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Double Span
Double Span
Ocean Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oceaneng
art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Very short pipeline free spans in flooded areas, river crossings, straits and inlets have been given a lot of
Received 21 August 2014 attention due to recent failures caused by vortex-induced vibrations (VIV). Performing VIV analyses of
Accepted 15 June 2015 free spanning pipelines requires accurate prediction of modal response quantities. Currently, no simple
Available online 12 July 2015
analytical solutions are available for short free spans supported by soils with a finite stiffness. Based on
Keywords: the Buckingham Pi theorem, the solution space for short free spans is spanned in the present study.
Free spans Closed form analytical solutions are determined based on surface fitting to the developed solution space.
Submarine pipelines The novel analytical solutions are accurate, easily implementable and thoroughly verified, and represent
Analytical solutions a significant improvement to current approaches found in design standards. An accurate expression for
Pipeline engineering
the buckling load of short spans is also derived, and asymptotic properties of the buckling load and
Vortex-induced vibrations
frequency equations as the span length approaches zero are explored.
Modal analysis
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2015.06.019
0029-8018/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
218 H.A. Sollund et al. / Ocean Engineering 105 (2015) 217–230
dependent on the modal response parameters for the span. Since analytical methods require time and thorough verification to
the number of analyses is considerable, it is desirable to have a fast implement. As a result, approximate analytical solutions have
and accurate way to predict such modal response parameters. been widely applied in free span analyses for decades (DNV’81,
Generally, the modal response may be determined to any desired 1981; DNV Guideline no. 14, 1998; DNV-RP-F105, 2002, 2006).
accuracy using finite element (FE) software (Sollund and Vedeld, The first attempts at predicting the modal response of free
2014) or appropriate semi-analytical models (Sollund et al., 2014; spans analytically was to interpret the span as a situation some-
Vedeld et al., 2013). On the other hand, FE analyses are cumber- where between a pinned–pinned and a fixed–fixed beam. It was
some and time consuming to perform parametrically and semi- customary to assume that a pinned–fixed boundary condition
H.A. Sollund et al. / Ocean Engineering 105 (2015) 217–230 219
could serve as a reasonable approximation (Xiao and Zhao, 2010). soil interaction is generally complex and depends on several
Hobbs (1986) solved for the frequency of a free span resting on soil parameters, e.g., in-situ stress conditions and loading history, the
at each end, where the soil was modeled as a linearly elastic shear strength of the soil, pipe embedment and characteristic soil
foundation. Fyrileiv and Mørk (2002) expanded on the theory of parameters such as submerged unit weight, Poisson’s ratio, void
Hobbs by including an approximation for the effect of axial forces, ratio and plasticity index. Ideally, the specific soil parameters are
based on work by Hetenyi (1946), and also considered the stiffen- determined from representative, undisturbed soil samples, but in-
ing effect of static deflections (Fyrileiv and Mørk, 2002; Vedeld et situ geotechnical testing is costly and guidance on typical para-
al., 2013). Fyrileiv and Mørk (2002) adjusted their approximation meter ranges based on less comprehensive soil classification is
by curve fitting to the results of a large number of FE analyses. given in DNV-RP-F105 (2006).
The current revision of DNV-RP-F105 (2006) includes a Conventionally, the dynamic free span response is assessed in
recommendation for calculating approximate modal response the frequency plane, with eigenfrequencies and associated modal
which is taken directly from the formulation proposed by stresses as essential input parameters. In the present study, the
Fyrileiv and Mørk (2002). Their formulation is highly accurate soil foundation is assumed to behave linearly elastically, which is
for a large number of relevant free span configurations and in line with current industry practice (DNV-RP-F105, 2006), and
pipeline operational conditions. However, the semi-empirical also natural since modal analyses are linearized procedures. The
formulations of Fyrileiv and Mørk (2002) were mainly devel- aim of the present investigation is to provide improved approx-
oped with typical offshore pipeline free spans in mind. As a imate modal response formulae for short spans, with dynamic soil
result, the lower span length limit in their studies was Ls/Ds at stiffness taken as an input parameter. It is assumed that a
30, where Ls is the span length and Ds is the outer steel pipe representative pipe–soil linearization can be achieved for both
diameter. When results are curve fitted, in the case of Fyrileiv span scenarios illustrated in Fig. 1 using e.g., the guidance for
and Mørk’s solution by an inverse second order polynomial, the pipe–soil interaction provided by DNV-RP-F105 (2006). However,
accuracy of the fitted expression generally deteriorates outside it should be recognized that there will generally be significant
the domain of the study. In the case of short spans, the accuracy inherent uncertainty in the estimated dynamic soil stiffness, and
of Fyrieliv and Mørk’s solution becomes poor for spans with sensitivity analyses are therefore appropriate when carrying out
relative lengths Ls/Ds in the region below 30. modal analyses.
As a consequence of recent failures in river crossings, much Pipelines are produced in joints with relatively short lengths.
attention has been given to existing onshore pipelines with For offshore pipelines a joint is typically 12.2 m long (DNV-OS-
river crossings or in areas of high flood risk (Heggen et al., F101, 2012). Each joint is connected by a circumferential girth
2014). There is currently no available design code for VIV design weld. If a pipeline is exposed to external flow causing VIV
of pipelines in river crossings or flooded areas, so the industry excitation, the resulting axial bending stresses occur perpendicu-
has, based on the authors’ experience, generally applied DNV- larly to the girth welds. Hence, if a crack or weld defect is present
RP-F105 (2006). Systematic experience with using DNV-RP-F105 between the girth weld and the pipeline steel material, cyclic
for very short span configurations has highlighted that the bending stresses may propagate such a crack and fatigue failure
solutions of Fyrileiv and Mørk, for the modal response quan- may ensue. Fatigue failure is therefore the most common kind of
tities, are unsuited for such spans. failure related to VIV of pipelines. Local buckling (Kyriakides and
In the present study, novel solutions for the modal response of Corona, 2007) may also occur due to combined static and dynamic
short free spans on partial elastic foundations are developed, loading (DNV-RP-F105, 2006).
responding to the need in the industry for accurate and simple A pipeline must resist a range of different types of loading—
modal response calculation methods. The solutions are developed internal and external pressure forces, thermal loads, hydrody-
by initially spanning the solution space in non-dimensional para- namic loads and static loads from its own weight. Two load
meters determined using the Buckingham Pi theorem (Logan, conditions contribute to second-order load effects for pipelines.
1997; Palmer, 2008). A highly accurate semi-analytical method Compressive or tensile axial forces increase or decrease, respec-
(Vedeld et al., 2013) is applied to create response surfaces in the tively, the bending moments in the pipe (Bazant and Cedolin,
dimensionless solution space, and various surface fitting techni- 1991), and pressure loading causes a net transverse load on the
ques are applied to create simple closed-form analytical expres- tensile side of the pipe during bending (Fyrileiv and Collberg,
sions for these response surfaces. Extensive parametric 2005; Vedeld et al., 2014). The combined second-order load effects
comparisons are made between the novel analytical solutions from axial loading and transverse loads from pressure are gen-
and solutions obtained with the semi-empirical formulae of erally accounted for by use of the effective axial force concept
Fyrileiv and Mørk (2002). (Fyrileiv and Collberg, 2005; Sparks, 1984; Vedeld et al., 2014),
which is treated as an ordinary axial force when geometric
stiffness effects are considered. The effective axial force Seff for
2. Problem definition an axially restrained pipeline is obtained as (DNV-OS-F101, 2012;
DNV-RP-F105, 2006)
2.1. Physical description and loading conditions
Seff ¼ H eff ð1 2vÞΔpi Ai EAs αΔT; ð1Þ
If buried pipes are dug up by erosive processes, or an offshore where Heff is the effective residual lay tension (if tension was
pipeline does not touch down on the seabed due to seabed applied during installation), Δpi is the difference in internal
roughness, scouring or an otherwise mobile seabed, the part of pressure relative to laying, Ai is the internal cross-sectional area
the pipe which is left unsupported by the soil foundation is called of the pipe, v is the Poisson’s ratio, E is the Young’s modulus, As is
a free span. Two kinds of free spans will be studied. A physical the steel cross-sectional area of the pipeline, α is the thermal
representation of potential span configurations is given in Fig. 1. expansion coefficient of the steel layer and ΔT is the change in
The areas near the span, where the pipe has contact with the soil, temperature relative to installation.
are called span shoulders, and the distance between the seabed or The mass of the pipe influences the dynamic response through
riverbed to the bottom of the pipe is called the gap. inertia forces, and generally, for two otherwise equivalent systems, a
The dynamic response of free spanning pipelines is strongly heavier system has a lower frequency than a lighter system. It is
dependent on the soil characteristics of the span shoulders. Pipe– therefore important to include all contributions to the system mass
220 H.A. Sollund et al. / Ocean Engineering 105 (2015) 217–230
Fig. 1. A pipeline dug up by erosive processes (a) and a short free span on the seabed (b).
2.2. Mathematical model For the frequency it is reasonable to assume that there exists a
relation
In general free spans, the combined loading from the effective
axial force, the submerged weight of the pipe and potentially H f ðf ; me ; EI; Ls ; k; Seff Þ ¼ 0 : ð3Þ
H.A. Sollund et al. / Ocean Engineering 105 (2015) 217–230 221
According to the Buckingham Pi theorem, an equivalent phy- By assuming a relation on the form
sical law should exist between the non-dimensional groups
H κ ðκ max ; me ; EI; Ls ; k; Seff Þ ¼ 0; ð11Þ
obtained by determining the basis of the null space to the
dimensional matrix (Logan, 1997). For the present problem, the and performing the dimensional analysis in the same way as
dimensional matrix becomes described for frequency, Eqs. (4)–(6), the Buckingham Pi theorem
gives the equivalent relation
me EI Ls KL Seff f IL
2 3 F κ π k ; π Seff ; π κmax ¼ 0; ð12Þ
kg 1 1 0 1 1 0
6 7 πk and π S are defined by Eq. (8), while
m 4 1 3 1 1 1 0 5; ð4Þ where eff
s 0 2 0 2 2 1 π κ max ¼ κ 2
max Ls : ð13Þ
and the non-dimensional groups are thus obtained by solving the By solving for κmax in Eq. (12) and inserting the result into Eq.
equation (10), the following expression is obtained for the maximum modal
2 3 stress:
1 1 0 1 1 0
6 7 1 DEDs
4 1 3 1 1 1 0 5x ¼ 0: ð5Þ
A¼ Gκ π k ; π Seff : ð14Þ
0 2 0 2 2 1 2 L2s
The solution to Eq. (5) is Gf and Gκ from Eqs. (9) and (14) are response surfaces for the
2 3 2 3 2 3 frequency and curvature respectively, of a harmonically excited pipe-
0 0 0:5
6 1 7 6 1 7 6 0:5 7 line in a free span. These response surfaces are independent of pipe
6 7 6 7 6 7 geometry and loading conditions and hence, if reasonable approxima-
6 7 6 7 6 7
6 4 7 6 2 7 6 2 7 tions for these response surfaces are developed, the response fre-
6
x ¼ x4 6 7 6
þ x5 6 7 6
þ x6 6 7; ð6Þ
7 7 7
6 1 7 6 0 7 6 0 7 quency and associated modal stress will be determined.
6 7 6 7 6 7
4 0 5 4 1 5 4 0 5 For realistic free-span scenarios, the non-dimensional para-
0 0 1 meter πk will have a range of several orders of magnitude. It is
therefore convenient to introduce a logarithmical scaling of this
and according to the Buckingham Pi theorem, the relation parameter, defined by
F f π k ; π Seff ; π f ¼ 0; ð7Þ β ¼ log π k : ð15Þ
is therefore equivalent to Eq. (3), where
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3.2. Buckling of short spans
kL4s Seff L2s me L4s
π k ¼ ; π Seff ¼ ; πf ¼ f : ð8Þ
EI EI EI Prior to establishing suitable domains for the response surfaces
By solving for f, we obtain a functional relationship Gf such that Gf and Gκ it is necessary to determine the buckling load Pcr, which
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi will constitute a natural upper limit for compressive values of the
EI effective axial force Seff. Fig. 3 shows an infinitely long beam on an
f¼ 4 f
G π k ; π Seff : ð9Þ
me L s elastic foundation, with an unsupported span of length Ls and a
concentrated force R acting in the middle of the span. The beam is
The maximum unit diameter amplitude stress A is the max- also subjected to an axial force P, conveniently defined as positive
imum bending stress associated with the particular mode shape in compression in order to obtain a positive value for Pcr (note that
when the maximum displacement is normalized to one outer Seff elsewhere in this study is defined as positive in tension).
diameter. A may also be determined by using the Buckingham Pi The differential equation for transverse displacements w of the
theorem. The maximum stress (at the outer fiber of the pipe steel beam axis is given by (Hetenyi, 1946; Bergan and Syvertsen, 1989)
wall) may then be obtained by
4 2
2 d w d w
M max Ds 1 ∂ φ 1 EI þP 2 þ kw ¼ 0; ð16Þ
A¼ DEDs ¼ DEDs κ max ; ð10Þ dx4 dx
I 2 2 ∂x2 max 2
where a uniform bending stiffness EI has been assumed, and
where Mmax is the maximum bending moment associated with the where k is the stiffness of the soil. For k ¼0 (i.e., in the span) the
relevant mode, I is the area moment of inertia, Ds is the outer steel solution to Eq. (16) is readily obtained as (Bergan and Syvertsen,
diameter and φ is the mode shape. In DNV-RP-F105 (2006), the 1989)
normalization constant D is the outer hydrodynamic diameter, i.e.,
xms xms
the outer diameter of the pipe including all coating layers. The VIV wms ðxms Þ ¼ C 1 sin 2η þ C 2 cos 2η þ C 3 xms þ C 4 ; ð17Þ
response amplitudes are calibrated to a normalized displacement Ls Ls
amplitude of a unit hydrodynamic diameter D (DNV-RP-F105,
2006).
We wish to apply the Buckingham Pi theorem in a similar
manner as for frequency, in order to obtain the non-dimensional
groups relevant for obtaining κmax. It should be noted that the
mode shape, prior to normalization, should be considered as a
dimensionless quantity. Therefore, when applying the Bucking-
ham Pi theorem to obtain the relevant non-dimensional groups for
predicting the maximum curvature κmax, the entry corresponding
to κmax in the dimensional matrix will be given the value ( 2).
Fig. 3. An infinitely long beam subjected to a concentrated force R and axial force P
Equivalently, one may apply κmax Ls with dimension (length) 1 resting on partial elastic foundation with a free span of length Ls. The coordinates
and still maintain geometric similarity (since Ls as opposed to D is xms and xsh are directed along the pipe axis, but are zero at mid-span and at the
a length that is characteristic for the particular problem). interface between span and shoulder, respectively.
222 H.A. Sollund et al. / Ocean Engineering 105 (2015) 217–230
where we have introduced a longitudinal coordinate xms, defined An approximate solution to Eq. (26) can be obtained by
to be zero in the middle of the span (Fig. 3) and where expanding zb as a power series in ε about the unperturbed root
rffiffiffiffiffi zb ¼0
L P
η¼ s : ð18Þ
zb;PER ðεÞ ¼ εz1 þ ε2 z2 þ ε3 z3 þ… ð27Þ
2 EI
On the elastic shoulders, the solution to Eq. (16) can be It can be shown by numerical solution of Eq. (25) that zb {1 for
expressed as (Hetenyi, 1946) values of β o 0. Thus, in Eq. (26) zb may now be replaced by the
power series from Eq. (27) and the cosine-term by its Taylor series,
wsh ðxsh Þ ¼ D1 eδxsh þ D2 e δxsh cos γ xsh þ D3 eδxsh þD4 e δxsh
resulting in the transformed equation
sin γ xsh ; ð19Þ
π 2 εz 1 þ ε2 z 2 þ ε3 z 3 þ …
provided P o2(k EI)1/2. The coordinate xsh is defined to be zero at 1 π 2 1 π 4
the point B defined in Fig. 3, and the parameters γ and δ are given ¼ ε 1þ 1 U εz1 þ ε2 z2 þ ε3 z3 þ … þ U
2! 2 4! 2
by 2 o
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffi εz1 þ ε z2 þ ε z3 þ … …
2 3
k P k P 4
γ¼ þ and δ ¼ : ð20Þ π2 π 2 π2
4EI 4EI 4EI 4EI ¼ 2ε z 1 ε2 þ z 1 z 2 ε3 þ … ð28Þ
8 384 8
From the trivial assumption that the displacement wsh and
By equating powers of ε on both sides of Eq. (28) and
bending moment Msh-0 when xsh-1, it follows that D1 ¼D3 ¼0.
truncating the resulting series after three terms, we obtain the
The remaining six undetermined coefficients in Eqs. (17) and (19)
fourth order approximation
may be obtained from the following boundary conditions and
continuity requirements: 2 1 1 2 1 1
zb;PER ðεÞ ¼ 2 ε− ε2 þ ε3 ¼ 2 10β=2 − ⋅10β þ ⋅103β=2 : ð29Þ
π 8 48 π 8 48
ðiÞ θms ð0Þ ¼ 0; ðivÞ θms L2s ¼ θsh ð0Þ;
It is physically obvious that the buckling load Pcr should
R Ls
ðiiÞ Q w;ms ð0Þ ¼ ; ðvÞ M ms ¼ M sh ð0Þ ¼ M AB ; approach the buckling load for an infinitely long beam on a
2 2
continuous elastic foundation as Ls-0. Hetenyi (1946) showed
Ls Ls R that the buckling load for such beams is given by
ðiiiÞ wms ¼ wsh ð0Þ; ðviÞ Q w;ms ¼ Q w;sh ð0Þ ¼ :
2 2 2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð21Þ P cr;BEF ¼ 2 kEI : ð30Þ
In Eq. (21), θ ¼dw/dx is the slope, M ¼ EI d2w/dx2 is the From the definition of the parameter zb, Eq. (24), it follows that
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
bending moment, and Qw ¼ EI d3w/dx3 P dw/dx is the ver-
P cr;BEF 2 kEI 2 kL4s 2
tical shear force. zb;BEF ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 10β=2 ð31Þ
The bending moment MAB at the interfaces between the span
PE π 2 EI=L2s π 2 EI π 2
and the shoulders is found to be As expected, it is observed that zb,PER-zb,BEF when ε-0.
2 DNV-RP-F105 (2006) applies an effective length concept, in
Ls 1 cos η
R 3δ2 γ 2 2η
1
cos η which the effective length Leff is defined as the length of a fixed–
M AB ¼ : ð22Þ
2 2δ
þ 2Lηs tan η fixed beam with the same buckling load as the actual free span.
3δ γ
2 2
Hence, the exact value of Leff based on the solution to Eq. (25) can
From Eq. (22) it is evident that buckling will occur when the be found from
denominator 2 sffiffiffiffiffi
P cr 4π 2 EI=L2eff Ls Leff 4
2δ Ls zb ¼ ¼ ¼ 4 ) ¼ : ð32Þ
þ tan η ¼ 0: ð23Þ PE π 2 EI=L2s Leff Ls zb
3δ γ 2
2 2η
Effective length expressions can similarly be obtained for
Let Pcr denote the value of P fulfilling Eq. (23). After performing the asymptotic solutions by replacing zb in Eq. (32) with z b,PER
the substitution or z b,BEF .
P cr L2s P cr The expression for effective length Leff in DNV-RP-F105 (2006)
zb ¼ ¼ ; ð24Þ may be written as
π 2 EI P E
Leff 4:73
the buckling condition, Eq. (23), may be rewritten as: ¼ ; ð33Þ
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Ls h β
π 2 zb kL4s
π pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ ¼ 10β=2 : ð25Þ where
1 þ cos 2 zb EI 8
< 0:066β þ 1:02β þ 0:63 β Z 2:7;
2
for
The transcendental Eq. (25) has previously been derived (albeit h β ¼ ð34Þ
: 0:036β þ 0:61β þ 1:0
2
for β o 2:7:
differently) by Hetenyi (1946).
The present study deals with short and very short spans, and
In the present study, the exact function h(β) was calculated
consequently it is of interest to investigate the asymptotic proper-
from the condition for buckling by solving Eq. (25) using Newton’s
ties of Eq. (25) as the span length Ls-0, corresponding to β- 1.
method (Adams, 1999). In Fig. 4 the exact function has been
From inspection of Eq. (25) it is clear that zb-0 when β becomes
β plotted along with the corresponding expression from DNV-RP-
increasingly negative. A parameter ε ¼ 10 /2 is introduced, with
F105.
ε{1 (i.e., β o 1). Eq. (25) may then be reformulated as a
It is observed that the recommended practice is highly accurate
perturbation problem:
π pffiffiffiffiffi in the range 0 o β o8, but deviates from the exact solution outside
π 2 zb ¼ ε 1 þ cos z ð26Þ this interval. Therefore a new expression for h(β) has been derived
2 b for very low β by means of ordinary least squares curve fitting. The
H.A. Sollund et al. / Ocean Engineering 105 (2015) 217–230 223
By using the novel expression given by Eq. (35) one may 0:8 U10β=2 r π Seff r0:8 U 10β=2 ð37Þ
calculate the buckling load for free spans in the low-β range from
the conventional formula for fixed–fixed beams:
Fig. 5 compares the effective lengths obtained using the exact The asymptotic behavior for free span frequencies when the
solution to Eq. (25), the expression in DNV-RP-F105, the solution span length Ls approaches zero may, in a similar manner as for the
for an infinitely long beam on a continuous elastic foundation buckling load in Section 3.2, be studied by considering the
(BEF) and the new low-β fit given by Eq. (35). Again it is seen that dynamic response of an infinitely long beam on a continuous
DNV-RP-F105 is inaccurate for β o 0. It is further demonstrated elastic foundation. Obviously, when Ls-0 the physical problem
that the new expression predicts the exact effective length illustrated by Fig. 2 is reduced to vibration of an axially loaded
accurately, and that the exact solution converges quickly toward beam with length 2Lshoulder on an elastic foundation. With a
the BEF solution when β becomes negative. In fact, the relative pinned–pinned configuration, a Rayleigh-Ritz (Shames and Dym,
difference between the BEF and the exact solution becomes less 1991) approach with a Fourier sine series (Dirichlet, 1829) is
than 1% below β E 1.6. The solution corresponding to the appropriate in order to determine a formula for the harmonic
asymptotic expansion zb,PER is omitted from Fig. 5 for clarity. The response frequency and associated mode shape. A pinned–pinned
accuracy of this solution is found to be excellent (within 0.2%) for condition is considered suitable for the present applications since
β o 0, but deteriorates quickly for larger β. An effective length the span shoulders are assumed sufficiently long as for the
based on zb,PER could thus have been applied for all β o0, but the boundary condition to be inconsequential. Timoshenko (1937)
new expression for h(β), Eq. (35), is preferred here due to its has made a similar deduction for the case with zero axial loading
consistency with the current format in DNV-RP-F105. and it is trivial to expand his approach to include an axial load. The
224 H.A. Sollund et al. / Ocean Engineering 105 (2015) 217–230
resulting frequency is interpretation of the modal response ceases to make sense (Hobbs,
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1986). Interestingly, if the second mode has reached the frequency
u 4 2
u nπ nπ
1 t 2Lshoulder EI þ 2Lshoulder Seff þ k for an infinitely long beam on an elastic foundation, all frequencies
f BEF ¼ ð38Þ with a higher mode number than two will also have reached the
2π me
same frequency. In a VIV context, when the frequencies of all
where fBEF is the frequency for a beam on an elastic foundation and modes collapse onto one another, in practice any of the modes
n is the number of half wave-lengths in the mode shape. Notably, could be excited. If any of the modes may be excited, the relevant
when Seff Z 0, fBEF converges to modal stress has become undetermined. For an effective axial
sffiffiffiffiffiffi
force equal to zero, Eq. (39) is fulfilled for the second mode when
1 k
f BEF ¼ ð39Þ β E1.2 (Sollund et al., 2015). As a result, it makes little sense to
2 π me
evaluate higher order modal stresses for β o1.2, as the frequency
when the length of the elastic foundation goes to infinity. When of all higher order modes will be the same, and the VIV problem is
Lshoulder-1 and Seff o0 it can be shown (Sollund et al., 2015) that reduced, more or less, to an onset problem. In other words, fatigue
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!ffi vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi calculations should not be performed, but rather a design check of
u u !
1ut k S2eff 1ut k Seff 2 whether VIV occurs or not will be appropriate, unless more
f BEF ¼ 1 ¼ 1 : ð40Þ
2 π me 4kEI 2 π me P cr;BEF sophisticated dynamic analyses are conducted where damping is
also considered.
Some important observations may be made from Eqs. (39) and
(40):
3.5. Expressions for the response surfaces Gf and Gκ
The frequency does not depend on the mode number or the
bending stiffness. In tension, the frequency is also independent According to Eqs. (9) and (14), closed analytical expressions for
of the axial load. the modal frequency and associated modal stress may be deter-
The mode shape does not influence the frequency, implying mined if the surfaces Gf and Gκ can be determined. A transcen-
that all the mode shapes have the same frequency. dental equation for obtaining the exact frequency and mode shape
for an axially loaded free spanning pipeline was recently derived
Of course, in reality, if we include effects of damping and non- by Sollund et al. (2015). However, in the present context a semi-
linear soil behavior the mode number will certainly influence the analytical solution (Vedeld et al., 2013) to the free span problem
frequency. In the idealized condition however, where damping is with the same level of accuracy as finite element (FE) solutions
disregarded and the soil is assumed uniform and linearly elastic, will be preferred for calculation of frequencies and modal stresses.
the frequency is not mode shape dependent. As a result, the This method is significantly faster than FE and hence well suited
associated modal stresses become undetermined when the length for parametric studies to develop accurate representations of Gf
of the beam approaches infinity. Hence, when spans become very and Gκ. It was found that shoulder lengths of 100 m gave
short and the free span modal frequencies converge towards Eq. convergent behavior for the fundamental frequency and its asso-
(39) or Eq. (40), it is important to bear in mind that the associated ciated modal stress. An evenly spaced grid of 1900 points was
stresses are not necessarily relevant, since a number of modes may generated over the surface in the β π Seff plane defined by Eq. (37),
share the same frequency. and Gf and Gκ were calculated based on the semi-analytical
The implications of the asymptotic behavior of the modal method developed by Vedeld et al. (2013). The resulting surface
frequencies should be emphasized. The fundamental frequency plots of Gf and Gκ are given in Fig. 6.
will, as stated above, converge to the solution for an infinitely long Necessarily, a near perfect relation could be established if for
beam on an elastic foundation when the span length tends to zero. instance all 1900 points were tabulated and one could simply
However, the frequency of an infinitely long beam on an elastic interpolate between them, or a large polynomial surface function
foundation is not mode dependent, implying that the second could be fitted. In the present context the objective is, however, to
mode will have a similar convergent behavior. Since the second create simple analytical formulae, suitable for implementation in
mode has a higher frequency than the fundamental mode, the design standards. Hence, significantly simpler expressions for the
convergence behavior will be more rapid, and the second mode solutions are sought. From Fig. 6 it is observed that both surfaces
will reach the frequency for a beam on an elastic foundation for tend to zero for β in the region below zero. This is not surprising,
spans longer than zero, i.e. the second mode will fulfill Eqs. (39) considering that both Gf and Gκ are multiplied by a factor of L2s , as
and (40). For infinitely long shoulders, the mode shape for the seen from Eqs. (9) and (14), which tends to zero for small β.
second mode will be infinitely long as well, and the physical Surfaces which tend to zero pose a problem for surface fitting
Fig. 6. (a) The non-dimensional frequency function Gf and (b) the non-dimensional curvature function Gκ.
H.A. Sollund et al. / Ocean Engineering 105 (2015) 217–230 225
processes since relative deviations to the surfaces will be high in (Tofallis, 2008):
regions where the values are close to zero, even if absolute errors 1
p ¼ Π D2 Π ΠT D2 g;
T
are small. Hence, it is reasonable to normalize the surfaces Gf and ð45Þ
Gκ to make them more constant over their domain.
where the jth row of the design matrix Π and the response vector
For small Ls it is expected that the solution for frequency will
g are given by
converge towards the solution for a beam on a continuous elastic
h i h i
Πj ¼ πTj ¼ 1 βj π Seff ;j βj βj π Seff ;j π 2Seff ;j … ;
foundation. If Eq. (39) is transformed to the same non-dimensional 2
The objective of the surface fitting was to minimize the mean and
þ 0:0135β π Seff þ 0:00398βπ 2Seff ; 0rβr2
2
maximum relative deviations between the approximated surface ð50Þ
and the solutions generated via the semi-analytical method, while
As seen from Fig. 7, there is a sharp sensitivity of the surface Gκ/
keeping the functional relationships as simple as possible. It was,
Gκ,0 to π Seff , particularly in the low β regions. Polynomial surfaces
for those reasons, found reasonable to divide the two surfaces Gf
worked with poor accuracy, so instead a different family of curves
/Gf,BEF and Gκ/Gκ,0 into two parts, and making surface fits for the
was chosen. The approach which gave the best results was to
two regions β o0 and β Z0 separately. For the surface Gf /Gf,BEF, it
curve fit the surface along a set of lines gA where β was kept
was determined that polynomial surfaces struck a good balance
constant. This family of lines gA could all be fitted using second
between accuracy and solution complexity. The surface may be
order polynomials:
expressed as
g A ¼ a þbπ Seff þ cπ 2Seff ð51Þ
Gf
β; π Seff ¼ πT p ¼ p00 þ p10 β þ p01 π Seff þ…; ð43Þ
Gf ;BEF where the constants a, b and c varied for each constant value of β.
The constants a, b and c were thus curve fitted as functions of β
where a design vector π and a coefficient vector p have been
defined by 3rβ o0 :
a ¼ 0:0235β 0:0262β þ0:998
2
h i
πT ¼ 1 β π Seff β βπ Seff π 2Seff ⋯ ;
2
b ¼ 0:4167e 1:476β
h i
pT ¼ p00 p10 p01 p20 p11 p02 ⋯ : ð44Þ c ¼ 0:1459e 2:904β ð52Þ
and
The coefficient vector p is obtained by least squares minimiza-
tion of the relative deviation according to the following relation 0rβr2 :
Fig. 7. (a) The normalized non-dimensional frequency function and (b) the normalized non-dimensional curvature function.
226 H.A. Sollund et al. / Ocean Engineering 105 (2015) 217–230
Fig. 8. The relative errors of (a) the approximate frequency response surface and (b) the approximate unit diameter amplitude stress surface, for 8000 randomly
selected cases.
H.A. Sollund et al. / Ocean Engineering 105 (2015) 217–230 227
For lower values 3 r β o0, the solutions for frequencies and From the figure, it is observed that the inaccuracy of DNV-RP-
stresses are expected to deteriorate, since the effective length F105 for 3 r β o0 is more or less extreme, with up to a factor of
formulation in DNV-RP-F105 was demonstrated in Section 3.2 to 8 on the frequency and a factor of 70 on the modal stress. Hence, it
be highly inaccurate in this region. From Fig. 10 it is also an is not recommended to apply DNV-RP-F105 in this β-region.
apparent trend that the accuracy is decreasing with decreasing β. Comparatively, the inaccuracy of the novel approximate formula-
The results for 3 r β o 0 are presented in Fig. 11. tions given in Eqs. (48) and (54) is limited to only a few percent.
Fig. 10. Relative differences between the semi-empirical model from DNV-RP-F105 and the semi-analytical model by Vedeld et al. (2013) for (a) fundamental frequencies and
(b) unit diameter modal amplitude stresses, for 0r βr 2.
Fig. 11. Relative differences between the semi-empirical model from DNV-RP-F105 and the semi-analytical model by Vedeld et al. (2013) for a) fundamental frequencies and
b) unit diameter modal amplitude stresses, for 3r βr 0.
228 H.A. Sollund et al. / Ocean Engineering 105 (2015) 217–230
Fig. 12. Gf (a) and Gκ (b) are presented as functions of β for free spans resting on a partial elastic foundation (Free span) and for the idealized boundary conditions pinned–
pinned (Pinned) and fixed–fixed (Fixed).
surprisingly, the pinned–pinned condition becomes significantly The novel analytical formulae are highly accurate (to within a
stiffer than the elastic foundation solution for β lower than about few percent) and constitute a significant improvement to
3. This implies that the elastic foundation response is softer than free current analytical approaches. Hence, the formulae are recom-
rotation at the span ends, and furthermore that any simplified mended for use in future revisions of industrial design
boundary condition will be non-conservative in this β-region since standards.
a higher modal frequency will require higher flow velocities for VIV Simplified boundary condition approaches, using pinned–
to be excited. Consequently, simplified boundary conditions may in pinned or pinned–fixed boundaries, cannot be applied for
some cases be applied reasonably for β between 3 and 10 but for short spans and influence VIV design in a non-conservative
lower β, simplified boundary conditions will yield non-conservative manner.
estimates for the modal frequency.
On a side note, it may be observed from Fig. 12b) that there
appears to be a discontinuous derivative for β equal to 4.25. This is Acknowledgements
in fact to be expected, since the stress curve is actually composed
of two curves, one for maximum stress at the shoulder and one for
maximum stress mid-span. For β E4.25, these two curves inter- The authors would like to extend their gratitude to Prof.
sect and their difference in slope is visible from the figure. Karsten Trulsen at the University of Oslo for helpful and insightful
comments on the topic of asymptotic analysis. The research has
been financed by the University of Oslo and the DNV Scholarship
Fund.
5. Conclusions
Easily implementable, closed, analytical formulae for the fun- Appendix A. Pipeline cross-sections and soil stiffness
damental frequency and associated maximum modal stress parameters
have been determined for short pipeline free spans, typically
relevant for free span design in flooded areas, river crossings, The Young’s moduli of all pipelines have been assumed as
inlets or straits. 207 GPa. The pipe cross-sections and effective masses are given in
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