Disrupting The Tradition: Examining The Effectiveness of An Assets-Based Approach To Supporting Special Needs Education in Malawi

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL POLICY STUDIES
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UW-MADISON
PHD MILESTONES: PILOT PROJECT
JANUARY 6, 2024
PILOT PAPER TOPIC:
DISRUPTING THE TRADITION: EXAMINING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF

AN ASSETS-BASED APPROACH TO SUPPORTING SPECIAL NEEDS
EDUCATION IN MALAWI.
ARUNA KALLON
Pilot Paper - Kallon
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION............................................................................p. 2
1.1 Background and Context
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................p. 6
2.1 Relationship Between SNE and IE
2.2 Funding for SNE and SE
2.3 National and International Legal and Policy Frameworks
2.4 Disability and SNE in Malawi
2.5 Resources in Malawi’s Education System
CHAPTER 3: METHODS.......................................................................................p. 21
3.1 Data Collection
3.2 Analytical Approach
3.3 Limitations
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ......................................p. 27
4.1 Leveraging Existing Assets and Supports
4.2 The SNE Resource Center and SNE Teacher Model
4.3 Relationships and Practices as Assets and Opportunities
4.4 Local Support and Community Relationships
4.5 The Ethos of “Ubuntu” and Socio-cultural Contexts
4.6 Teacher Support
4.7 Peer Support
4.8 Parental Support
4.9 The Benefit of Safe Spaces for Disabled Children in School
4.10 Policy Implications
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION.................................................................................p. 57
CHAPTER 6: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH……….…. p. 59
REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………... p. 61
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Disrupting the Tradition: Examining the Effectiveness of an Assets-Based
Approach to Supporting Special Needs Education in Malawi.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and Context
Access to quality education is a fundamental human right that is recognized in various
international consensus documents, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which
establish explicit targets for countries to pursue regarding educational access (United Nations
2015). Goal 4 of the SDGs emphasizes the importance of ensuring accessible education for all
(United Nations, 2015). The right of children with disabilities to education is established in Article
24 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD)
(United Nations, 2006). Nonetheless, children with disabilities face numerous obstacles to
educational inclusion, participation, and achievement, including inaccessible school facilities and
transportation, insufficient teacher skills in special education, negative attitudes from caregivers
and teachers, and inadequate resources to support inclusive practices (Banks et al. 2019; Singal et
al. 2015; Taneja-Johansson, Singal & Samson 2021; United Nations 2019). The consequences of
these human rights inequities have also been calculated in economic terms: a 2018 World Bank
report found the exclusion of children with disabilities from education to have an adverse
economic impact at the family, community, and country level, concluding that the lack of
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educational opportunities for children with disabilities can pose a significant barrier to their ability
to earn a livelihood and maintain economic wellbeing in the future (World Bank, 2018).
Educational provision for children with disabilities has been shaped by historical, political,
and social influences. The U.S.-centric historical understanding of education for children with
disabilities as a separate educational provision whose shape and scope were fundamentally based
on a medical model of ‘disability’ in segregated institutions has gradually shifted to perspectives
emphasizing human rights and advocating for educational provision for children with disabilities
and special educational needs within mainstream schools (Werning et al, 2016, p. 12). Hence,
understanding the diverse landscape of educational provision for children with disabilities in
Africa requires an examination of the interplay between these colonial legacies, international
movements such as Education for All (EFA), and the challenges of implementing change in diverse
national contexts.
In Africa, the context of education for children with disabilities has additional complexities
due to a long history of colonial non-inclusion and segregation. These colonial educational models
starkly contrasted with traditional African models of special education, where community
membership sufficed for inclusion (Walton, 2018). It was not uncommon for colonial education
policy to institutionalize differences, often to the detriment of marginalized groups, including
children with disabilities. Consequently, colonial legacies have left a persisting impact on the
African education system (Peters, 2007). Pushback against these institutionalized disparities was
reorganized and gained new momentum within the post-colonial initiative of EFA, a movement
sparked by the World Conference on Education for All held in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990
(UNESCO, 2005). This movement aimed to meet the learning needs of all children, youth, and
adults by 2015. However, its adaptation in Africa encountered several obstacles. Initially,
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numerous funders rejected the implementation of EFA on the continent. When they did start to
back the initiative, it was often with a continued emphasis on segregation (UNESCO, 2005). This
reluctance to unequivocally embrace inclusive models of education likely stemmed from various
factors, such as a perceived lack of infrastructure, resources, and expertise necessary to support
inclusive practices, as well as the persistence of colonial-era attitudes and practices (Stubbs, 2008).
Thus, instead of an immediate transition to inclusion, many African countries initially saw the
(re)introduction of segregative models under the EFA umbrella, with a promise by international
organizations of providing financial support for moving toward inclusion over time (Armstrong et
al, 2011). This led to a "mishmash" of education models across the continent, as varying models
were implemented depending on the extent of available support and the readiness of individual
countries to break from colonial legacies (Armstrong et al, 2011).
As noted above, the evolution of special education and understanding of the education for
children with disabilities has been significantly influenced by the fundamental principle of
Education for All, that all children should have the opportunity to learn (Peters, 2004). The core
goals of EFA have greatly influenced the evolution of special education over time, with a particular
emphasis on inclusion, and the aim to integrate students with disabilities into mainstream
classrooms.
The idea of including all learners came to the forefront in the late 20th century, with the
EFA principles acting as a major driver for this shift (Kauffman & Hung, 2009). The shift towards
inclusive practices also precipitated changes in legislation, as countries restructured their
educational systems to provide quality education for all students, including those with disabilities.
For example, in the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was
updated to mandate the least restrictive environment for students with disabilities, aligning with
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the EFA's emphasis on inclusivity (Yell, Rogers & Rogers, 1998). The EFA framework also
stressed quality in education, emphasizing the need for teacher training and appropriate curriculum
modifications to meet the needs of students with disabilities and to facilitate the shift towards
inclusion (Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011).
The principle of lifelong learning under EFA also had a significant impact on special
education. It recognizes that learning happens in various settings and across the lifespan,
prompting an increased focus on transition planning for students with disabilities. This principle
influenced the development of programs aimed at ensuring students with disabilities can
successfully transition from school to work or higher education (Carter, Austin & Trainor, 2012).
While the EFA's goal of universal education for all by 2015 was not fully achieved, the principles
it laid out have deeply influenced the evolution of special education, particularly with respect to
inclusive practice and lifelong learning. Despite ongoing challenges, these principles continue to
guide current practices and policies related to special education (Carter, Austin & Trainor, 2012).
While there are many studies based on empirical data from Western countries in the field
of disability and special education, there are very few available from developing countries.
Similarly, there is little empirical literature on disability and special education from Malawi; what
there is often comes out of reports by governmental and non-governmental organizations, though
there is also a smaller body of work in academic journal articles. In general, these reports and
articles reflect a small and incomplete research base, often focused on the particular interests of a
project or policy that is being planned or evaluated (Ebuenyi et al., 2023). The following section
presents a review of literature on special education and education of children with disabilities in
Malawi.
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This section highlights the conceptual and theoretical frames upon which the majority of
the literature is based and examines the (limited) empirical basis for claims made in the literature.
There are several terms and ways of thinking about education for children with disabilities,
including special education (SE), special needs education (SNE), inclusive education (IE),
individualized education program (IEP), differentiated instruction, and mainstreaming (Hayes &
Bulat, 2017; Ziernwald, Hillmayr & Holzberger, 2022; Kabasakal, Özcebe & Arslan, 2020). Each
of these terms represents a different approach to educating children with disabilities and has its
own set of principles and practices. In this section, I will focus on the two terms regularly used in
Malawi since at least the 2000s: SNE and IE. SNE refers to the pedagogical strategies designed
for people with disabilities. It emphasizes enhancing educational outcomes and life quality for
these individuals through specialized interventions, facilitated by trained personnel and
appropriate devices. In other words, SNE is tailored to address the distinct learning requirements
of individuals with disabilities (Thomas, Walker, & Webb, 1997). Historically, this educational
approach was centered on providing specialized instruction, resources, and support to ensure
equitable access to quality education for these individuals (Hauya & Makuwira, 1996; Hallahan,
2005). Recent research has expanded on this understanding, particularly in the context of Malawi
and its neighboring regions. In Malawi, SNE refers not just to pedagogical strategies for disabled
children but encompasses the full range of policies, programs, and practices aimed at providing
quality education tailored to the needs of children with disabilities and other vulnerabilities
(Chilemba, 2013). Evidence of this is found in Malawi’s national SNE policy, which provides a
framework for SNE in Malawi, focusing on three priority areas and components of SNE as
stipulated in the National Educational Sector Plan (NESP), namely, early identification,
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assessment and intervention; advocacy, care and support; management, planning and financing;
access, quality, equity and relevance (Government of Malawi, 2009).
2.1. Relationship Between Special Needs Education and Inclusive Education
SNE and IE are related concepts, but they differ in their approach to educating children
with disabilities. SNE focuses on providing education and support for students with disabilities in
separate classrooms or schools (Welsh, 2018). It aims to address the specific needs of these
students, such as cognitive, sensory, or physical impairments, and it is “concerned with
accommodating individual differences through institutional transformations” (Rix, 2020, p.284).
In contrast, IE is a more recent concept, which evolved in response to the shortcomings of the
special education approach. Inclusive education aims to provide education for all students,
regardless of their abilities, in the same classroom or school environment, and it denotes physical
presence in a mainstream school (Gachago, 2018; Hornby, 2015). It focuses on adapting teaching
methods and materials to accommodate the needs of all students, including those with disabilities.
IE seeks to promote social inclusion, equality, and respect for diversity (Gachago, 2018). In the
context of Malawi, the two terms may often be confounded or misunderstood. SNE emerged in
the mid-20th century as a response to the growing recognition that students with disabilities, who
were often excluded from the mainstream education system, required special provisions, often in
separate classrooms or schools (Soni et al., 2021). The conceptualizations and interpretations of
IE largely echo the transfer of ideas from high-income countries, “… where adequate funding as
well as highly qualified professional support structures are freely available” (Nithi & Petra, 2018,
p.2).
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2.2 Funding for SNE and IE
Funding for both SNE and IE in Malawi has historically been provided by the government
and supplemented by foreign aid and non-governmental organizations (Education International,
2020). Through its annual budget, the Malawian government, specifically the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology, routinely earmarks funds dedicated to the broader educational
sector. This partition, although often constricted, includes funding for special and inclusive
education (Education International, 2020). This governmental commitment finds its foundation in
international pacts, particularly the Sustainable Development Goals, with SDG 4 being of
particular relevance as it champions the cause of inclusive and equitable education for all (United
Nations, 2015). The fiscal limitations of the domestic budget are often supplemented by
international organizations. The UN children’s fund (UNICEF) has provided both financial
assistance and technical expertise aimed at enhancing educational outcomes for children with
disabilities. Their endeavors encompass a broad range, from capacitating educators through
training to developing infrastructural modifications that cater to the unique requirements of
students with special needs (UNICEF Malawi, 2020; 2021;2022). A significant portion of this
funding has also come from foreign aid agencies, including the Danish International Development
Assistance (DANIDA), and the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD). For
example, a fraction of NORAD's overall disability-focused aid to Malawi was directed towards
supplementing Malawi’s government support for special needs education. Norway provided 2.77
billion NOK in aid to Malawi over 11 years, 9% (250 million NOK) of which went towards
disability-focused projects, with most of that amount directly targeting persons with disabilities
through initiatives such as community-based rehabilitation programs (Nordic Consulting Group,
2012; World Bank, 2004). Similarly, numerous local and international NGOs have been
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instrumental in mitigating the financial and knowledge gaps prevalent in the educational sector.
Their multifaceted initiatives encompass allocation of targeted financial resources to bolster
special education programs, empowering educators with the requisite skills to adeptly handle
various classroom environments, advocacy for policy reforms to embed inclusivity as a
foundational educational tenet, and developmental projects tailored to meet the needs of children
with disabilities (Taylor, 2019).
Given that the Malawi school system is currently organized around SNE, even though there
are inclusive education efforts, I will here narrow my focus on the SNE literature and policy
because that is the official framework for thinking about and funding education for students with
disabilities in Malawi. In Malawi, where policies and educational funding are very limited (Banks
et al., 2022), the frameworks used to determine how resources will be spent are essential for
understanding what is possible in an average public school. Thus, critically examining the SNE
policy landscape and discourse allows essential interrogation of the systems that direct resource
allocation for learners with disabilities.
2. 3 National and International Legal and Policy Frameworks
The purpose of this section is to present literature that identifies the current trends in SNE
policy and their movement from the international policy agendas to the local Malawian policy
contexts. This section draws on the explanations of the legal frameworks within which the
Malawian SNE efforts are undertaken. Most countries in the Global South are sensitized by and
are responsive to international policy documents, such as the Salamanca Statement and Framework
for Action, toward a need to develop inclusive schools that accommodate and facilitate learning
for all children regardless of physical, intellectual, social and other differences. Hence, the
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international framework for IE now transcends the traditionally limited focus on special
educational needs arising from disabilities to include all forms of marginalization, including
discrimination based on gender, poverty, sexual orientation and race and ethnicity, all of which
provide the impetus for ongoing reforms in education (Werning et al, 2016).
The framing of the notion of IE in the context of high-GDP countries such as the United
States and most countries in Western Europe includes the process of recognizing and appreciating
the diverse educational needs of, and providing equitable educational opportunities for, children
of diverse backgrounds, in ordinary or inclusive classrooms (Engelbrecht et al, 2015). However,
this is not always done in practice. The treatment of LGBTQ+ youth in the United States education
system (Russell, et al., 2021) is an example of how these goals are not being met. The same is true
for many Black, Brown, and Indigenous students. Despite stated commitments to inclusion,
systemic racism and ongoing legacies of oppression in the US education system often deny Black,
Brown, and Indigenous students truly equitable access and outcomes. These students face higher
rates of school discipline, over-representation in special education, curricula that ignore diverse
histories and cultures, and chronic resource inequities (Annamma et al., 2013; Cooc & Kiru, 2018).
These discrepancies underscore the importance of critically examining how IE is being
implemented and who is being left out, marginalized, or discriminated against in these models.
In lower-GDP contexts such as sub-Saharan Africa, educational inclusion has focused
more specifically on ensuring access and participation for children with disabilities and other forms
of vulnerabilities. Thus, SNE implies an emphasis on providing specialized services and support
to students with disabilities or other special learning needs. It mirrors the goals of enabling access
and participation for vulnerable groups outlined in the EFA declaration and the educational
objectives of the Millennium Development Goals (United Nations, 2014) and the Sustainable
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Development Goals. This notion also reflects a twenty-first century human rights framework that
considers special needs education provisions as necessary for ensuring the right of every child to
education (United Nations, 2006). There is also a substantial body of literature and research on
SNE policy and practice across the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region.
The literature reviewed suggests that most SADC countries have clearly defined policies on SNE,
though implementation remains a challenge (Chitiyo et al., 2019; Mugumbate & Nyanguru, 2013).
While IE ideals are emergent in the region, SNE remains a prominent model for educating children
with disabilities. Malawi's National Education Policy defines special needs as "a system for
providing a conducive learning environment for learners who may require extra support in order
to achieve maximum potential" (Ministry of Education Malawi, 2013). The policy recognizes that
children with disabilities face many challenges in accessing education and acknowledges the need
to address these barriers to ensure their inclusion in education. In addition to the National
Education Policy, Malawi has also adopted the Education Act of 2013, which outlines the right of
every child to access education, including those with disabilities. The Act states that "every child
with a disability shall have the right to access education and shall be provided with reasonable
accommodation necessary to facilitate the child's learning and development" (Ministry of
Education, 2013).
2. 4. Disability and SNE in Malawi
As noted above, while IE has come to be considered by education policymakers and
international funders as the gold standard in Malawi, for a variety of reasons that will be described
below, the framework for providing education for children with disabilities follows an SNE model.
These realities reflect policymakers’ and practitioners’ practical orientation around special needs
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education in Malawi. There remains a need for more broad-based, empirical research on disability
and education from an inclusion perspective. Starting with this contextualization can illuminate
how this study aims to build knowledge and evidence related to inclusive, asset-based practices
within the existing SNE policy environment.
Particularly pertinent to this research is the state of SNE in Malawi. SNE in Malawi
represents a pivotal component of the broader educational system, bearing significant implications
for inclusivity and equity in access to education. Studies indicate that approximately 10.4% of
individuals aged five years and above in Malawi live with at least one form of disability (Idrissa,
2022), with the majority living in poverty (Prynn et al., 2021). Efforts to identify disabilities are
complicated by high levels of poverty, disease burdens, lack of medical care, etc., all of which
intersect (Harrison et al., 2020). Indeed, in Malawi (as in most of the world) there is a close
connection between disability and poverty. People with disabilities are more likely to be living in
poverty due to limited opportunities for education, employment, and social participation, and a
nonexistent government safety net for people with disabilities. Likewise, people living in poverty
are more susceptible to disability due to lack of access to healthcare (particularly during childbirth
and early years) and exposure to environmental hazards. This intersectionality of disability and
poverty has significant implications for the education of children with disabilities in Malawi.
The types of disabilities among this population include 49% who experience visual
challenges, 24% auditory difficulties, 27% mobility impairments, 16% intellectual challenges, 9%
speech difficulties, and 0.8% who are persons with albinism (Idrissa, 2022). As per the 2018/2019
Education Sector Performance Report and the 2022 annual school census, the proportion of
children with special educational needs who are enrolled in primary schools is 3.3% of the total
enrollment (Idrissa, 2022; Ministry of Education, 2022). Malawi’s 2022 annual school census
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reported the total number of learners with special needs to be 164,130, representing a decrease at
an average of 1.8 percent from 2018 when the number of SNE learners stood at 175,051 (Ministry
of Education, 2022). The annual school census categorized learners with special needs as Low
Vision, Blind, Hard of Hearing, Deaf, Physical Impairment, Learners with Learning difficulties
and Albinism (Ministry of Education, 2022).
The SNE landscape in the country is marked by multifaceted challenges that necessitate an
in-depth examination to guide policy responses and interventions effectively. One of the primary
challenges is the scarcity of resources dedicated to SNE. An analysis of educational infrastructure
reveals a landscape that is not always physically accessible for learners with disabilities (Idrissa,
2022). Schools often lack necessary modifications such as ramps, wide doorways, and appropriate
sanitary facilities, rendering them physically inaccessible for children with mobility challenges.
This exclusion from physical access undermines the rights of these learners to education.
A closely related issue is the shortage of trained personnel, with many teachers lacking the
requisite skills to cater effectively to learners with diverse needs (Lingolwe, 2021). Training for
SNE is not a compulsory part of teacher education in Malawi, resulting in a significant knowledge
gap in classroom practice. Teachers often find themselves ill-equipped to adapt their teaching
methodologies to include learners with disabilities, hindering these learners' educational progress.
Moreover, these structural challenges are further exacerbated by a lack of appropriate learning and
teaching materials. Many classrooms lack assistive devices and learning materials that are adapted
to the needs of children with disabilities, posing significant obstacles to learning (Devendra et al.,
2017).
However, despite these significant challenges, the Malawian government has demonstrated
a commitment to improving SNE. For instance, the government has developed and adopted the
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National Inclusive Education Strategy, which outlines its strategic objectives and interventions for
promoting inclusive education (Government of Malawi, 2016). Malawi's Education Sector Plan
(2008-2017) prioritizes access, equity, and inclusion for children with special health and education
needs, recognizing the importance of providing equal opportunities for all learners, including those
with disabilities (UNICEF Malawi, 2020). The 2006 National Policy on Equalization of
Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities promotes equal access and inclusion in education and
training programs. The 2007 National Policy on Special Needs Education defines special needs
education as a learning environment that provides access, accommodates, and supports all learners,
including those with special needs. The 2012 Disability Act provides a legal framework for the
protection and promotion of the rights of persons with disabilities in Malawi, and the 2017-2021
National Strategy on Inclusive Education focuses on educating all learners in inclusive settings.
Thus, while Malawi's primary education sector faces significant challenges, particularly in terms
of resource allocation and SNE, the government's commitment to improving the sector provides a
hopeful outlook.
The conceptualizations and interpretations of IE found in these policies largely echo the transfer of
ideas from high-income countries, “… where adequate funding as well as highly qualified professional
support structures are freely available” (Nithi & Petra, 2018, p.2). According to the Malawi Growth and
Development Strategy (MGDS), a national planning document, there is a clear emphasis on enhancing the
quality of education for students with disabilities (Government of Malawi, 2017). The document underscores
the necessity for a supportive infrastructure, teacher training, and the development of teaching and learning
materials tailored to the needs of learners with disabilities. This strategy noticeably aligns more with the tenets
of SNE than the broader encompassing strategies associated with IE.
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A report by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2018) indicated that Malawi, like many
of its neighboring countries, faces considerable challenges in mainstreaming students with
disabilities into regular classrooms. These data suggest that, while IE is a recognized international
goal, SNE remains the more established and practical framework within the country's educational
paradigm currently. SNE is more practical given constraints like the lack of adequately trained
mainstream teachers to accommodate students with disabilities, limited funding to modify
infrastructure and duplicate accessible teaching/learning materials, and shortages of assistive
technologies for diverse impairment needs (Banks et al., 2022). Until these systemic gaps are
addressed through expanded teacher training, increased budgets, and procurement of assistive
devices, SNE models that segregate students into special classrooms or schools remain the only
way to provide some level of specialized education services. Additionally, cultural attitudes
towards disability can also contribute to the confounding of SNE and IE in Malawi.
Misunderstandings and stigmas surrounding disability can lead to resistance against IE practices
and a preference for more traditional, segregated SNE models (Chataika, 2018).
Despite favorable policies and strategies, learners with disabilities still face extensive
barriers to education in Malawi. The research on SNE practices in Malawi has mostly focused on
these barriers from within a deficit framing, without seeking to understand the value of local assets.
I seek to understand the low-cost, locally developed strategies used in supporting education for
children with disabilities in Malawi. I draw on primary data collected through field research
utilizing an assets-based approach in six primary schools in Malawi with a higher-than average
proportion of SNE student enrollments, to examine how education infrastructure and facilities are
being made more accessible and inclusive to students. By utilizing an assets-based approach to
understanding system practices and responses to students with disabilities, rather than their
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limitations or deficits, I aim to provide insights into the effective, local, and low-cost strategies for
promoting special needs education in Malawi that were identified through the school case studies.
SNE in Malawi is mainly provided through resource classrooms. These are special
education units within select regular schools that provide specialized instruction and additional
resources to support the learning of children with disabilities (Banks, 2022). According to the
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, in 2021 there were a total of 60 resource rooms
in primary schools, which constitutes a small percentage of the total number of classrooms
available (0.8%) for primary school (Banks, 2022). The schools with resource rooms are usually
located in zonal centers—that is, schools in more urban settings that host other educational
resources (such as teacher education centers) as well. There are also "special schools" that offer
education to children with specific disabilities in segregated settings, primarily for those with
vision and hearing impairments, although many of these are being converted into resource centers
(Artiles et al., 2015). Nevertheless, data from UNICEF Malawi in 2020 indicate that the majority
of primary and secondary school students with disabilities (98% and 93%, respectively) attend
mainstream schools, where resources for IE are unlikely to be available (UNICEF Malawi, 2020).
As noted previously, government and international education actors have noted the
significant barriers to SNE that currently exist in Malawi. The Malawi National Inclusive
Education Strategy (NIES) (2017) reports that there are several factors that exclude learners from
and/or within the education system, including inaccessible school infrastructure, negative attitudes
towards learners with special needs, a lack of counseling and psychosocial support services for
learners with special needs at school and community levels, teachers’ lack of experience, skills
and knowledge to teach learners with special needs, among others (Lingolwe, Chirwa & Naidoo,
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2021). Below, I review key aspects of the Malawian education system that cannot currently address
the NIES demands.
Infrastructure: Inaccessible school infrastructure includes, inter alia, classrooms,
sanitation facilities, water points, playgrounds, and fences around the schools. The NIES policy
states that the district education offices should ensure that school infrastructure and facilities are
accessible to all learners of varying needs (Chirwa, Lingolwe, & Naidoo, 2021). The United
Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals, which scope the development agenda for all
countries in the world, require countries to build and upgrade education facilities that are child-,
disability-, and gender-sensitive, and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive, and effective learning
environments for all. Studies show that providing appropriate facilities and resources and creating
optimal learning conditions for students are crucial to creating a conducive learning environment
that enables students to achieve their full potential. Indeed, researchers have argued that “…
investments in school infrastructure and the physical conditions for learning are not a luxury but a
need” (Barrett et al, 2019, p.13). Despite this robust policy framework for addressing the
infrastructural needs of all children, most schools in Malawi remain ill-equipped to accommodate
students with disabilities (Banks & Zuurmond, 2015).
Identification: The Malawi NIES gives mainstream schools a key responsibility for
implementing inclusive education, including, among other things, identifying learners with diverse
needs (Lingolwe, Chirwa & Naidoo, 2021). However, the only mechanisms to support teachers in
identifying disabilities in children are for vision and hearing impairments, making it hard or
impossible to identify or obtain data on, for example, mental disorders (Tataryn et al, 2017) or the
sequelae of common disabilities related to childbirth complications, such as epilepsy and cerebral
palsy. In a study conducted to understand how IE policy is interpreted and practiced at the school
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level in Zomba district, Ishida, Maluwa-Banda, Moyo, & Mgogo (2017) found that the schools in
the study had limited (or no) capacity to identify pupils with disabilities. This begs questions such
as: how many children labelled as having a disability actually attend school, how many children
with disabilities that have not been labelled attend (or fail to attend) school, and how do teachers
understand constructs like “disability” when they are not medicalized through particular
identification mechanisms? These questions become even more imperative when we consider
children with disabilities in rural areas in Malawi, where identification mechanisms are even more
limited (Ishida, Maluwa-Banda, Moyo, & Mgogo, 2017).
2.5. Resources in Malawi’s Education System
Malawi is a landlocked country in southeastern Africa. It shares borders with Tanzania to
the north and northeast, Mozambique to the east, south, and southwest, and Zambia to the west.
As of 2022, the population is estimated at over 19 million, with more than half of the population
under 18 years of age (World Bank, 2022). The country's commitment to education is reflected in
its constitution, which stipulates that all children have the right to free and compulsory primary
education (Heymann, et al., 2014). Public primary education in Malawi has undergone significant
changes in recent decades. The country introduced free primary education in 1994, which led to a
surge in enrolment rates (World Bank, 2010). However, the education sector continues to face
numerous challenges that hinder the provision of quality education.
One of the main challenges to public education in Malawi is limited resources.
Overcrowded classrooms and a high pupil-to-teacher ratio significantly impede the quality of
education. As reported by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2021), the average pupil-teacher
ratio in Malawi's primary schools was 73:1 in 2019 (UNESCO, 2020), and 62:1 in 2021 (Ministry
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of Education, 2022), which is among the highest in the world. This extraordinarily high ratio has
detrimental effects on both teaching effectiveness and learning outcomes, contributing to the
difficulties faced by the education system in the country. Additionally, a 2017 USAID report
highlights a shortage of learning materials, such as textbooks, coupled with inadequate school
infrastructure. For instance, many schools lack basic sanitation facilities, affecting not only
learners' health but also their attendance, particularly among girls (USAID, 2017). Another crucial
concern in Malawi's primary education system is the high dropout rate. A 2018 UNESCO report
indicates that only a small percentage of learners complete the full cycle of primary education.
Many factors contribute to this, including poverty, early marriages, long distances to schools, and
limited awareness about the value of education.
The extreme resource limitations faced by Malawi's education system necessitate creative,
low-cost solutions that can be sustainably implemented within existing infrastructure and budgets.
While external aid provides some support, ultimately Malawi requires locally driven, grassroots
innovations that do not rely heavily on outside funding or expertise. According to the most recent
data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS), the average per student spending in Malawi
is about US$52 (UNICEF, 2022). Given this average, transformative change in Malawian
education realistically requires economical, context-appropriate approaches leveraging available
human capital and community assets. Within a landscape of scarcity, the most impactful
interventions will likely be simple, affordable, and grounded in Malawian knowledge, resources
and ingenuity.
Despite the copious scholarship on inclusion and disability in Malawi, previous literature
on SNE in Malawi has largely focused on identifying barriers to and the need for inclusive
practices, or on evaluating projects or programs. As such, it has often overlooked the significance
19
of local assets, including school- and community-based strategies for supporting education for
children with disabilities in Malawi. In this pilot paper, I seek to contribute to filling that gap. I
seek to understand the strategies used in supporting education for children with disabilities in
Malawi. I draw on primary interview and observation data collected through field research in six
primary schools in Malawi. The schools were selected for participation because they have
particularly high rates of enrollment of children with identified disabilities (and, therefore, are
assumed to be implementing practices that are particularly effective at supporting these children’s
enrollment), and the research focused on understanding existing school- and community-based
strategies that successfully support children with disabilities in Malawi without significant
additional external resources. The school sites and data collection procedures are described in the
next section.
I utilize an asset-based framework (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993) that aligns with the
goals of the research to identify the strengths of local resources and systems, including teachers,
parents, the school, and learners with disabilities, that led to these schools’ success at enrolling
children with disabilities. I examine how education infrastructure, facilities, and learning
opportunities are being made more accessible and inclusive to students in these six schools, as well
as the constraints that the schools still face in achieving SNE. By focusing on the assets within
these systems, and the limitations they experience because of structural constraints that could be
addressed with additional funding, I aim to provide insights into effective strategies for promoting
SNE in Malawi that all schools can achieve, as well as policy and programming suggestions for
those who have external funding to support children with disabilities.
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3. METHODS
3.1 Data Collection
This study applied the data collected through the Tikuyendadi: Supporting expansive
education for children with disabilities in Malawi project, a qualitative, research-to-action project
initiated to provide a wide-ranging understanding of whether and how children with disabilities
attend primary school in Malawi, and what policies and practices shape successful educational
experiences and outcomes for them. The study was conducted in six diverse schools in Malawi,
which were all identified as sites of best inclusive practices. The schools have a high number of
students identified as children with disabilities who attend the school and have meaningful learning
experiences, and the school itself embodies IE through its infrastructure, teaching practices, and/or
school-community relations. This paper draws on classroom observations, focus group
discussions, and interviews conducted by a Malawian research team with teachers, head teachers,
and SNE coordinators in six diverse primary schools in Malawi. Most research and programming
in support of expanding SNE focuses on what can be accomplished with the infusion of new
resources into school infrastructure, assistive technologies, and/or teachers (De Souza 2021). This
research aimed to identify current best practices in public elementary schools that utilize locally
available resources to support effective SNE provision, in order to share information about these
practices with all public schools throughout the country, as well as policymakers. As such, this
research was a study of outliers, which took place in Malawian schools that were recognized as
sites where the most effective SNE methods were being implemented.
The Tikuyendadi study mapped the official definitions, policies, and programs instituted
in Malawi to support children with disabilities by conducting a review of national IE policy; the
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peer-reviewed research and the grey literature on disability and SNE in Malawi and across the
region; and a review of teacher training materials. Two researchers hired to conduct the study then
conducted interviews with approximately 10 key national policymakers and, at each school, with
school and community partners, head teachers, teachers, local leaders, and district-level disability
rights and education activists; and conducted participant observations in all schools involved in
the study. Interviews and observations were combined into school case studies, which focused on
the assets that made the school successful at supporting students with disabilities, the constraints
that teachers and schools continued to face, and the nature and consequences of school-community
relations. Interviews were conducted at each of the schools, most often in teachers’ offices or
classrooms; interviews were begun in Chichewa but then followed the linguistic cues of each
interviewee, and thus were often composed of a mix of Chichewa and English. Interviews were
recorded, and the researchers then listened to the interviews to compose the case studies. Senior
research team members in Malawi and at UW-Madison then reviewed the case studies and posed
questions back to the researchers when they felt more detail was needed. This resulted in case
studies for each school of about 14 pages, which formed the basis for this analysis.
Additionally, I had the opportunity to engage directly with one of the primary researchers
on the ground in Malawi, to discuss the research process and the findings. They provided additional
context about the interviews/observations and schools, and I was able to ask questions to gain a
deeper understanding of the data collection, thus adding a valuable dimension to my understanding
of the study's outcomes. The table below compares the six schools based on their size, student to
teacher ratio, the availability of a resource center for children with disabilities, infrastructure, and
rural/urban location.
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Table 1: Participating School Breakdown
Size/ Student- Resource

School Name Location Enroll. Teacher Ratio Center Infrastructure Ramps Rural/Urban
Sunflower Accessible
Elementary Lilongwe classrooms and
School urban 2800 Missing data Yes toilets Yes Urban
Accessible
Blue Sky Lilongwe classrooms, some
Primary School Rural 1703 50:1 Yes braille Yes Rural
Rainbow Hills Accessible
Elementary Blantyre classrooms and
School Rural 895 52:1 Yes toilets Yes Rural
Forest Grove Few buildings,
Primary School Ntchisi 915 57:1 No accessible toilet Yes Rural
Golden Valley
Elementary Mzimba Some visual aids
School South 4817 84:1 No and wheelchairs Yes Rural
Accessible
South Hill Mzimba classrooms and
Primary School North 1871 81:1 No toilets No Rural
The themes identified in the data were generated inductively (Ramatea & Khanare (2021)
from the data set which was organized through a codebook I developed from the data. I adopted
the inductive approach in the interpretation and analysis of the data in this study to establish clear
links between the research objectives and the summary findings derived from the data (Thomas,
2006). This process included categorization of the coded topics, identification of basic units and
main themes and meaning construction. Interview data and fieldnotes from observations were
analyzed using thematic analyses to identify recurring themes and patterns related to disability,
SNE, relationship, local assets, infrastructure and strategies used to support children with
disabilities in primary schools. Initial codes were developed through a codebook, and these codes
were grouped into broader themes that sampled the main ideas and concepts in the data. These
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themes were then reviewed and refined to ensure clarity and consistency, though a process of
merging similar small themes and dividing larger themes into subthemes.
3.2 Analytical Approach
The analysis presented in this paper aims to understand the challenges faced by children
with disabilities in accessing public primary schooling in Malawi, as well as the steps taken by
these exemplar schools to successfully support these children’s education. In order to fully
understand the educational experiences of children with disabilities in Malawi, a complex and
nuanced understanding of the different factors influencing their lives is required. The asset-based
approach is especially important in this paper as it aligns with the approach used in the Tikuyendadi
study, which focused on identifying successful schools implementing IE practices.
The seminal work on asset-based approaches, particularly in community development
and research, is often attributed to John L. McKnight and John P. Kretzmann. Kretzmann and
McKnight's 1993 publication, "Building communities from the inside out: A path toward finding
and mobilizing a community's assets," was viewed as serving as an instructional manual for
revitalizing challenged communities. Its content, grounded in simplicity and practicality, drew
inspiration from the endeavors of visionary neighborhood leaders across the U.S. The majority of
the guide showcases success narratives in community-building, structured in a methodical
manner to introduce readers to a strategic approach, termed "asset-based community
development." This strategy, as delineated by the authors, emerged directly from grassroots
leadership experiences (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993). Their asset-based community
development (ABCD) approach emphasizes the strengths, capabilities, and assets of a community
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rather than its deficiencies or needs. In this work, Kretzmann and McKnight provide an analytical
framework for identifying and mobilizing community assets. They argue that successful
community development begins by focusing on the community's existing strengths and resources
rather than external interventions (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993). Their ABCD model has been
influential in shifting the perspective from a deficit-based approach to an asset-based approach
in various fields, including education, social work, and public health.
While I use an asset-based approach to analyze the schooling experiences of students in
the study, it is important to acknowledge that the Malawian society faces numerous constraints
due to systemic inequality and poverty. Rather than viewing these constraints as deficits, however,
they should be understood as factors that shape the development of assets. It is crucial to recognize
these constraints in order to determine which assets can be developed and which ones may be
harder to develop, as well as which constraints pose a threat to existing assets. By addressing these
constraints, we can better support an asset-based approach. Therefore, when we acknowledge the
struggles that still exist, we are not taking a deficit approach, but rather recognizing the challenges
that exist despite the assets that are present. For instance, acknowledging that SNE teachers are
overwhelmed is not a deficit approach, but rather recognizes and celebrates that these teachers are
doing their best despite the struggles they face, and that their efforts have a real impact on students’
experiences. At the same time, this recognition also allows us to understand the threats to current
assets that exist and that can be addressed by external actors (e.g., government officials,
international funders, etc.).
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3.3 Limitations
As an outsider to the Malawian context, I have certain limitations in understanding and
interpreting the data collected on SNE practices in rural schools in Malawi. My education
experience in Sierra Leone was characterized by similar resource constraints as those faced by
Malawi's education system, and there are certain parallels between the two countries' education
systems, such as similarities in the structure of the curriculum resulting from their shared colonial
past. The education systems of both countries have comparable arrangements in terms of their
organization and framework. This means that I do have a certain level of understanding of the
challenges faced by the Malawian education system. My experiences put me in a position to draw
some parallels and make some generalizations about the SNE practices in Malawi. However, I
acknowledge that Malawi and Sierra Leone are two distinct countries with different cultures,
histories, and contexts, and the experiences and challenges faced by SNE practices in each country
may differ significantly. For example, I am quite certain about my knowledge of the economic
constraints faced by the primary schools in rural Malawi, since I have observed similar constraints
in the rural schools of Sierra Leone that I have attended in the past. However, I am not completely
certain about my understanding of the cultural meaning-making or the cultural processes that shape
perceptions about disabilities in Malawi. Thus, my lack of direct knowledge of the Malawian
context limits my ability to fully grasp the nuances and complexities of the data. I have tried to
address these limitations in part by putting additional effort into building understanding and
sensitivity to the local context, and by checking in with one of the two data collectors—a very
experienced qualitative researcher in Malawi—to ask her opinion about the socio-cultural meaning
of particular responses or actions.
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4. FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
The data collected in this study suggest that Malawi has limited capacity to actualize
inclusive, rights-based approaches, regardless of philosophical commitments; if the operative SNE
frameworks are inadequate or misaligned, these limited funds will be even less effective at
actualizing equity. However, it will also be challenging to implement inclusion in Malawi if local
and community assets are not recognized and made use of. Specifically, traditional strategies,
indigenous knowledge systems, and informal community supports must be identified and
leveraged to advance inclusion. My study aims to unpack those frameworks as the essential starting
point for determining what is truly possible for improving equitable, quality education for children
with disabilities in Malawi’s resource-deprived public schools.
The observations, interviews, and discussions with study participants indicate that parents,
community members, and sociocultural norms and practices, all of which inform the relationships
and interactions children have with their immediate surrounding or the home; as well as teachers,
leadership, peers, infrastructure, and materials in the school's ecosystem are important factors in
supporting SNE. Thus, the analysis that follows will dissect these integral components and
individuals that the research identified as pivotal in crafting the educational experiences for
children with special needs. This analysis aims to explicitly correlate each element's contribution
to SNE with the overarching goal of understanding how these factors collectively influence and
support the effective delivery of SNE within the broader educational framework. Ultimately, the
aim is to understand how to strengthen SNE through changes across the ecosystem surrounding
children.
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4.1. Leveraging Existing Assets and Supports
The asset-based approach to special needs education is based on the idea that every
individual has unique strengths, talents, and abilities that can be utilized to promote their education
and well-being (Ramatea & Khanare, 2021). This approach focuses on identifying and building
upon the assets or strengths of learners with disabilities, their families, their teachers, and their
schools and communities, rather than solely focusing on their limitations or deficits. Asset-based
approaches can be used to frame projects, to evaluate programs or outcomes, or to identify
strengths and resources within communities, organizations, or individuals (Hernandez, 2022). In a
study that explored an asset-based approach for the improvement of learners with visual
impairments (LVIs’) well-being in Lesotho, Ramatea & Khanare (2021) found that “involving
LVIs in decision-making, building relationships within the school, collaboration with parents and
school leaders were provided as ‘enabling assets’ to improve the well-being of learners” (p.1). The
article describes the implementation of the asset-based approach in Lesotho schools through a
series of workshops with community members, including parents, teachers, and learners with
visual impairments. The workshops aimed to identify the strengths and resources available to them,
and to develop strategies for improving the well-being of learners with visual impairments.
An asset-based approach "is about focusing on what people can do, what they have and
what they can contribute to society, rather than on what they cannot do, what they lack or what
they need" (Mtapuri & Chikandiwa, 2019, p. 2). This approach recognizes that children with
disabilities have valuable skills and abilities, and that their communities can be sources of support
and resources. In the case of Malawi, I am using an asset-based approach to analyze the
relationships and institutional practices that provide support and resources to children with
disabilities, since the Institutional Review Board (IRB) did not allow researchers to work directly
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with children with disabilities. More specifically, I use this framework to understand the resources
and support systems provided to children with disabilities by their teachers, peers, families, and
the community, in the absence of assistive technology and adequate teaching and learning
materials in their schools. By recognizing and building on the strengths and resources of
individuals and communities, rather than focusing solely on deficits, this approach can help to
empower teachers and schools, children with disabilities, and families, in helping provide
education in a manner that meets the needs of children with disabilities.
It is essential to acknowledge the value of these school-and community-centered assets and
identify ways to build upon them everywhere, but particularly in school systems in places like
rural Malawi, where the external resources available for SNE are not likely to increase and a deficit
focus therefore provides no basis for improvement. Asset-based research uncovers how schools
are currently promoting many activities that are free and, as will be shown below, effective at
improving SNE. For example, schools have fostered peer support by creating formal structures
that enable students to assist their peers with disabilities. These structures can include peer
mentoring programs, where learners with disabilities are paired with mentors who can offer
academic and social support. Teachers have also facilitated peer support by encouraging learners
to work in groups and assigning tasks that require collaboration and communication.
Moreover, asset-based research supports schools learning from each other so that they can
adopt low-cost practices that have proven locally effective. Schools that have successfully
implemented peer support programs can share their experiences and offer guidance to other
schools. By sharing knowledge and resources, schools can create a network of support that benefits
all learners, including those with disabilities. In an asset-based approach, the focus is on identifying
and leveraging existing strengths and resources within a community to address the needs and
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challenges faced by individuals. In this case, the assets being discussed are related to the
relationships among, and the role of, teachers, parents, and peers in supporting children with
disabilities, as well as school-and community-centered assets such as SNE resource centers.
4.2. The SNE Resource Center and SNE Teacher Model
The SNE resource center and teacher approach represents the main mechanism for
delivering special needs services in Malawi's public primary schools: “A resource center (RC) for
children with disabilities is the main instrument for IE and has been established as an SNE unit
within some mainstream schools, where children with disabilities can receive specialized
instruction and extra resources to support their learning” (Ishida et al., 2017, p. 22). This model is
designed as a decentralized mechanism to address the diverse requirements of learners with
disabilities. The resource centers are distributed across various zones and are equipped with tools
and resources specifically tailored for the SNE students, such as Braille textbooks and assistive
devices (Ishida et al., 2017). These centers serve dual roles: they function as learning centers for
SNE students and act as reservoirs of expertise and resources for nearby schools in their zones.
SNE teachers, besides teaching within their designated schools, serve as trainers and
mentors for regular teachers in all the schools of their assigned zones. One of their job tasks is to
facilitate the transfer of expertise and best practices across the education system (Ishida et al.,
2017). SNE teacher training centers have been established in each educational district, with the
aim of building a cohort of trained SNE teachers who can support schools across their zone.
Specifically, these trained SNE teachers are posted at designated schools with attached SNE units
or resource centers. From this hub school, the SNE teacher is intended to serve all surrounding
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schools within their zone through direct teaching, training general education teachers in inclusive
practices, conducting learner assessments, and advising on accommodations (Ishida et al., 2017).
However, in practice, the SNE system faces considerable functionality challenges owing
to resource limitations. To illustrate the extent of the problem, consider Forest Grove Primary
School, where it was revealed in a focus group discussion with the School Management Committee
(SMC), Parent and Teacher Association (PTA), and Mother Group members that “the school does
not have a teacher that is specialized in SNE and yet the school has a number of learners with
disabilities and this worries them because they know the learners are not given all the necessary
support they require.” These comments reflect the fact that, as noted earlier, only 0.8% of schools
have an RC, and the one SNE teacher assigned to each RC does not have the time or transportation
to provide significant support to all other schools in their zones. At the district level, the figures
are similarly discouraging. Ntchisi District, where Forest Grove Primary School is located, has 14
zones, comprising a total of 152 primary schools. These schools collectively cater to 948 boys and
979 girls with special needs. However, the district has only three resource centers. Moreover, the
district has only two SNE teachers at the primary level. Given that the district comprises 152
primary schools, this means that most schools do not have access to SNE expertise. These
examples signify that the current SNE system is not meeting its intended coverage, leaving many
schools without access to SNE expertise and many learners with disabilities without the necessary
support.
Nonetheless, interviews with participants in this study revealed that even limited SNE
resources – even one specialist visit - can make an important difference where available. For
example, a participant at South Hill Primary School told the researcher that “as for specialist
visitations and support, only one SNE teacher has ever visited the school to offer guidance on how
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they can be managing the learners with disabilities (LWDs) and that was last year, 2021”
(Interview, July 2022). The fact that the school cites one SNE teacher visiting once over a year as
the only specialist support that they had received reveals just how little professional guidance was
available to them. With only this minimal exposure, it would be easy to assume the visit made
little impact in the face of the school's continual challenges with disability inclusion. However, the
very highlighting of this single visit implies it was significant for the school. The visit was
meaningful enough to be remembered and cited as the sole professional support received. Clearly,
a single visit may not have addressed all needs, as one day of guidance was inadequate to fully
build the teachers’ capabilities. Yet the school's recollection of the experience shows even this
limited time was beneficial, as the professional expertise offered important insight they otherwise
lacked. In another instance, participants at Sunflower Elementary School noted that “more teachers
need to be taken to SNE training colleges from school” (Focus Group Discussion, August 2022).
The desire expressed here by participants for more SNE training colleges underscores that access
to this specialized knowledge is viewed as incredibly valuable. In other words, the fact that
participants are calling for more teacher training reveals that they have seen first-hand the
difference even minimal SNE resources can make in their classrooms. Their lived experiences
have shown them the potential of SNE and led them to advocate for expansion of this training,
suggesting that the constrained SNE support currently available is having a noticeable positive
impact. Thus, optimizing this model through localized teacher training, community collaboration,
and asset-based solutions represents a pathway for improving SNE services in Malawi’s resource-
constrained environment. The potential is evident for the SNE system to deliver greater impact if
challenges of scale and sustainability can be addressed through strategic grassroots partnerships
and capacity building to leverage local assets and strategies.
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Furthermore, paltry external resources can be augmented by local community efforts. For
example, the SNE coordinator in Mzimba South, responsible for conducting trainings to all
teachers on SNE and IE “… does not have a budget line for that but recently in the month of June
he was supported by St John of God to train 2 teachers and primary education advisors (PEAs)
from each school” (Interview, July 2022). Though the support from St John of God only allowed
for minimal training reach (2 teachers and PEAs per school), the coordinator maximized this
limited outside funding. This ability to accomplish goals for supporting LWDs despite minimal
monetary support reveals the power of local effort and collaboration. Rather than being rendered
inert by budget limitations, the coordinator’s success in conducting trainings for a small cohort of
teachers, though modest, exemplifies how restricted external support can still be leveraged for
local impact when met with community motivation and partnership. Likewise, a participant in
Mzimba North told the researcher that “the district’s SNE office lobbied for the construction of
ramps at [Golden Valley Elementary School], where there is a child who uses a wheelchair. The
support came from St John of God” (Interview, July 2022). These small “wins” can generate
momentum – evidence that even incremental resources combined with boots-on-the-ground efforts
can give a leg up to providing SNE. In such a context, local people, infrastructure, and institutional
support are essential to providing adequate support for children with special needs. While national
policies and policies for the creation of SNE resource centers do hold significance, they are not as
impactful as the immediate assistance and resources provided by the people directly involved in
the centers, such as teachers, caregivers and community resources. Thus, in the context of Malawi,
it is crucial to focus on strengthening these immediate support systems to offer better support for
children with special needs.
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4.3. Relationships and Practices as Assets and Opportunities
The configuration of the asset-based model allows for an examination of key educational
relationships, including pupil-pupil, teacher-teacher, teacher-pupil, and teacher-parent. According
to Lynch & Soni (2021), relationships are critical in addressing the needs of children with
disabilities in Malawi. Lynch & Soni’s (2021) study provides a critical review of the literature on
school readiness for children with disabilities in Malawi. They argue that current approaches to
school readiness are limited in their focus and fail to consider the broader social and economic
factors that impact the education of children with disabilities. They suggest that a more holistic
approach is needed, which takes into account the complex interactions among individual, family,
community, and societal factors. The authors also highlight the need for more research on the
experiences of children with disabilities in Malawi and the development of effective interventions
that address the unique challenges they face.
The data from the Tikuyendadi study similarly emphasizes that parents and caregivers play
a critical role in supporting the needs of children with disabilities. They provide physical and social
support, as well as domestic care and nurturing. Their role takes on different importance than in
higher-resourced settings, because the school also relies on them to provide the basic care for their
children while in school. In countries such as the U.S., this care may be provided by teachers,
school aides, and other personnel paid by the state. Because of the school’s reliance on caregivers
in the school setting, building strong relationships between caregivers, parents, and the school is
crucial in supporting a holistic approach to educating children with disabilities.
Similarly, “[The chiefs] also explained that they see a lot of peer support to the learners
with disabilities as the girl on wheelchair is picked by friends to come to school and they push her
wheelchair. They also applauded the school’s initiative to construct a disabled friendly toilet to
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accommodate the girl on wheelchair...” (Focus Group Discussion with Chiefs, Forest Grove
Primary School). The chiefs' observations at Forest Grove highlight how relationships constitute
a vital asset for supporting learners with disabilities in Malawi's primary schools. The willingness
of fellow students to assist their peer using a wheelchair exemplifies the bonds of care and
interdependence that arise in school communities that actively foster these kinds of expectations
and connections. While schools may lack resources, students and teachers, with active support
from one another, can find creative ways to help peers access schooling.
Relationships are also crucial between schools and surrounding communities. Though
unable to financially contribute, the chiefs expressed openness to collaborating with the school
through steps like building an accessible toilet. This shows the goodwill in such relationships – if
schools authentically partner with communities to understand local wisdom and needs,
collaborative solutions can emerge. Mobilizing and strengthening these relationships of peer
support, school-community partnership, and the spirit of Ubuntu they embody can enable progress
and inclusion even in the absence of external resources. "Ubuntu" is a traditional belief and
philosophy from Southern Africa that means "I am because we are," emphasizing community,
sharing, coordination and connectedness (Takyi- Amoako & Assié-Lumumba 2018; Iline &
Phillip, 2019). The idea is regarded as “a pervasive spirit of caring and community, harmony and
hospitality, respect and responsiveness - that individuals and groups display for one another”
(Sulamoyo, 2010, p.41). Thus, Ubuntu underscores the importance of leveraging the collective
strength and resources of the community.
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4.4. Local Support and Community Relationships
The data from this study suggest that local partnerships and collaborations are important for
building teacher capacity. For instance, at Sunflower Elementary School, Sandi-Thandiza Rehabilitation
Centre provides valuable support to boost the school’s capacity to take care of learners with disabilities,
including providing: “… trainings to teachers, caregivers on how they can identify learners with
disabilities…. They furnished the resource center at Sunflower Elementary School and also painted it. They
visit the school regularly to check on the learners with disabilities as well through their rehabilitation
workers. Sand-Thandiza helps with physiotherapy and identification of other unnoticeable disabilities, i.e.,
dyslexia for those children with poor handwriting, forgetfulness, hyperactivity disorder. They give teachers
identification toolkit ...” (Field Notes, Sunflower Elementary, August 2022).
Other non-governmental and religious organizations were identified at other schools as well; for
example, at South Hill Primary School, Mzimba North, the SNE coordinator noted that: “The SNE
coordinator is also responsible for conducting trainings to all teachers on SNE and IE even though he does
not have a budget line for that but recently in the month of June he was supported by St John of God to
train two teachers and PEAs from each school” (Interview, SNE Coordinator, July 2022). Similarly, in
many of the six exemplar schools, the chiefs seem engaged with the schools and supportive of SNE
practices: “The chiefs explained also that they come to resource center to check on learners how they are
being managed, …” (Field Notes, Sunflower Elementary, August 2022). Chiefs at these schools convened
community meetings and maintained linkages between school and parents, playing both “cheerleader” roles
and enforcing expectations that children with special needs would attend school. Their coordination with
schools and relationships with parents/community were identified as key to help promote inclusion and
identify needs. “Chiefs also…were taught by department of social welfare on how they can identify learners
with special needs so that they can be lobbying for their support to organizations working in the area”
(Observation Notes, South Hill Primary, July 2022). Similarly, participants at South Hill School revealed
that “where the parents with disabled children are being uncooperative, the School Management Committee
(SMC) report to the chiefs so that they can intervene.” Community awareness and engagement are key for
36
inclusion, and the chiefs’ involvement could be used as leverage to share information and gather parent
perspectives.
At Sunflower, we can see how the various relationships described above played a crucial role in
supporting the education of children with disabilities. Peer support was invaluable, as fellow students assist
in tasks like pushing wheelchairs, interpreting speech for teachers, and providing academic help, thereby
fostering an inclusive environment: “Most learners at the mainstream classes are welcoming to the LWD,
i.e., (a) help push wheelchair, (b) play with them” (Observation Notes, August 2022). Teachers contributed
through adoption of creative pedagogical approaches, such as allowing alternative methods for answering
questions and utilizing interactive techniques like clapping and partner work to engage students with diverse
needs. The use of multigrade classrooms, where students of varying abilities learn together, further
amplified peer support and inclusion. Above all, the dedication of passionate teachers, characterized by
their patience, encouragement, and unwavering commitment, served as the backbone of this supportive
educational framework. These teachers’ commitment was vividly illustrated by actions that went beyond
the classroom. For example, as one participant shared at Sunflower Elementary School, “SNE teachers
write proposals lobbying for support from organizations and well-wishers to help LWD and their parents,
e.g., soap, usipa [fish], flour, maize, pampers, clothes, toys. These SNE teachers do this from their passion
and feeling sorry for the parents” (Interview, August 2022). SNE teachers single-mindedly writing
proposals to secure essential resources – ranging from toiletries to food and clothes – from organizations
and sympathetic individuals for Learners with Disabilities (LWDs) and their families, demonstrates that
these educators were driven by deep empathy and a desire to alleviate the burdens on the parents of their
students. Another participant noted that “Resource Center teachers trained other teachers on inclusive
lesson plans - it is even pasted on [the] notice board” (Interview, August 2022). Resource center teachers
playing a pivotal role in upskilling their colleagues demonstrates a collaborative spirit among teachers that
not only enriches the educational experience for LWDs but also underpins a culture of shared learning and
professional development within the school's faculty.
37
Community-based assets similarly formed a core component of the robust support system
at Sunflower, which complemented the school-based efforts. For instance, “parents are allowed to
be in the class in the mainstream classroom also, which they thank the school for as it makes them
support their children who can be difficult to handle at times” (Observation, Sunflower
Elementary, August 2022). Parents actively participated in managing learners and supporting class
activities: “Parents really help to manage the LWD when they come as they are only 2 of them
[teachers] in the resource room. The parents also support their kids in the mainstream classes”
(Interview, Sunflower Elementary, August 2022). Evidently, parental involvement is essential, as
allowing parents to be present in classrooms not only offers emotional support to the children but
also fosters collaboration between home and school. Women's groups within the community serve
as another vital asset; mothers often supported each other's children, providing a network that could
potentially offer respite care. Additionally, partnerships with external organizations like REFAM,
which provided books, and Sandi-Thandiza, which offered training, significantly contributed to
educational support at Sunflower. What all of this points to is that a holistic understanding of the
relationships and low-cost approaches that seek to address these challenges in a comprehensive
manner are essential to supporting the needs of children with disabilities in low-resourced schools
in Malawi.
4.5. The Ethos of “Ubuntu” and Socio-cultural Contexts
In Malawi, the social and cultural environments strongly influence the experiences of
children with disabilities in education. As the examples from the data in this study illustrate,
stigma, negative attitudes, poverty and cultural beliefs create barriers for many families seeking to
support the schooling of children with disabilities. These factors manifested in discussions with
38
participants in the Tikuyendadi study. For example, women are often blamed for their children’s
disability. Women who accompanied their children to the resource center at Sunflower Elementary
reported that: “Some men leave women for giving birth to disabled children saying it’s their fault.
As such, most women here are single mothers and struggling to raise the children alone” (Focus
Group Discussion August 2020).
Similarly, some teachers had negative attitudes about learners with disabilities: “In my
chat with the specialist teacher, he mentioned that he feels that some of the teachers are not
dedicated to supporting learners with disabilities because they feel they are just wasting time on
learners who will not amount to anything significant-successful in life” (Field Notes from Rainbow
Hills Elementary, August 2022). The specialist teacher's observation that some educators view
time spent supporting students with disabilities as "wasted" powerfully exemplifies how negative
cultural attitudes can obstruct equitable education access in Malawi. This deficit-based perspective
stems from ingrained stigma that diminishes the humanity and potential of children with
disabilities. When teachers internalize and project beliefs that these students cannot attain success
or significance, it can engender dangerous low expectations.
An asset-based approach suggests building upon the strengths, capacities and indigenous
supports already present within local Malawian communities and families. For example,
interviews with participants at Sunflower Elementary School suggest that though women are often
unjustly blamed, many demonstrate remarkable resilience as single mothers striving to support
their disabled children to attend school despite stigma and marginalization. Harnessing the
dedication of these women through community dialogue, financial support and raising awareness
can activate this asset even further.
39
The experiences of teachers, students, and community members at Forest Grove Primary
School powerfully demonstrate the potential for building upon existing assets. Despite scarce
resources, teachers leverage available tools like hand and body movements, peer modeling, and
concrete objects to adapt instruction for diverse learners. Their flexibility and creativity constitute
strengths onto which more formal accommodations can be layered: “To support such learners with
challenges, the teachers [at Forest Grove] put the learners in front, especially those with low vision
and hearing problems. They also use gestures and miming and also using real objects” (Forest
Grove Primary School, August 2022, Observation Notes). Such community and local support
networks manifest the spirit of “Ubuntu”, a traditional belief system from Southern Africa based
on communitarian principles, which emphasizes interdependence within the community and
values a spirit of humanity towards others (Takyi- Amoako & Assié-Lumumba 2018, p9-10),
which programs can channel into structured systems of peer support.
Moreover, while negative cultural beliefs persist, the values of interdependence and
protecting vulnerable community members provide philosophical foundations onto which more
inclusive perspectives can be grafted (McConkey et al., 2020). McConkey et al. (2020), in their
review of existing literature on the socioecological factors that affect the participation of children
with disabilities, found that family factors, such as parents' attitudes, beliefs, and support, have a
significant impact on the participation of children with disabilities. Though poor, most Malawian
families possess strong social capital and networking skills which can be leveraged to generate
collaborative, community-based solutions. These examples, which parallel findings in other
studies conducted recently in Malawi (Craig, Hutton & Sheffield, 2022; Soni et al., 2020;
McLinden et al., 2018), demonstrate the importance of understanding and accounting for the
familial, socio-cultural, and economic contexts within which children with disabilities experience
40
schooling. They also point centrally to the importance of understanding local assets and strategies
to support education for children with special needs.
Rather than focus solely on attitudes requiring change, asset-based approaches spotlight
and multiply the strengths already present. Indigenous practices of communal caregiving and peer
support groups that organically arise within villages constitute pre-existing assets that special
education interventions can amplify (Lynch & Soni, 2021). By inventorying and reinforcing these
culturally rooted strategies, schools can partner with families and communities to co-create
context-appropriate accommodations even in low-resourced environments. The argument here is
that asset-based models provide possibilities for progress even where systemic barriers persist, by
emphasizing and building support and resources for possibilities over deficiencies. Analyzing SNE
in Malawi through this lens illuminates openings for sustainable, grassroots innovations that
empower communities to become drivers of inclusive change.
4. 6. Teacher Support
As described previously, an asset-based analysis of the data highlights the critical role of
teacher support in providing education to children with disabilities in their classrooms. The
following are examples of the strengths and benefits of teacher support and justification of the
need to understand the role of teacher support.
The data indicate that effective teachers make sure that every lesson plan is inclusive, and
that pedagogical and classroom management practices align with SNE goals. This is a critical
aspect of ensuring that children with disabilities are not left behind in the classroom. By
incorporating inclusive practices in lesson planning and classroom practices, teachers in these best
practice schools have learned to create an environment that is conducive for all students, regardless
41
of their abilities. This asset is built through the commitment of individual teachers and school
communities to providing quality education for all learners. For example, with support from an
SNE teacher, teachers at South Hill Primary School started implementing inclusive lesson plans,
suggesting a positive trend towards more systematic efforts to support special education. Teachers
had also adopted key pedagogical and classroom management strategies that supported full
inclusion, such as giving children with disabilities the opportunity to lead group work in the class.
Participants at South Hill Primary School told the researcher that “the LWDs are also given roles
as group leaders so that they can be doing the things other learners do and feel included” (Focus
Group Discussion, July 2022). During a class observation, “the low vision learner was given a role
as group leader which kept him fully engaged throughout the lesson” (Observation Notes, July
2022). “In most classes as well, learners could be invited to demonstrate an activity in front and it
was pleasing to note that even the learners with disabilities took part” (General Observation, July
2022). This is particularly crucial in empowering children with disabilities to participate and
engage with their peers actively. By giving them leadership roles, teachers promote a sense of
belonging and inclusion for these children.
Teachers tended to be most successful when they received training and active support (from
school leaders and other teachers) in creating inclusive lesson, pedagogy, and management plans
that could be implemented in their local context, and within the framework of relationships (with
other teachers and with students) that supported their efforts. Otherwise, these plans could be
developed but not implemented. While some teachers have inclusive lesson plans, the
implementation of these plans is not always consistent. For example, during a lesson observation
at Golden Valley School, it was noted that a teacher did not follow their inclusive lesson plan for
the day. The inclusive lesson plan at Golden Valley was designed to support learners with diverse
42
needs and provided a list of learners with their specific challenges and the support they required
during the lesson. “On the inclusive lesson plan, the teacher said it is helpful to them as it keeps
him in check in the way he handles those with diverse needs, but the problem is that it is a big
class and most of the times it is difficult to attend to every learner with diverse needs” (Lesson
Observation, August 2022). Despite the helpful nature of this plan, the large class size affected the
teacher's ability to attend to every learner's diverse needs.
Another notable teacher asset was the extensive communication efforts that some teachers
undertook. For example, some teachers tried to communicate with students who are hearing-
impaired, using sign language, even though teachers were not trained in it. During a class
observation at Rainbow Hills Elementary School, a teacher who was not trained in the use of sign
language was observed using “lip movement” to help students who were hard of hearing
understand what she was saying: “The teacher is using lip movement to help the learners to
understand the sounds of the words she has written on the chalkboard. She uses signs to positively
reinforce the learners by making signs to show whether the learners responding to the questions
are correct or wrong; thumbs up for correct answer and thumbs down for wrong answer.”
These ad hoc strategies by some teachers show a willingness to adapt and provide support in
different ways to meet the needs of all children in their classroom. At the same time, of course,
they show the burden that individual teachers take on in trying to navigate language systems with
no training—a constraint to this asset.
Lastly, in some of the schools, when teachers identified a learner with special needs who
was still struggling, they called upon their parents for additional support. This is an example of the
teacher identifying essential assets in the community that can support students’ full inclusion and
learning. The researcher observed that at Sunflower Elementary School, “when it was time to write
43
an exercise, the parents took the notebooks from the bags and supported the children to write and
hold the pen.” This practice of teachers calling upon parents for additional support when learners
with special needs are struggling is an example of teachers going beyond the classroom to provide
support for their students. By involving parents in the learning process, teachers are able to
leverage the resources and strengths that exist beyond the classroom to support the needs of their
students. This also suggests that teachers at successful schools recognize the importance of
collaboration between teachers and parents in supporting the education and success of learners
with special needs. At the same time, and as discussed below, the teachers’ and school’s
dependence on the time, energy, and other resource of individual children’s mothers (it was almost
always mothers involved in all observations) was also a significant constraint for individual
children’s education and points to the governmental resource constraints that limit support from
trained staff, etc. It also poses a direct threat to school inclusion, as parents were generally very
impoverished and at times could not attend school with their children because of the need to work.
Without school staff to fill this role, this means that children simply cannot attend school on these
days.
Teachers also displayed care in organizing this collaboration with parents in such a way as
to try to maximize space for students’ learning. For example, during this parental involvement, it
was observed that “the teacher encouraged the guardians not to write everything for them so that
the student should learn how to do things on their own - she marked the exercise right there in
class and motivates the learners that they are doing well”. This same teacher also adopted other
pedagogical and management approaches that support learners with disabilities: “she marked every
learner's notebook, I felt this was encouraging and motivating.” The teacher's active involvement
in marking the exercise right there in class and providing motivation and feedback to the learners
44
is important for children with disabilities, who may face additional challenges in their learning and
require more support and encouragement to succeed. By marking every learner's notebook and
providing feedback, the teacher is helping to build the learners' confidence and self-esteem, which
can have a positive impact on their overall academic performance (Owen, 2016). In their article:
“The impact of feedback as formative assessment on student performance”, Leanne Owen
emphasizes that teaching methods like formative feedback, praise, and low-stakes assignments
that focus on building student confidence and self-esteem can enhance students’ academic
performance and engagement.
Interviews with teachers from many of the schools in the study also revealed that some of
the teachers also concerned themselves with children’s lives out of school. For example, some
teachers checked on parents in the hope of ensuring that the homes where learners with special
needs came from were conducive enough; these visits sometimes had very significant positive
impacts on children’s daily lives: “At one house, with the teachers’ advice, they constructed a ramp
to help their child that uses [a] wheelchair.” These interventions highlight the importance of using
an asset-based approach to supporting children with disabilities. By working with families and
ensuring that the home environment is suitable, teachers can create a supportive and enabling
environment for these children.
All of this demonstrates that teacher support is a critical asset in promoting SNE in Malawi.
These teacher-led initiatives, sanctioned by school policies or leadership, highlight the importance
of both individual and systematized efforts in supporting learners with diverse needs, the
challenges that teachers face in implementing such efforts in practice, as well as the strategies they
use to anticipate or address these constraints. However, the overwhelmed teachers in the resource
center demonstrate the need for additional resources and support to meet the needs of all
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students, and clearly indicate a threat to the teacher asset. For example, these teachers can
greatly benefit from additional staff to help reduce the student-to-teacher ratio, ensuring more
individualized attention for each student. Training workshops and peer support groups can offer
teachers insights into best practices and serve as platforms for them to share challenges and
solutions, thereby fostering a sense of community.
4. 7. Peer Support
Peer support among students is one of the most observable assets in the schools selected
for this study, as highlighted in the examples that follow. Peer support can help foster positive
relationships among students and promote a culture of empathy and understanding (Randolph,
2020; van der Meulen, Granizo, & Del Barrio, 2021). As seen in the schools selected in this study,
peer support in schools reflects communal values in many African societies, where norms of social
responsibility and interdependence prevail (Mitchell, 2023). The critical interpretive synthesis by
Mitchell (2023) provides useful evidence for the value of peer support as a local asset that can be
mobilized to advance special needs education. The article documents the common practice across
sub-Saharan Africa of students taking on responsibilities to facilitate access and learning for their
disabled peers. However, the study also cautions against over-reliance on students, whose efforts
cannot fully compensate for lack of professional staff and adequate infrastructure. The nuanced
perspective Mitchell’s (2023) study provides on both the promise and limitations of peer support
illustrates the merit in asset-based approaches that take stock of existing local resources while
recognizing where external investment remains necessary.
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In a focus group discussion with teachers at Sunflower Elementary School, teachers
highlighted some of the ways in which learners were supporting their peers with disabilities. For
instance, learners carried those who were physically challenged to the toilet, interpreted for those
who could not speak properly, and told teachers if their friend wanted to go out. At Rainbow Hills
Elementary, during assembly, some learners assist their peers with disabilities to get to the front
of their class line, ensuring they have a prominent position. Learners were also observed displaying
emotional and social support through a high level of empathy and understanding. At South Hill
Primary School, even when faced with aggression from some LWDs, other learners refrain from
retaliating. The school environment fosters a sense of unity, and promotes anti-stigma behavior,
where learners are taught to share food with the most vulnerable and are counseled against
discrimination. These kinds of relations are evident throughout many fieldnote interactions and
reflect both peer norms and the active teaching that schools do to reproduce such norms: “The
other learners in the classes are so loving to their friends that even when they are beaten, they don’t
revenge,” and “the learners are counseled by the school to not discriminate [against] their friends
that are disabled” (South Hill Primary School).
This kind of peer behavior was also noted at other schools. At Blue Sky Primary School,
the researcher noted that blind learners are guided by hand by their friends, while others are
independent: “After the assembly, most blind learners were held by hand by their friends while
others walked on their own” (Blue Sky Primary School). Most learners in this school assist their
blind colleagues in navigating the campus. Unlike in some of the other schools, there were more
examples here of LWDs supporting each other, as well as other peers stepping in. A notable
observation is an albino student guiding a blind learner during break time. Additionally, blind
students were seen assisting each other, holding hands while walking.
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Other instances of peer support observed at Blue Sky Primary include collaborative
learning and resource sharing among students. For example, two blind learners were observed
assisting each other with an assignment, while some sighted students were observed assisting blind
learners by carrying their braille writers, showcasing a willingness to share resources and ensure
that their peers have the necessary tools for learning: “As the blind learners were going back into
class, I saw some learners in the mainstream classes who are able to see properly come to help
some of them by holding their hands and some carried their braille writers” (Observation, August
2022).
Moreover, at Blue-Sky Primary School, field notes documented that students were willing
to help their disabled colleagues or their teachers at the resource center: “This was also the time I
saw most learners go to the resource room to deliver braille materials written by blind students in
the mainstream classes so that the resource center teachers can transcribe them (there were many
copies and I really saw what the deputy had said that the teachers are overwhelmed with work).”
The example shows how abled-bodied students are offering help to their blind peers by delivering
braille materials to the resource center teachers for transcription. This demonstrates the potential
for peer support to address the challenge of limited resources and overwhelmed teachers. The fact
that there were many copies of the braille materials suggests that the school recognizes the
importance of providing accessible materials for students with visual impairments.
As seen in the examples above, the data paints a picture of a supportive and inclusive school
environment, where the learners, regardless of their abilities, engage in various forms of peer
support, ranging from physical assistance to emotional backing, collaborative learning, and
resource sharing. These actions demonstrate a sense of compassion, empathy, and solidarity among
students, which can create a more inclusive and supportive learning environment. This spirit of
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camaraderie and mutual assistance is indicative of a strong community ethos that values every
member. However, some close friends of students with disabilities found themselves losing
significant periods of class time to accompany their friend. This is a constraint on the peer asset
that could, in other systems, be addressed through trained and paid school staff.
4. 8. Parental Support
The data demonstrate the important role of parents in supporting schools to provide
education to children with disabilities in Malawi. While parental involvement is important
everywhere (Đurišić & Bunijevac, 2017), it is particularly essential in settings like public schools
in Malawi, in which there are very few resources to support teachers and students, and parental
involvement may become essential for a student to participate in school. The examples provided
below show that parents are involved in various ways, such as providing food during lunch breaks,
selling snacks outside the school while waiting to pick up their children, and providing support in
the classroom.
Some parents of children attending the Sunflower Elementary School came to the school
to be with their children and offer support, which was essential for children with disabilities who
required additional assistance (particularly physical assistance) that the school could not provide.
Additionally, some parents took the initiative to follow up with their child's teachers to ensure that
their child's needs were being met and to discuss challenges that their child was facing. The
researcher at Sunflower Elementary School observed that: “Some parents come to be with the
children while others call the teachers as well to follow up on their children. Some parents tell the
teachers of their child's challenges.” During another lesson observation at the Resource Centre at
the school, the researcher observed parents accompanying their children to school: “The children
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here are with their parents and guardians (both males and females)- some cannot sit on their own
and the guardians are holding them up. The guardians support their children in class work. When
the kids want to go to the toilet, they go with their guardians as well. When it was time to write an
exercise, the parents took the notebooks from the bags and supported the children to write and hold
the pen.” (Mathematics Lesson Observation at the Resource Centre).
This level of parental involvement is not only crucial for the success of children with
disabilities in the education system, demonstrating a partnership between parents and teachers, but
it also compensates for the lack of additional teaching/aide resources in schools. When parents are
actively involved, they can provide valuable insights into their child's needs, as well as offer
support and encouragement to their child in their educational journey. Where necessary, they can
assure their child’s physical comfort and safety. Their involvement in school may also help them
better understand their child’s assets and needs in the home environment. Parents’ roles could be
further strengthened by providing resources and training to parents to help them better support
their children's learning, by providing training to teachers and parents about how to best support
each other to achieve these goals, and by providing the basic resources (chairs, stools, accessible
toilets, etc.) that can help make the school more physically safe and accommodating to students.
Beyond the support needed within the classroom to strengthen parents’ roles, it is essential
to recognize that parents and caregivers of disabled children in Malawi face numerous challenges
when trying to provide their children with an education. One of the primary challenges is the need
for parents to work to put food on the table. This often means that a parent who has to accompany
their disabled child to school or to provide them with the support they need to succeed in their
studies is unable to do so because they need time to engage in some economic activity that helps
them fend for the family. The paucity of resources and support available to them only exacerbates
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the problem. Many schools in Malawi are ill-equipped with infrastructure needed to provide a
quality education to disabled children, and the data in this study shows that many parents are
unable to afford the additional costs associated with educating a disabled child.
4. 9. The Benefit of Safe Spaces for Disabled Children in School
For many parents, the decision to send their disabled child to school is a difficult one, as
they may not believe that their child has any prospects for success. This logic in their thinking may
change completely if parents were sure their children with disabilities were safe and supported in
school. Ensuring that schools are safe spaces for disabled children can make a significant
difference in improving their access to education. Safe spaces are environments where children
feel physically and emotionally safe and can learn and grow without fear of harm or discrimination.
Robinson & Graham (2021) define safety as "the absence of threat and harm" (p. 589). They state
that for the children and young people in their study, feeling physically and emotionally safe was
a key part of what "being safe" meant to them. Their study, in which “all of the children and young
people involved had intellectual disability and some also had multiple disabilities” (p.586),
provides evidence supporting the idea that safe spaces where children feel free from harm and
threats are critically important for their wellbeing and ability to learn and grow. They discuss the
importance of children having "a safe foundational space" (p. 592), explaining: "For most of the
participants, home was a safe place, with safe people. It was a space where they regrouped,
regenerated energy, retreated from stress and sometimes traumatic experiences and managed often
difficult feelings of anxiety and distress" (p. 592).
The key take-away from Robinson & Graham’s (2021) definition and illustration of the
idea of safety is that parents are key stakeholders in children's safety. If parents feel the school
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setting is unsafe, this could create concerns for families. This underscores the need to consider
parent perspectives, especially in contexts such as Malawi where they are heavily involved in their
disabled children's education. Thus, in the Malawian context, it is essential to ensure that parents
feel that the environment in which their child is learning is safe and welcoming. This is especially
important because parents are often the primary advocates for their children and must feel
confident that they are sending their child to a safe and nurturing environment. Thus, it is essential
to involve parents and caregivers in this process, as they can provide valuable input on what they
consider to be important elements of a safe learning environment.
Creating safe spaces for disabled children in Malawi is a complex task that requires
collaboration between parents, caregivers, educators, and policymakers. However, by prioritizing
the safety and well-being of children with disabilities, Malawi can ensure that every child has
access to quality education and the opportunity to reach their full potential (Banks, Hunt, Kalua,
Nindi, Zuurmond & Shakespeare, 2022). For disabled children, safe spaces are particularly
important as they may face discrimination, bullying, or physical harm in an environment that is
not designed to meet their needs (Schulze, 2022). For example, unsafe infrastructure like
unfinished classroom blocks with collapsing windows put children at risk of injury, as was
observed during a site visit to Golden Valley Elementary: “The class is however an unfinished
block and the windows were just filled with bricks which could if not handled well fall on the kids
that sit close to the window…” (Class Observation, August 2022). Lack of training in SNE also
makes it hard to provide needed support, as this researcher noted during a visit to South Hill
Primary School: “Most teachers in the school are not trained in IE and SNE, as such they lack the
knowledge and skills to manage learners with disabilities” (Field Notes, July 2022). However,
observations and interviews with participants revealed that positive peer culture can make a
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difference. Where students are sensitized about disabilities, stigmatization is reduced, as was noted
by the researcher during these site visits: “Some learners [with disabilities] are violent.” However,
learners “do not fight back when some of [their colleagues] with disabilities become aggressive”
(Field Notes, August 2022). “There is peer support and learners are sensitized about LWDs during
assembly so that there is no stigma on campus” (Focus Group Discussion, August 2022).
4. 10. Policy Implications
The findings of this research hold significance for policymaking, revealing a disparity
between the present policies for SNE in Malawi and the actual factors that contribute to promoting
(or failing to promote) the welfare of children with disabilities. The policy planning process needs
to engage in a collaborative process with local communities to identify and strengthen existing
resources and assets that can support the education of children with disabilities. This would
obviously involve many steps at many different levels, but more essentially the following.
First, policy makers would need to work in close consultation with local communities and
stakeholders, including parents, teachers, SNE coordinators, and SNE resource centers to
understand the sociocultural context of disability in the different local communities and identify
existing resources and strengths that can be built upon. Such collaborative efforts will no doubt
help identify local assets. Identifying local assets involves looking for strengths and resources that
exist within the communities (Mariga, McConkey & Myezwa, 2014).
Once local assets have been identified, policy makers would need to work with community
members and local support systems to develop partnerships and collaborations that can leverage
these assets to support the education of all children with disabilities in the area. This would include
sharing best practices across schools, so that they learn from one another. The asset-based approach
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can help structure these learning experiences by helping schools identify the systems in which they
have assets that can be further strengthened, and the levels at which they can learn from others to
create new assets.
Also, the existing SNE literature indicates that safe spaces can be created in schools
through a variety of measures, including the provision of disability-friendly infrastructure, the
training of teachers and staff to work with disabled children, and by implementing policies and
practices that promote inclusion of disabled children (Hayes & Bulat, 2017). However, in the
absence of assistive technology and with the current paucity of SNE coordinators, involving
parents and caregivers and supporting their role as “assistive devices” can be a viable solution to
promoting IE. This support can be in the form of training and education on how to provide support
to their disabled children. This can be achieved through workshops, training sessions, and
community outreach programs. This support could also include community-wide resource support
for families (particularly woman-headed households) who need to miss work to support their
child’s education. With these interventions, parents may be more inclined to send their children to
school and may have greater confidence in their child's ability to succeed.
In order to understand the dynamics of parental support for children with disabilities and
the role of parents as assistive devices in Malawian schools, it is crucial to take into account the
broader socio-economic and cultural context. Enhancing accessibility to education and healthcare
for children with disabilities and addressing stigma and discrimination could foster a more
favorable milieu for parents and their children. Moreover, exploring affordable and culturally
relevant assistive technologies could be a viable option. An effective resolution to this problem
will necessitate concerted efforts and cooperation among policymakers, educators, healthcare
professionals, and members of the community.
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Mariga, McConkey and Myezwa's (2014) resource book, "Inclusive Education in Low-
Income Countries," provides a guide for teacher educators, parent trainers, and community
development workers on how to develop inclusive education in low-income countries. The book
argues that identifying local assets to support education for children with disabilities involves
looking for strengths and resources that exist within the communities. The authors argue that such
an approach could lead to greater participation and involvement of local people in inclusive
education initiatives, and can help to create sustainable and effective programs that are culturally
and contextually appropriate. The book, like everything we have learned from the data in this
study, emphasizes the importance of collaboration among different stakeholders, including
teachers, parents, and community members, in the development of SNE initiatives: “The children
live locally as do most teachers. Along with the children’s parents, they already have personal
connections to many different people in the local community. Through these personal connections,
local people can become more involved with the school and its inclusive activities” (Mariga,
McConkey & Myezwa, 2014, p.63).
On their part, the Malawi government or Malawi Ministry of Education, Science, and
Technology can provide more training and resource support to teachers and SNE coordinators to
help them identify and use local assets to support them in their work. The data indicate various
ways in which particular forms of support to teachers and SNE coordinators can rapidly build local
assets—for example, continuous professional development (CPD) focused on inclusive practices
that serve all students well (such as using both words and gestures to assure students’
understanding of key points).
Aligning the core concepts derived from U.S. SNE framework and SNE policy in Malawi
with an understanding of the local experiences and assets of rural communities provides a holistic
55
and unifying framework for thinking about core values in the development of public policy and
research based on the asset-based approach. Generally, an asset-based approach to SNE in Malawi
primary schools requires a collaborative and community-centered approach that focuses on
identifying and building upon existing strengths and resources. This approach can be effective
even – and especially – in the absence of Western-style assistive technology and SNE models, and
it will stand children with disabilities, their families and schools, in good stead. It is also more
financially viable in Malawi, which allows the system to build in resilience and responsiveness in
ways that expensive interventions do not. However, let me reiterate here that certain needs cannot
be fully met through peer and community support alone - adequate infrastructure, teacher training,
and other resources require funding. The data has educated us that an effective asset-based
approach recognizes that while schools and communities have valuable local knowledge and
relationships to leverage, they still require sufficient flexibility and SNE funding to address
limitations and access external support suited to their particular requirements and contexts.
Ultimately, a policy environment valuing both community assets and necessary systemic
investment will stand the best chance of fulfilling the educational rights of children with
disabilities (Hayes & Bulat, 2017). This view is supported by the UN Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD). A Commonwealth Secretariat publication providing a guide
to implementing Article 24 of the UNCRPD calls on governments that have signed and/or ratified
the UNCRPD, and other duty-bearers, to recall their commitments and, among other things, “put
in sufficient resources (budget allocations) to enable an education of equal importance and quality
to be provided to all children with disabilities, …” (Rieser, 2012, p.9).
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5. CONCLUSION
While the existing literature on SNE in Malawi has largely focused on deficits in infrastructure
and ineffective inclusion strategies, this study highlighted the need for a holistic understanding of
the interlocking aspects of SNE and student experiences. In order to achieve this, an asset-based
approach was utilized to examine key interactions and relationships among actors such as parents,
teachers, and the community. The engagement of these stakeholders is crucial to determining
students' access and experiences. Consequently, an intersectional analysis that considers the
gendered and classed experiences of parents, the observations and assumptions of teachers, the
supportive behavior and comradeship of peers, and the collaborative attitude of community
partners, is essential in promoting inclusive practices and supporting children with special
education needs in Malawi.
The data collected in this study suggests that Malawi has limited capacity to actualize
inclusive, rights-based approaches, regardless of philosophical commitments, if the operative SNE
frameworks are inadequate or misaligned. However, it will also be challenging to implement SNE
in Malawi if local and community assets are not recognized, made use of, and actively nourished.
Specifically, traditional strategies, indigenous knowledge systems, and informal community
supports must be identified and leveraged to advance inclusion (UNICEF, 2023). Without mapping
and incorporating these indigenous supports and knowledge systems, any top-down inclusion
models introduced in Malawi will lack cultural relevance and localized resonance, and SNE
policies and frameworks cannot be simply imported from Western contexts (Barlindhaug, Umar,
Wazakili & Emaus, 2016); they must build upon and amplify existing Malawian disability
management strategies tailored to local values and norms (Grimes et al., 2023). Meaningful
57
progress will require grassroots collaboration and co-creation with local leaders and communities
(UNICEF, 2023). In short, inclusion cannot be actualized in Malawi solely through formal SNE
mechanisms; it necessitates recognizing and activating informal, traditional assets.
Finally, while the lack of assistive technology and adequate teaching and learning materials
in schools presents significant challenges, it is important to acknowledge that implementing
Western-style SNE policies and strategies in Malawi cannot be the best approach to providing or
improving education for children with disabilities. It is equally important to acknowledge that "…
focusing on the assets of lower income communities does not imply that these communities do not
need additional resources from the outside. Rather, outside resources will be much more
effectively used if the local community is itself fully mobilized and invested, and if it can define
the agendas for which additional resources must be obtained"(Kretzmann & McKnight, 1996, p.
26). National and global policies for SNE should consider the local context and the unique assets
held and challenges faced by each community. They should focus on identifying and building upon
existing strengths and resources, while also providing necessary resources to ensure that learners
with special needs receive appropriate support. By adopting an asset-based approach and
leveraging the strengths and resources within a community, schools can create a network of
support that benefits all learners, including those with disabilities.
58
6. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
While this study provides valuable insights into the interactions among and interconnectedness of
different factors and stakeholders in Malawi's education system and the importance of
relationships and community assets, there is a need to systematically examine how and to what
extent poverty affects access to education for children with disabilities and the types of support,
both locally and globally, that can be put in place to mitigate these effects. Additionally, further
research is necessary to investigate the experiences of key stakeholders and how these experiences
can be used to inform policy and practice, as described below.
Teacher training and professional development: The data in this study consistently
revealed the paucity of SNE teachers and the lack of training in SNE for regular teachers. Research
should delve into the current training programs available for teachers at public primary schools in
Malawi, focusing on their preparedness to handle students with diverse needs. Understanding the
gaps in teacher training can inform the development of more comprehensive programs that equip
educators with the skills and knowledge to support children with disabilities effectively.
Peer support mechanisms: Given the observed camaraderie and supportive behavior among peers,
it would be worthwhile to investigate structured peer support programs or buddy systems that can
enhance the learning experience for children with special educational needs and their peers.
Understanding the dynamics and benefits of such systems can provide insights into their potential
scalability and impact.
Community engagement and awareness: Research should also focus on community
awareness programs about disabilities. Understanding community perceptions, myths, and
59
misconceptions about disabilities can pave the way for more effective awareness campaigns that
foster inclusivity and reduce stigma for children, their mothers, and their families.
Impact of policy changes: As policies evolve, it is crucial to assess the impact of these changes on
the ground. Longitudinal studies can track the effects of policy shifts on the quality of education
and support available to children with disabilities in Malawi.
Prioritizing school safety: It is also imperative to examine how to enhance school safety in
Malawian schools, both in the physical and social/emotional senses, as a priority that benefits all
students. As discussed in this paper, unsafe infrastructure and lack of disability training undermine
SNE. Research should focus on how to make safety a school-wide priority. Conceptualizing and
evaluating school safety holistically, beyond just SNE funding, can help promote the wellbeing of
all children.
Incorporating these additional avenues of research can provide a more holistic
understanding of the challenges and opportunities in SNE in Malawi, ultimately leading to more
informed and effective interventions.
60
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Disrupting The Tradition: Examining The Effectiveness of An Assets-Based Approach To Supporting Special Needs Education in Malawi

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DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL POLICY STUDIES

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UW-MADISON

PHD MILESTONES: PILOT PROJECT

PILOT PAPER TOPIC:

DISRUPTING THE TRADITION: EXAMINING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF

Disrupting the Tradition: Examining the Effectiveness of an Assets-Based

Approach to Supporting Special Needs Education in Malawi.

1.1 Background and Context

Access to quality education is a fundamental human right that is recognized in various

on a medical model of ‘disability’ in segregated institutions has gradually shifted to perspectives

policy to institutionalize differences, often to the detriment of marginalized groups, including

countries to break from colonial legacies (Armstrong et al, 2011).

inclusive practices also precipitated changes in legislation, as countries restructured their

inclusion (Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011).

these individuals through specialized interventions, facilitated by trained personnel and

access, quality, equity and relevance (Government of Malawi, 2009).

2.1. Relationship Between Special Needs Education and Inclusive Education

students, such as cognitive, sensory, or physical impairments, and it is “concerned with

accommodating individual differences through institutional transformations” (Rix, 2020, p.284).

2.2 Funding for SNE and IE

and supplemented by foreign aid and non-governmental organizations (Education International,

training to developing infrastructural modifications that cater to the unique requirements of

through initiatives such as community-based rehabilitation programs (Nordic Consulting Group,

Their multifaceted initiatives encompass allocation of targeted financial resources to bolster

various classroom environments, advocacy for policy reforms to embed inclusivity as a

with disabilities (Taylor, 2019).

allocation for learners with disabilities.

2. 3 National and International Legal and Policy Frameworks

of diverse backgrounds, in ordinary or inclusive classrooms (Engelbrecht et al, 2015). However,

These discrepancies underscore the importance of critically examining how IE is being

In lower-GDP contexts such as sub-Saharan Africa, educational inclusion has focused

accommodation necessary to facilitate the child's learning and development" (Ministry of

2. 4. Disability and SNE in Malawi

As noted above, while IE has come to be considered by education policymakers and

within the existing SNE policy environment.

and Albinism (Ministry of Education, 2022).

challenges is the scarcity of resources dedicated to SNE. An analysis of educational infrastructure

of SNE than the broader encompassing strategies associated with IE.

of its neighboring countries, faces considerable challenges in mainstreaming students with

mainstream teachers to accommodate students with disabilities, limited funding to modify

infrastructure and duplicate accessible teaching/learning materials, and shortages of assistive

the NIES demands.

Infrastructure: Inaccessible school infrastructure includes, inter alia, classrooms,

students with disabilities (Banks & Zuurmond, 2015).

limited (Ishida, Maluwa-Banda, Moyo, & Mgogo, 2017).

2.5. Resources in Malawi’s Education System

Malawi is a landlocked country in southeastern Africa. It shares borders with Tanzania to

numerous challenges that hinder the provision of quality education.

One of the main challenges to public education in Malawi is limited resources.

limited awareness about the value of education.

education realistically requires economical, context-appropriate approaches leveraging available

those who have external funding to support children with disabilities.

3.1 Data Collection

school-community relations. This paper draws on classroom observations, focus group

Table 1: Participating School Breakdown

Size/ Student- Resource

3.2 Analytical Approach

study, which focused on identifying successful schools implementing IE practices.

The seminal work on asset-based approaches, particularly in community development

the guide showcases success narratives in community-building, structured in a methodical

manner to introduce readers to a strategic approach, termed "asset-based community

leadership experiences (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993). Their asset-based community

influential in shifting the perspective from a deficit-based approach to an asset-based approach