medicines on Telieving muscle weakness, grief, rigidity, etc. are available. (E.g. Mexiletine, Baclofen, Carbamazepine, etc.) Ifa gene located in X chromosome is mutated and transmitted to the next generation and causes disease, then ittcalled X-linked disorder, Since there is only one X chromosome in males, so these disorders are limited to male gender. In males, since there is ¥ chromosome instead of another X chromosome, so there is no other copy of dystrophin gene responsible for muscular dystrophy. In females, there are two X chromosomes present. So, when the gene in one X chromosome is mutated, then the normal gene in other X chromosome acts as a backup copy. So even when a female carries a disordered X-linked gene the female won't manifest the signs of X-linked disorder, but she will act as a carrier and that ‘gene will be transmitted to her sons. There is 50% risk of each son to inherit that gene and get affected by | the disease. And in ease of daughters, 50% chance of inheriting the gene and playing a role as carrier of the disease, Due to spontaneous mutation in X chromosome, X-linked recessive disorder is produced in male child. Role of gene in my wr dystrophy "There are obo Gouna iuscle proteins in our body. Each protein is secured in each gene. Some of these proteins are a structural part of muscle and others help in chemical reactions. A minor disorientation in the gene can affect the type and severity of muscular disorder. Like any disorder or change inthe gene responsible for production of dystrophin protein causes sever muscle degeneration. This condition is called Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. This disease is named after its discoverer, the French neurologist Guillaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne. ‘The disease severity is less in other cases. Mutation occurs in other genes, rather than dystrophin gene, i other forms of muscular dystrophy. Carrier mother ——-X~——_Normal father xx ~~ X= Disease carrier X chromosome x= Normal x chromosome Y=Y chromosome x xy x oY Carrier daughter DMD son Normal Normal Son daughter omy a Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English version) i Cperee tg ‘ABO Blood Group and Problems due to Rh factor ‘ABO Blood Group From the very beginning of the eighteenth century, people in France and later in England started blood | donation. Though in most cases no reaction occurred between donor and recipient, but sometimes serious | adverse effects happened to the recipient leading to even death, Mixture of blood from donor and recipient outside the human body showed that, in some instances blood cells coagulate rather than mixing normally. | Again, in some cases blood from both donor and recipient gets mixed normally. A number of experiments showed that RBC of different people contains two types of antigens, namely A and B, whereas plasma / contains two types of antibodies, « and B. The classification of human blood made by Karl Landsteiner, a physician as well as scientist from Vienna, based on presence or absence of A and B antigen on plasma | 4 membrane of RBC, is called ABO blood group or blood | group in short, Karl Landsteiner won the Nobel Prize in | 1930 for discovery of blood group. Human body contaig (G00 yntigens, of which only 30h & onion Pe ene Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943) ! been known. Based on these antigens, there are almost 21 | blood groups in humans. But all the groups do not carry importance for blood transfusion. Only ABO and = Rh blood groups are important for blood transfusion, « For determination of blood group, human RBC contains two types of antigens aa is membrane whereas 7 plasma has two types of: Blood group determining antigens ar nature | and are known as agglutinogen. On the other hand, blood group determining antibodies are slycoprote : tinins. Landsteiner named these antigens as antigen-A and antigens 8 and the antibodies as antibody-A'or a and antibody-B or B. He classified human blood under four ie ° sroups based on these antigens and antibodies. They are- A, B, AB and O. me i | Four blood groups onthe presence-absence of antigens and antibodies, : s Blood group A] Blood group | Blood grup AB | Blood grupo ; T ° i. rat | ME | ME | RET me | vom SET SE |e ESE F | As = VS AS Anitody B | Antibody a Antibody f Antigen inredcet| ° Y? Aantigen ‘A and B antigen i a ee 5 77s aera. ie fa Scanned with CamScanner B antigenZoology (En, alish Version) Blood group A: Humans with blood group A contain antigen A in their RBC membrane and antibody- B in their plasma. Antibody-B of blood group A coagulates RBC of blood group B. Donor of blood group A can donate blood to recipients of blood group A and AB and can receive blood from group A and O. almost 23% of human being belong to blood group A. 2. Blood group B: humans with blood group B contain antigen B in their RBC membrane and antibody- A iin their plasma, Antibody-A of blood group B coagulates RBC of blood group A. Donor of blood group B can donate blood to recipients of blood group B and AB and can receive blood from group B and O. almost 32% of human being belong to blood group B. Blood group AB: Humans with blood group B contain both antigens A and B in their RBC membrane but no antibody in their plasma. Blood of group AB cannot coagulate RBC of any blood group, because it lacks antibody. Donor of blood group AB can donate blood only to recipients of blood group AB but can receive blood from all groups. This is why AB [MAT; 19-20] blood group is called universal recipient, Almost 8% of human being belong to blood group AB. 4. Blood group O: Humans with blood group O contain no antigens in their RBC membrane but both antibodies A and B are present in their plasma. Blood of group O coagulates RBC of any blood group except its own, because it has both the antibodies. Donor of blood group O can donate blood to all blood ‘groups but can receive blood only from O blood group. This is why O blood group is called universal donor. Almost 37% of human being belongs to blood group O. [‘O" came from the German word ‘obne” that means ‘without’ ] [Detailed discussion is made on antigen and antibody in chapter 10.] Genetical Explanation of ABO Blood Group Bernstein (1925) proved that there are three alleles of the gene controlling ABO blood group in human namely - L‘, LP and L®. They lie a the same locus of homologous chromosome and control same trait (blood group). If any gene has more than two alleles, itis ealled multiple allele. And the hereditary character controlled by multiple allele is called multiple allelism, ABO blood group of humans is a perfect example of multiple allelism. The gene is marked by ‘L’ after the name of Landsteiner, the discoverer of human blood group. Any two alleles of this gene are present in a single somatic cell of human. IA and LP.alleles are responsible for formation of A and B antigens in RBC respectively. L° forms no antigen. Experiments proved that both LA and L? alleles are dominant over L° and codominant on one another. So, relation between dominant and recessive genes for human ABO blood group is LA = LP > 1°. Genotypic arrangement of the alleles for controlling of different ABO blood groups: femme Pere Hybrid TAL? TS elt a IALF (codominance) Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Chapter- 11 Rh factor In 1940, Karl Landsteiner and Wiener were able to produce a kind of antibody in the plasma of rabl blood by introducing blood of Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) into the rabbit’s body. From this result, the scientists assumed that there is an antigen in human red blood cell membrane like that of Rhesus monkey's red blood cell membrane, That antigen was named after Rhesus monkey as Rhesus factor or Rh factor in short. Blood grouping based on the presence or absence of Rh factor in the red cell membrane is called Rh blood grouping. Blood with Rh factor is called Rh*and without Rh factor is called Rh (Rh negative). Scientist Fisher stated that Rh factor is a combination of total six antigens. They can be divided into three pairs, 8 C, ¢;D, d and E, e. Among these, C, D and E are dominant and c, d and e are recessive according fo Mendel's law. In human red blood cells, 3 antigens are present together but two antigens from the same pair never remain together, e.g. CDE, CDe, CDE can be possible but never CDd. Blood with dominant antigens (C, D, E) is called Rh*blood and that with recessive antigens (c, d, ¢) is called Rh negative blood. Properties of different Blood groups inary (Reem RD Cemiccncnreny Problems caused by Rh factor: 1. Complication during blood transfusion: TERht blood is transfused to Rh™ ve person for the first time, it doesn’t show any response on the body of ‘herecipient but antibodies agains the Rh antigen willbe produced gradually inthe, recipient's blood plasma. This antibody is called anti-Rh factor, fhe recipient receives donor's Rh blood for the second time, then the donor's red blood cells will clot due ‘0 the effect of ani-Rh factor of recipients plasma, But if the recipient does not receive Rh’ blood further afte the first transfusion, then all the ani-Rh factors produced in the blood become damaged gradually and the recipient gets back the normal blood, Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Chapter- 14 2. Complications during pregnancy: Rh factor is very important in case of pregnant women. When A Rh- (Rh negative) woman marries Rh* (Rh Positive) man, their first child will be Rh* because Rh* is a dominant trait. During embryonic stage, the child’s Rh* factor containing red blood cells reach maternal blood through the placenta and anti-Rh factor (antibody) is produced in the plasma of the mother as the mother’s blood is Rh~. antibody Foetal blood Rh*; RBC through placenta, Antibodies are Antibodies attacking Mather’ blood being transported ffom produced inthe mother’ foetal Rh RBCs. foetus to the mothers body ody Fig: Problems caused by Rh factor Anti-Rh factor from the mothers blood enters in the blood of the foetus through the placenta and destroys the red blood cells of the foetus, the embryo is damaged and abortion occurs. In this situation, if the child survives till birth, severe anaemia and jaundice occur after birth. This state is called Erythroblastosis foetalis. Since the anti-Rh antibodies are produced very slowly in the mother’s body so that first child doesn’t face any damage and is born healthy. But problems begin from the subsequent fertilizations and embryo dies after Suffering this disease. So, the Rh blood tests of the future groom and bride should be done before the wedding ‘and the couple should have same Rh factors (Rh+ or Rh—} . The good news is that Rhve feature is rare in the greater part of the world. Ways to prevent Rh complications: Currently anti-rhesus antibody called Anti-D is invented by the progress of medical science, Effect of Rh antibody against Rh antigen decreases if Anti-D is injected into mother of Rh~ blood group via venous route within 72 hours of birth of first baby. Therefore, mother can conceive the next child safely. Necessity of blood group determination: For transfusion of correct blood during haemorrhage, (ii) ABO antigen is widespread over the body ti is mandatory to know blood group. ‘anaemia or major surgery, ue, $0 prior to different organ transplant like kidney, it (Gi) One must marry by knowing the blood groups, to prevent erythroblastosis foctalis, (iv) To prove guilty or not guilty; (v)_ For ethnological and anthropological research; (vi) For patemity testing i E77 Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) 10, ML. ~ Human blood group based on presence or absence of antigen on RBC is called ABO blood group. ~ Tandsteiner and Wiener (1940) noticed a type of antigen in human blood which is found in thesus rolling different characteristics are transmitted from parents to offsprings| Genes responsible for cont via reproduction. This process is called heredity. 7 ‘The branch of biology that deals with principles of heredity as well as structure, action, variation, ‘mutation and interaction of genes and genetic engineering is called genetics. Mendelism is the explanation of transmission of hereditary characteristics from generation to generation following Mendel’s laws. Sutton and Boveri introduced chromosomal theory of heredity. They opine that genes responsible for different traits lie on chromosomes and those traits are transmitted from parents to their offsprings because of transmission of these genes to generations via chromosomes. The genes which cause death of the organisms are called lethal genes. Its ratio is 2:1. Usually a dominant allele suppresses the trait of a recessive allele. But when it suppresses a non-allelic gene, it is called epistasis, Its ratio is 13:3. Ifa group of non-allelic genes situated on different loci control the quantitative trait of an organism collectively, then the gene group is called polygene. The inheritance of quantitative trait, controlled by Polygene is called polygenic inheritance. Polygenes control skin color, weight of human etc. ‘The process which determines the sex in offspring during fertilization is known as sex determination. The special chromosome responsible for sex determination is called sex chromosome. It is popularly called X chromosome. Sex linked inheritance refers to transmission of hereditary characteristics from generation to generation via sex chromosomes. ‘Human diseases which are transmitted by sex chromosome are called sex linked disorders. Sex linked disorders of human are ~ i. Red-green color blindness — inability to perceive the difference between red and green color ii, Haemophilia ~ delayed blood clotting resulting in continued bleeding from injury site tii, Duchene muscular dystrophy (DMD) ~ stiffness of muscles; inability to walk at 10 years of| age; death within 20 years of age. iv. Night blindness — reduced vision at night V. Testicular feminization — gradual transformation of male into female Fragile X syndrome — autism and mental imbalance i. Hypertrichosis — dense hair all over the body Vili. Diabetes insipidus — frequent micturition and weakness monkey. This is called Rhesus antigen, in short Rh factor. Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version ‘The Concept of Evolution ‘The vast diversity of plants and animals which are seen all over the world currently, all have gradually developed from simpler organisms through gradual changes. This concept is called the theory of organic evolution. ‘According to concept of modem scientists, the earth originated from the scattered part of the sun about 450 crores years ago. At the earlier stage, it was a fireball and got cooler gradually by radiation of heat and then dense cloud was formed from water vapour. Rain from those clouds gave rise to waters in the earth, In this clouded state, the oxygen, hydrogen etc. basic elements present in the water got mixed with each other due to sudden exposure to sunlight and thus protoplasm was emerged. With gradual change of climate over many years, from this protoplasm first unicellular plants and later through mutation of several plants, chlorophyll was destroyed and animals emerged. Eventually unicellular plants and animals are converted into multicellular organisms and from their gradual development different types of plant and animals were emerged. ( Organic evolution is the transformation of a simple organism into a new organism by slowly and continuously introducing physical changes to maintain compatibility with the environment, The English word Evolution is actualy derived from the Latin word “evolvere” meaning to evolve or gradually unfold. Biologists from many years believe that evolution has been occurring inthis nature. But they differ about the process of evolution. The reason behind this difference is that evolution is a very slow process which can neither be understood or perceived easily nor be proved through experiment. Several Greek philosophers expressed their imaginary theories regarding evolution in their writings. ‘Modem scientists tried to prove through experiments that new organisms are created by evolution. Although the concept of evolution is modern, it can be seen thatthe ancient Greek philosophers thought about evolution long ago. Empedocles (495-435 BC) is called the father of evolution. He has a strong idea about sudden creation of the fitest and abolition of the unfit. Democritus (460-357 B.C.) conceived that any organ of the body undergoes evolution with environment, The famous philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC) also thought that lower organisms develop through some serial changes, After Aristotle French scientist Buffon (1707- 1788) opined that living organisms are also undergoing changes in the current world. Steps of evolution ‘The following thee steps are noticed in evolution ~ 1. Miero-evolution: Caused by genetic changes via mutation, variation et. this results in diferent races, varieties or subspecies. 2. Macro-evolution: Evolution of forming species from subspecies is called Macro-evolution. 3. Mega-evolution: Formation of major taxa (family, order, class etc.) via major changes over a larger period of time due to mutation Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) pes of evolution ; ; ree is of three types based on variations of habitats and process of adaptation ofergaisns . 1. Convergent evolution: This occurs through formation of symmetrical properties in the body of far- related organisms due to adaptation process when they live in same environment. 7 2. Divergent evolution: Formation of new species from closely related organisms living in different environments through precise adaptation. - 3. Parallel evolution: When two different species of organisms evolve in the same way through living and ‘adapting to two distant but similar environments. Theories of Evolution After proving the existence of evolution, the second relevant thing that emerged was which is the process of evolution or how the evolution takes place. To explain the process, more than one theory has emerged at different times depending on the advancement of science. ‘Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters of Lamarck or Lamarekism ‘* Theory of Natural Selection of Darwin or Darwinism ‘© Modern Synthesis Theory or Neo-Darwinism. Germplasm Theory of August Weismann and ‘Mutation Theory of Hugo de Vries. Two main hypotheses of evolution, Lamarekism and Darwinism and Neo-Darwinism are discussed her. Lamarckism or the theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics Lamarck was a French philosopher and naturalist. He was born in France in 1744, His real name is Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet Chevalier de Lamarck (1744-1829). At first, he joined the French Army, then he began his life as a botanist. But later in life, he spent more time in research on animals, He is the originator of the word Biology and he divided the animal kingdom into two groups- vertebrates and invertebrates. He is well-known as one of the pioneers of establishing organic evolution theory. His theory is known as the theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Laws of the Lamarckism In 1960 AD, Dodson favoured to explain the broad concept of Lamarck by bringing it under 4 laws. ‘Those laws are mentioned below: A. The first law- Growth: Every creature wants growth of its organ and enlargement of its size in its lifetime under the influence of the internal vital force. B. The second law- Environmental impact, active efforts of organism and morphological changes: Stimulus for need and relentless efforts for the adaptation in the constantly changing environment cause ‘morphological changes. . The third Inw- use and disuse: A specific organ of the body may be enlarged, well-organized and functioning as a result of continuous use, however this organ may disappear by progressive deterioration due to disuse, D. The fourth law- Inheritance of ac ed characteristics: Each creature’s acquired characteristics are Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Chapter- 11 Explanations of Lamarck’s laws A. Tendency to increase in size: Organisms have a tendency to increase both the size of the body and organ up to a certain extent in their lifetime under the influence of internal vital force. This fact is also observed by noticing the different levels of classification, such as increase in the body shape is a general trend which can be seen in each step while advancing forward from animals of phylum Cnidaria to Chordata. Environmental impact, active efforts of organism and morphological changes (Environmental Effect and New Structures or Organs result from New Needs): The environment is constantly changing. Stimulus for need and relentless efforts for the adaptation in the constantly changing environment cause morphological changes or creates new organ in the body of the organism. Lamarck believed that the environment directly affects the plant. So, a new organ of the plant is seen in ‘new environment, In case of animals, animals adapt to the environment through the brain or nervous system, so then they get what they want. For example, giraffe's nervous system has forced to extend its neck to eat leaves of higher trees. The Use and disuse of parts: The newly formed or modified organ to adapt to the changing environment would be well-organized, efficient and enlarged iit is used continuously later in the lifespan. On the other hand, the organ tends to be smaller gradually and loses its functionality due to permanent disuse later in ( the lifespan and eventually disappears. The example of uses & disuses are given below: Use of parts: (i) the ancestor of Giraffe had shorter neck ar all and front legs like horses and they used to eat grass or a smaller plant. Lack of grassland due to various natural disasters forced them to eat leaves of tall tree branches. Desire created for eating leaves from tall tree branches and the length of neck increased slightly from generation to generation in accordance with the needs. Thus, the current long necked giraffe has emerged from the shorter necked ancestors. (ti) Ducks, pelican, greater adjutant (Hargila) etc. birds were firstly terrestrial but for ' overuse of feet for swimming to collect foods, webbed feet were formed by extension of skin from base of the toes. Fig: Lamarckian explanation of giraffe's neck elongation Disuse of parts: (® Ancestors of ostrich could fly before. But their wings have become functionally inactive due to ‘continuous disuse, (Gi) Tails of human ancestors has been transformed into coceyx due to gradual disuse. D. Inheritance of acquired characteristics: All the acquired characteristics of an organism during its lifetime are transmitted to the next generation. Thus, the changed characteristics are transmitted from ‘generation to generation and new acquired characteristis are inherited. As a result, members ofa species at aspecific time does not resemble with the distant ancestor fora space of long period. It led to the origin of a new species. Scanned with CamScannerChapter- Errors of Lamarckism Due to errors, Lamarckism failed to achieve recognition from most scientists. The 1* and the 4 laws i. increased size due to vital force and inheritance of the acquired characteristics have experienced relatively larger criticism. Dodson, Pauleamarer, MeDogal etc. scientists tried to establish Lamarckism in a new and acceptable ways, ‘They are known as neo-lamarckian. Their concept is known as neo-lamarekism. Later, some criticism arose against Lamarckism, which are ~ 1. A body-builder who uses his muscles repeatedly and has well developed muscles, the theory that his child will also have strong muscle is baseless. : 2, August Weismann (1834-1914), a German scientist, while experimenting with rats, cut the tails of some ‘male and female rats. The offspring bom from their mating had all normal tails. He continued this experiment till 22 generations and noticed that no generation contained tail-less rats. Then he started strong criticism against Lamarck. 3. Payne experimented with Drosophila flies and noticed that even after bringing up their 75 generations {nto dark chamber, no offspring was born as blind. 4, In Indian subcontinent, for long years, females make holes in their nose and ears. But yet, none of their children are born with holes in nose or ears ‘5, Muslim and Jews boys undergo circumcision by cutting the prepuce of penis, but none of the children ‘would have cut prepuce at birth. 6. Due to overuse, instead of being larger in size, sometimes organs are seen to be smaller. 7. Concept of organ formation due to necessity and searcity is not acceptable. No man will have wings like birds even if he wishes to fly in the sky. Currently the concept regarding how characteristics are transmitted from parents to offspring and how new traits are formed in organisms through changes, is much clear due to progress of genetics. According to Lamarck, acquired characteristics result from change in somatic cell asa result of use and disuse. Though he is the first pioneer of evolution, this concept of Lamarck is not true. Now it is proved that somatic cells have no role in heredity. Only those characteristics, which are brought about by change in germ cells, are transmitted into next generations, Conclusion: Lamarckism has been proved unscientific and unacceptable, But yet, he first realized the relation between environment and evolution in formation of new species. Hence, he is the first evolution. neer of Darwinism or the theory of natural selection Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) was a British Naturalist. He expressed his thoughtful and strong pinion on Evolution in the book “Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" published in 1859. The concept is known as Darwinism or the theory of natural selection, He presented realistic information about the techniques and the flow of evolution through this theory. He also ‘wrote books about plants, coral, origin of human, geological survey of voleanoes etc. 2 Charles Robert Darwin was one of the world’s mastermind in modem inking. He was the first to make the events of evolution logical and a universally accepted on the basis of his empirical data with deep devotion. CES Prey, Scanned with CamScannerChapter- 11 He started his journey from Davenport of England on 27 December, 1831 as an honorary naturalist of the naval ship H, M. $, Beagle (Her Majestic Service Beagle) naval along with a surveyor team of South Atlantic and Pacific Ocean. Beagle retumed to England on 2"! October, 1835 after a long journey of five years (1831-1836) visiting Patagonia, the Falkland Islands, Galapagos Islands, the Island of St. Jago, pm Brazil, Tahiti, Australia and New Zealand through the Indian Ocean and the Cape of Good Hope. Darwin collected many fossils, minerals and stones from this sea travel, He wrote several volumes of book on the basis of the collected information, For the next 20 years, he gathered thousands of evidences on the problems of the origin of species and wrote the draft about the origin of species. Later, with the logical analysis of natural selection and evidences, Darwin's conclusive and world-shaking book in the title of "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” was published on 4 November, 1859. In the | CHARLES DARWIN contemporary period, another British Naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace © expressed similar concept regarding evolution like Darwin. Therefore, Darwinism is also called ‘Darwin- Wallace hypothesis’. Darwin died on 19 April, 1882 at 73. He was buried at Westminster abbey beside the grave of Sir Isaac Newton, Darwinism The speech presented by Darwin and Wallace about organic evolution in 1858 was known as Darwinism later on. The theory has two basis; they are- (1) Observation of some real events of the living world and (ii) Publishing the results of these real events. Darwinism is divided into 6 steps on basis of these two. Every organism has to pass through these steps to form a single species. According to the last step, Darwinism could be called the theory of natural selection, Because during the final stage of origin of the species, nature selects who are able or unable to survive. The theory of natural selection by Charles Darwin was based on the comparative study of some separate inferences and some experimental results, ‘The fundamental decisions are highlighted in the table below, 1. Prodigality of production 2, Limitation for food and space } siugae for existence 3, Struggle for existence “+ Omnipotence of variation amongst the individual survival ote itest 5, Survival of the fittest ; } The origin of new species 6, Natural Selection Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Chapter- 11 di ‘The description of Darwin's theory is given below ~ 1. Prodigality of production: All living organisms demonstrate a geometric progression in terms of breeding. ‘number of organisms capable of Survival is less than the number of animals which are born. For example, Salmon fish Lays 28000000 eggs in one season. If all the eggs mature and grow into developed adults then all oceans of the earth will be filled by only one type of fish. As a result of this the 2. Limitation of food and space: ‘The natural rate of food production and the area of the earth surface are limited. In these circumstances, there will be competition for food and space among the different species. So, they will be met with different natural obstacles. 3, Struggle for existence: According to Darwin, natural obstacles are effective by the struggle for existence. On one side there is continuous breeding on the other side there are limitations of food and of living space or shelter. In this way the fittest of the species that are capable of survival are selected. This is struggle for existence. The struggle for existence occurs in the following three processes: a) Intraspecific struggle: The food habit and appropriate shelter for the members of one species is the same all over. So, there is massive competition among the members to ensure their survival. This is called intraspecific struggle. For example, there are countless seeds embedded into the ground under a banyan tree, but a young plant rising from the seeds is hardly seen, Because the nutrients required for the young plants to sprout is not found in the area below the tree. Rather if some seeds are carried away by Birds or some other medium and make their way into the soil then these seeds sprout and become young plants. Again, if for example the number of Herbivorous animals in an island increases at an exponential rate, then massive competition arises between the members of the species. The strong ‘overbears the weak and dominates the struggle for food and habitat. b) Interspecific struggle: The competition for survival between the members of two or more species is called interspecific struggle. For example, frogs live on different insects but they are themselves eaten by snakes. On the other hand, both Snakes and frogs are eaten by peacocks. In this way for various organic reasons the cruel but practical predator-prey relationship between different organisms directs the interspecific struggle. ©) Environmental struggle: Animals grow up in c environments. And so, they have to face the adversities. of this environment. The struggle against these environmental obstacles is called environmental struggle. Excessive rainfall, drought, earthquake, excessive heat or cold, epidemics, cyclone, Hurricane, Tsunami, flooding causes great damage to all living organisms. The Ice Age has made innumerable species including the mammoth extinct. The environment takes these steps in order to maintain balance: Scanned with CamScannerOMe en Chapter. 11 4. Universal occurrence of variations: mn this device world no two organisms are the same. Even siblings bom from the same set of parents do not bear the same exact qualities despite having some similarities. These changes are known as the variation. According to Darwin, the changes that occur in a species in the struggle of existence vary genetically. These changes may be of two types: continuous changes and periodic changes. In continuous change one or more Characteristics of the organisms are changed. These changes develop overtime and gain completion. Eventually new species are created. This is why Darwin identified variation as a raw material for evolution. Periodic changes are sudden, irregular and harmful in most cases. So, periodic changes do not play a very big role in the creation of new species. 5. Survival of the fittest: ‘among the living organisms, the ones which can best tackle the different natural calamities and obstacles will survive. Favourable variations are seen in these animals which have adapted to the environment well. On the ‘other hand, if some species of unfavourable variations and they could not tackle the environmental hazards, then they became extinct. In this way only the fittest survive in a natural environment. This is why dinosaurs are extinct. 6. Natural selection: The organisms which have the favourable variations are selected and brought up by the environment around them, The iproved species can adapt to the environment and breed more than their less-developed varieties. Among their descendants, the benefits are inherited. Nature re-selects those with more favourable traits. In this way, new species of animals and plants are created through nature's selection over the ages. Criticism of Darwinism In the case of evolution Darwinism is undeniably a Revolutionary and critical contribution. Even though it is supported worldwide, itis not accepted all over the world. The reason for this is that just as there are some logical and commendable sides to this theory, there are also some illogical sides. A comparative discussion is given below: Logical aspects or strength 1, The main statements of Darwinism like high rate of breeding, struggle for survival etc, are mostly tru and logical. 2, The proofs that have so far been accumulated linked to evolution are alin support of Darwinism. 3, In the past, many huge animals have failed in the struggle for survival and have gone extinct. 4, The extinction of different animals because ofthe lack of adaptability supports the theories of Darwinism. ‘Two animals of the same species are never the same in nature, This is proof of variation in nature, 5, Two Scanned with CamScannerZoology (English Version) Mogical aspects or weakness wval ofthe fittest has been mentioned but how these variations were 1, In the struggle for existence the survi achieved has not been mentioned 2. All types of selection in the animal world were not natural selection / ‘Natural selection is unable to explain the existence of different inactive parts in various living beings 4. Darwin proposed all types of variation as hereditary. But we know that only the characteristics bom by the sex genes in an organism are hereditary. ‘5. The very small differences that are created between very similar species of the same genus can hardly be the base for the foundation of new species. Neo-Darwinism Almost one hundred and fifty years have passed since the publication of Darwin's theory. In this time, the researches on life science have yielded many new information. Particularly in the past century, genes, ‘chromosomes and mutations have been extensively studied. In its continuity, Weismann and his followers pointed out weaknesses of Darwin's theory and corrected it in the light of new knowledge in the initial stage. ‘Weismann and his follower’s new evaluation of Darwin's natural selection theory is called Neo-Darwinism. Weismann’s studies proved that the external impact of environment on the living body is not inherited in organism. He cut the tail of baby mice over generations but noticed no mice were born in consequence without a til or even with a shorter tal. In 1896, he mentioned in his Germplasm-Somatoplasm theory tha the germplasm stays inthe reproductive cell and somatic cell stays in the rest of the body cells of an organism. Although the environmental impact could bring changes in the somatoplasm but notin the germplasm. 5 the only change that took place in somatoplasm cannot be inherited, So, all the direct effects of the environment cannot be the prerequisites of evolution, Among the Neo-darwinians, besides Weiseman, T-H. Huxley, H. Spencer, B.S. Jordan, Asa Gray and F- Haeckel are also mentionable, They explained in Neo-Darwinism that — 1, Natural selection occurs at population level, 2. AAdapation has a number of causes, among which natural selection is the one. 3: Natural selection occurs inthe germplasm layer of organism, And the changes of germplasm are ale © achieve heredity. which results in new species, 77° Scanned with CamScanner