DEFINITIONS, CHARACTERISTICS &

PERSPECTIVES

EM Class (July 29, 2017)

MCT Encabo, ChE, M. Engg., URP

Professor
AIR POLLUTION

is the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one

or more air contaminants (i.e., dust, fumes, gas,
mist, odor, smoke, or vapor) in sufficient
quantities, of such characteristics, and of such
duration as to be or to threaten to be injurious
to human, plant, or animal life or to property,
or which reasonably interferes with the
comfortable enjoyment of life or property.
Does pollution from natural origin (such as smoke,
fumes, ash and gases from volcanoes and forest
fires, sand and dust from windstorms in arid regions,
fog in humid low-lying areas, and natural terpene
hazes from pine trees in mountainous regions)
pose problems severe enough to endanger life
and property?
Ultimately, human activities are to blame

for pollution problems that threaten

to make portions of the earth’s atmosphere

an inhospitable environment.
Global Implications of Air Pollution

Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere

Varying amounts of different gases in the

atmosphere may be found in each of the four
major layers of the atmosphere – the troposphere,
the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the
thermosphere.
The troposphere is the layer of greatest interest in
air pollution, since this is the layer in which most
living things exist.
Acid rain, or acid deposition, occurs in the
troposphere. It results when gaseous
emissions of sulfur oxides (SOX) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) interact with
water vapor and sunlight and are
chemically converted to strong acidic
compounds such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
and nitric acid (HNO3).
H2SO4 and HNO3 compounds are deposited on
earth as aerosols and particulates (dry
deposition) or are carried to the earth by
raindrops, snowflakes, fog, or dew (wet
deposition).

Effects of acid rain:

 in highly buffered area – no
appreciable increase in soil or
surface - water acidity
 in poorly buffered area – can cause
sharp increases in acidity
Other effects of acid rain:
 can cause considerable damage to buildings
and monuments in highly industrialized areas
 Pollutants generated in one country and
deposited in another have become a
matter of international concern.

 Effects of ozone (O3) depletion:
 reduces the UV radiation that reaches
the earth’s surface
 at high levels, can damage plants and
animals
Cause and effects of CO2:
o Cause – fossil fuel consumption and
agricultural forestry and land use practices
of various types
o Effects – could lead to a significant
enough rise in earth’s surface
temp. to melt the Arctic ice pack.
CO2 is reported to be increasing at a
rate of 1.8 mg/m3 per year, a process
that may not be reversible. Currently,
there are 700 billion tons of carbon CO2
in the atm. Each yr, this figure
increases by 2.3 billion tons.
Units of Measurements:
Pollutants
Particulate fallout or dustfall
Particulates
Suspended particulates and
gaseous contaminants
Units
mg/cm2 –time interval
million particles per cu. m. (106/m3)
Mass per unit volume
(i.e. µg/m3); ppm; ppb

For gases, parts per million (ppm) can be converted to

microgram per cubic meter (µm/m3) by use of the ff. formula:
The liters per mole in the equation is influenced by the temp. and
pressure of the gas. According to Avogadro’s law, one mole of
any one gas occupies the same volume as one mole of any
other gas at the same temp. and pressure.
At 273 K (0OC) and 1 atm press. (760 mm Hg), std.
conditions for many chemical reactions, this volume
is 22.4 L/mol. Most regulations for air quality
determinations are referenced at 25OC and 760 mm
Hg, while most source measurements are referred
at 21.1OC and 760 mm Hg.
To convert to liters per mole at these or other conditions,
the following formula can be used:

Where V1, P1 and T1, relate to the above

conditions of 22.4 L/mol at 273 K and 760 mm Hg
and V2, P2, and T2, relate to the actual conditions
being considered.

,
Example 1: Determine the volume occupied by 2 mol of gas at
25 OC and 820 mm Hg.

Solution:
Using the equation:

.
Example 2: A sample of air analyzed at 0 OC and 1 atm pressure
is reported to contain 9 ppm of CO. Determine the
equivalent CO concentration in micrograms per cubic
meter and milligrams per cubic meter.
1. Using Equation 1:

2. The gram molecular mass of CO is

12 + 16 = 28 g/mol
3. At 0 OC and 1 atm press. (760 mm Hg) the Vol
of gas is 22.4 L/mol
4. Substituting into Step 1:
Sources of Pollutants
 All air contains natural contaminants such as pollen, fungi
spores, salt spray, and smoke and dust particles from forest
fires and volcanic eruptions.
 It also contains naturally occurring CO from the breakdown
of methane; hydrocarbons in the form of terpenes
from pine trees & hydrogen sulfide and methane
from the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter
.
 Pollutants of anthropogenic origin due to the use of
fossil fuels for heating and cooling, for transport, for
industry and for energy conversion, and incineration
of various forms of industrial, municipal, and private
waste.
Category of Sources of Pollutants

1. Mobile transportation (i.e., motor vehicles, aircraft, railroads,

ships, and the handling and/or evaporation of gasoline)

2. Stationary combustion (i.e., residential, commercial, and

industrial power and heating, including
steam-powered power plants)

3. Industrial processes (i.e., chemical. metallurgical,

and pulp-paper industries and petroleum refineries)

4. Solid-waste disposal (i.e., household and

commercial refuse, coal refuse, and agricultural
burning)
Classification of Pollutants (Origin, Chemical
Composition and State of Matter)

1. Origin
1.1 Primary contaminants/pollutants such as SOX, NOX and
hydrocarbons (HC) which are emitted directly in the
atmosphere and found there in the form in which
they were emitted.

1.2 Secondary contaminants such as ozone (O3) &

peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) which are formed in
the atmosphere by a photochemical reaction or by
hydrolysis or oxidation.
Classification of Pollutants
2. Chemical composition
2.1 Organic compounds – contain C and H
and many also contain elements such
as oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
Hydrocarbons (HC) are organic compounds
containing only carbon and hydrogen.
Aldehydes and ketones contain oxygen as
well as carbon and hydrogen.
Other organic compounds of concern are
carboxylic acids, alcohols, ethers, amines,
and organic sulfur compounds.
Classification of Pollutants
2.2 Inorganic materials – found in contaminated atmosphere
include carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2),
carbonates, SOX, NOX, O3, hydrogen fluoride and
hydrogen chloride

3. State of Matter

3.1 Particulate pollutants – finely divided solids and

l liquids, include dust, fumes, smoke, fly ash, mist
and spray; will settle out of the atmosphere.

3 3. 2 Gaseous – formless fluids that completely occupy

the space into which they are released, behave
much as air and do not settle out of atmosphere
(COx, SOX, NOX, HC and oxidants).
Classification of Oxidants
Major Classes Subclasses Typical members of
subclasses
Particulates solid dust, smoke, fumes, fly ash
mist, spray
Gases
Organic hydrocarbons hexane, benzene, ethylene,
methane, butane, butadiene

aldehydes and ketones formaldehyde, acetone,

other organics chlorinated hydrocarbons,

alcohols
Inorganic oxides of carbon carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide
oxides of sulfur sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide
oxides of nitrogen nitrogen dioxide, nitric oxide
oxides of inorganics hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen
fluoride, ammonia
Particulates – are any dispersed matter, solid and liquid, in
which the individual aggregates are larger
than a single small molecule (about 0.002 µm
in diameter) but smaller than about 500 µm.
- may be classified and discussed according
to their physical, chemical, or biological
characteristics.
Physical Characteristics – include size, mode
of formation, settling properties, and
optical qualities.
Chemical Characteristics – include organic or
inorganic composition.
Biological Characteristics – relate to their
classification as bacteria, viruses, spores,
pollens, etc.
Physical Characteristics of Particulates
Size – is one of the most impt. physical properties of particulates;
particle sizes are measured in micrometers (µm),

with 1 µm = 10-6 meters = 1/1000 mm = 1/25,400 in.

Particles larger than 50 µm can be seen with the

unaided eye; those smaller than 0.005 µm may only
be observed thru an electron microscope.

Human hair ranges from 5 to 600 µm in diameter.

Particles smaller than 1 µm do not tend to settle out
rapidly. Metallurgical fumes, cement dust, fly ash,
carbon black and sulfuric acid mist all fall into the
0.01-100 µm range.
Physical Characteristics of Particulates
Mode of formation – may be classified as:
• dust (solid particles)
• smoke (solid particles)
• fumes (solid particles)
• fly ash (solid particles)
• mist (liquid particles)
• spray (liquid particles)

Dust – small solid particles created by the

breakup of larger masses thru
processes such as crushing, grinding,
or blasting, may come directly from
processing or handling of materials
such as coal, cement, or grains.
Smoke – fine solid particles resulting from the incomplete
combustion of organic particles such as coal, wood, or
tobacco; consists mainly of C and other combustible
materials; with diameters ranging from 0.5 to 1 µm.
Fumes – are fine solid particles (often metallic oxides such as
zinc and lead oxides) formed by the condensation of vapors
of solid materials; with size range of 0.03 to 0.3 µm.
Fly ash – consists of finely divided, noncombustible
particles contained in flue gases arising from
combustion of coal. Size ranges from 1-1000 µm.
Mist – consists of liquid particles or droplets formed
by the condensation of a vapor, the dispersion of
a liquid (as in foaming or splashing), or the
enactment of a chemical reaction (such as the
formation of sulfuric acid mist). Mists are usually
less than 10 µm in diameter. It’s called a fog if
concentration is high enough to obscure visibility.
Spray – consists of liquid particles formed by the atomization
of parent liquids, such as pesticides and herbicides. Spray
particles range in size from 10 to 1000 µm.

Settling properties
Settling characteristics are one of the most impt.
properties of particulates, since settling is the
major natural self-cleansing process for removal
of particulates from the atmosphere.

Particulates can be generally classified as:

• suspended particles
• settleable particles
Suspended particles – vary in size from less than 1 µm to
approx. 20 µm. They remain suspended in the atm for
long periods of time.

Settleable particles, or dustfall, are larger and heavier and settle

out close to their sources. They are generally greater than
10 µm in size.

Optical qualities

Reduction in visibility is one of the most obvious

effects of air pollution, and the scattering of light by
particulate matter is primarily responsible for that
reduction. Particles in the range of visible light
(0.38 to 0.76 µm) are the most effective in visibility
reduction.
Chemical Characteristics

Atmospheric particulates contain both organic and

inorganic components.

Some of the more common of the organics

found in particulates include phenols,
organic acids, and alcohols.

Common inorganics found in particulates

include nitrates, sulfates,and metals
such as iron, lead, manganese, zinc and
vanadium.
Biological Characteristics

The biological particles in the atmosphere include

protozoa, bacteria, viruses, fungi, spores, pollens,
and algae.

Microorganisms generally survive for only a

short time in the atmosphere bec. of the lack
of nutrients and UV radiation from the sun.
Certain bacteria and fungi form spores and
can survive for long periods.
Blue-green algae have been found at altitudes
up to 2000 m.
Effects of Particulates
• At high concentrations, suspended particulate matter poses health hazards, particularly
those susceptible to respiratory illness
• The nature & extent of the ill effects that may be linked to suspended particulates
depend upon the concentration of particulates, the presence of other atmospheric
contaminants (notably sulfur oxides) and the length of exposure.
• Approximately, 40 % of the particles between 1 and 2 µm in size are retained in the
bronchioles and alveoli. Particles ranging in size from 0.25 to 1 µm show a decrease in
retention bec. many particles in this range are breathe in and out again.
• However, particles below 0.25 µm show another increase in retention
because of Brownian motion which results in impingement.

The respiratory system. Left photo shows the major anatomical features
of the human respiratory system. Right picture illustrates the terminal
bronchial and alveolar structure of the human being.
 Particulate size and respiratory defense mechanism
Particle Description Mechanism
size
Over 10 Coarse dust, fly ash, Hairs at the front of the nose
µm (visible to the naked remove all particles over 10 µm.
eye)
2 to 10 Fumes, dust, smoke Movement of cilia sweeps mucus
µm particles upward, carrying particles from
windpipe to mouth, where they
can be swallowed.
Less than 2 Aerosols, fumes Lymphocytes and phagocytes in
µm the lung attack some submicron
particles

The success or failure of human respiratory defense system

depends, in part, upon the size of particulates inhaled
and the depth of their penetration into the respiratory tract.
Lead
• Lead is emitted into the atmosphere as elemental lead (Pb),
oxides of lead (PbO, PbO2, PbxO3), lead sulfates and lead
sulfides (PbSO4,PbS), alkyl lead [(Pb(CH3)4, Pb(C2H5)4]
and lead halides.
Health Problems from Pb Exposure:
Three systems in the body most sensitive to Pb:
1. blood-forming system
2. nervous system
3. renal system
The reproductive, endocrine, hepatic, cardiovascular,
immunologic and gastrointestinal functions may also
be affected by lead.

In children, blood levels from 0.8 to 1.0 µm/L can

inhibit enzymatic systems.
Lead poisoning can be either acute or chronic, with chronic
lead poisoning occurring more frequently.

Symptoms of acute lead poisoning are:

• vomiting
• colic
• constipation or bloody diarrhea with such central-
nervous system effects as insomnia, irritability,
convulsions and even death.

Symptoms of chronic lead posioning:

• headache
• weakness
• lassitude
• constipation
• blue line along the gums
Aeroallergens – are airborne substances causing allergies
- caused by pollens and spores
– one of the worst allergens with size of 20 µm
is ragweed pollen
- other types of biological origins are yeasts,
molds, and animal fur, feathers, or hair

Effects of particulates on plants

• Little information is available.
• Dry-cement-kiln dust cause no damage on a leaf
surface but in the presence of moisture, such dust
imparts damage and growth inhibition
• Animals that eat plants coated with particulates
containing fluorides, arsenic, or lead may suffer
some ill effects.
Effects of Particulate Matter (PM) on Materials
• PM can damage materials by soiling clothing and textiles,
corroding metals, eroding building surfaces, and discoloring
and destroying painted surfaces.
Sources of Particulates
1. Natural (pollen, spores, bacteria, viruses, protozoa,
fungi, plant fibers, rusts and volcanic dust)
2. Anthropogenic – fly ash, smoke, soot particles,
metallic oxides and salts, oily or tarry droplets, acid
droplets, silicates, and other inorganic dusts, and
metallic fumes.
Detection and Analysis
1. Dustfall bucket – to measure settleable particulates
2. High-volume sampler or a paper-tape sampler -
to measure suspended PM
 Dustfall Bucket
A dustfall bucket, an open-mouthed container made of glass, polyethylene, or some
other inert material, is used to collect settleable atmospheric particulates. After
collection, the particles are weighed and the results reported in milligrams per square
centimeter per month (mg/ cm2 /m). Though dustfall measurement is inexpensive
and easy to carry out, the dustfall bucket has limited value as an air-monitoring tool.
 High-volume sampler
The high-volume sampler, the workhorse of air monitoring, consists of a specially housed
vacuum-sweeper motor with an attached filter holder. The filter holder consists of two
parts: the cone-shaped stainless-steel filter support screen and an open rectangular face
plate of cast iron with a sponge-rubber gasket. To sample, a flash-fired glass-fiber filter is
placed between the filter-support screen and the gasket face plate. When the adapter is
screwed onto the blower unit, a circular rubber gasket is used to make an air-tight seal.
The rate of air flow through the filter is measured with a “visi-float” flow meter calibrated
in liters per minute (L/min). Samples are usually collected for a 24 h period with flow meter
readings being taken at the beginning (allowing a 5-min warm-up period)
and at the end of each sampling period. The average flow rate is
determined for each sampler from the calibration curve.
Opacity – the degree to which emissions reduce the transmission
of light and obscure the view of an object in the back-
ground.
To determine the opacity of emissions from stationary sources,
a qualified observer, standing facing away from the sun and at a
sufficient distance to provide a clear view of the
emission and records such information as time of day,
estimated distance to the plume, approx. wind
direction, and speed, description of sky, and plume
background.
Measuring lead – by air sampling with a high-volume
sampler and analysis by atomic absorption.
Determining pollen and spore– use of Durham sampler
a simple gravity-slide device that has extensive use
in atmospheric allergen sampling.
Hydrocarbons - are organic compounds containing only C & H.
Most gasoline and other petroleum products are hydrocarbons
which are divided into: (1) aliphatic; and (2) aromatic

Aliphatic hydrocarbons – contain alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes.

Alkanes – saturated hydrocarbons (i.e. methane)
that are fairly inert and generally not active in
atmospheric photochemical reactions.
Alkenes – often called olefins, are unsaturated and
highly reactive in atmospheric photochemistry.
The reactivity of alkenes such as ethylene makes
them much more impt. in the study of air pollution
than alkanes, bec. in the presence of sunlight,
they react with NO2 at high conc. to form
secondary pollutants such as PAN and O3.
Alkynes – highly reactive but are relatively rare; not
of major concern in air pollution studies.
Aromatic Hydrocarbons – are biochemically and biologically active
and some are potentially carcinogenic.
- derived from or related to benzene

Sources of hydrocarbons (HC)

HC present in the atm. are from natural (biological
sources); though small amts. of these HC come
from geothermal areas, coal fields, natural gas
from petroleum fields, and natural fires. Other
HC are the volatile terpenes and isoprene,
produced by plants and trees. The terpene
molecules combine to form aerosols that produce
the “blue haze” over forested areas.
Sources of hydrocarbons (HC)
The anthropogenic sources of hydrocarbon emission include
transportation, fuel combustion in stationary sources (power,
heating), industrial processes, solid-waste disposal, forest
fires, agricultural burning, and coal waste fires.
Detection and Analysis
It is necessary to separate methane and non-methane
components in the detection and analysis for HC by:
gas chromatography in combination with flame
ionization.
Gas chromatography provides the necessary
sensitivity and specificity for HC, but, it is
expensive with a sophisticated procedure; limited
only to research or short-term air quality studies.
Carbon Monoxide
• is a colorless, tasteless and odorless, chemically inert gas under
normal conditions and has an estimated atmosphere mean life of
about 2 ½ months.
• At present ambient levels, CO has little, if any, effect on property,
vegetation or materials.
• At higher concentrations, it can seriously affect
human aerobic metabolism, owing to its high
affinity for hemoglobin (Hb) the component of the
blood responsible for the transport of oxygen.
• CO reacts with the Hb of blood to give carboxy-
hemoglobin (COHb), thus reducing the capability
of the blood to carry oxygen.
• CO affinity for hemoglobin can seriously impair the
transport of oxygen even when present at low conc.
Health effects of COHb at various levels in the blood
COHb Level, % Demonstrated Effects
Less than 1.0 No apparent effect
1.0 to 2.0 Some evidence of effect on
behavioral performance
2.0 to 5.0 Central nervous system effects;
impairment of time interval
discrimination, visual acuity,
brightness discrimination, and
certain other psychomotor functions
Greater than Cardiac and pulmonary functional
5.0 changes
10.0 to 80.0 Headaches, fatigue, drowsiness,
coma, respiratory failure, death
Source: Wolf, Phillip C.: “Carbon Monoxide Measurement and Monitoring
in Urban Air,” Env Sci Tech, 5(3): 231 (1971)
Sources of CO
• Sources are both natural and anthropogenic
• About 3 ½ billion tons of CO are produced in nature yearly
by the oxidation of methane gas from the decaying vegetation
• Another human source is human metabolism; the exhalation of
a resting person contain approx. 1 ppm CO. Apply
this to the entire nation. Current population of RP?
• Anthropogenic sources include transportation,
fuel combustion in stationary sources, industries,
solid waste, and others.
Detection and Analysis
Methods used: gravimetric, chemical, electrochemical,
and colorimetric processes. The reference method of
EPA is nondispersive infrared (NDIR), and the
approved equivalent methods are gas chromatography,
catalytic conversion and flame ionization detection.
Oxides of Sulfur – include 6 different gaseous compounds:
1. Sulfur monoxide (SO)
2. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) – Sulfur of most interest in air pollution
3. Sulfur trioxide (SO3) – Sulfur of most interest in air pollution
4. Sulfur tetroxide (SO4)
5. Sulfur sesquioxide (S2O3)
6. Sulfur heptoxide (S2O7)

SO2 – a colorless, nonflammable, and nonexplosive

gas with a suffocating odor;
- has a taste threshold of 784 µm/ m3 (0.3 ppm)
and odor threshold of 1306 µm/ m3 (0.5 ppm)
- highly soluble in water, has a molecular weight
of 64 and is twice as heavy as air
- estimated to remain airborne at an ave. of 2-4 d
during which time it may be transported as far as
1000 km, thus, the problem of SO2 can become
international.
Effects of Sulfur Oxides on Human Health
H 2SO4, SO4 and SO42- salts tend to irritate the mucous
membranes of the respiratory tract and foster the development of
chronic respiratory diseases, particularly bronchitis & pulmonary
emphysema.
Concentration, Exposure Effects
ppm Time
0 – 0.6 No detectable response
0.15 – 0.25 1-4d Cardiorespiratory response
1.0 – 2.0 3 – 10 min. Cardiorespiratory response in
healthy subjects
1.0 – 5.0 Detectable responses, tightness in
chest
5.0 1h Choking and increased lung
resistance to air flow
10.0 1h Severe distress, some nosebleeding
Greater than 20 Digestive tract affected, also eye
irritation
400 - 500 Dangerous for short periods of time
Effects of Sulfur Oxides on Plants
Injury to vegetation can be classified as acute or chronic. The
SO2 conc. in acute exposure is high for a short period, resulting
in damage characterized by clearly marked dead tissue between
the veins or in the margins of the leaves.
Chronic injury comes from exposure to low conc. for
long periods of time, which causes brownish-red or
bleached white areas on the blade of the leaf.
Effects on Materials
Sulfuric acid aerosols will readily attack building
materials esp. those containing carbonates such as
marble, limestone, roofing slate, and mortar. The
carbonates are replaced by sulfates which are water
soluble. The gypsum or calcium sulfate formed in the
process is washed away leaving a pitted, discolored
Sources of Oxides of Sulfur
• The burning of solid and fossil fuel contributes more than 80 %
of anthropogenic SO2 emissions
• Fuel combustion in stationary sources (primarily electric utilities)
and industrial processes are the principal contributors of Sox
from human sources
• Transportation contributes little to the anthropogenic
Sox in the atm, bec. the S content of gasoline is low.
• Present concern about automotive catalytic
converters oxidizing SO2 to SO3 is of small
consequence when compared to the potential
dangers of CO and HC emissions.
• However, the SO3 can react with moisture in the
air to produce H2SO4 mist.
 RedandorAnalysis
Detection UV absorption, as we
The colorimetric, conductometric, and coulometric methods are
the most commonly used direct methods, with the colorimetric
and conductometric methods being used mainly in the US for
continuous monitoring.

Other direct monitoring techniques are spectroscopic,

utilizing infrared and UV absorption, as well as flame
photometric methods.

An indirect method to approximate SO2 concentration

involves using Huey sulfation plates.
Oxides of Nitrogen - include 6 known gaseous compnds:
1. Nitric oxide (NO)
2. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
3. Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
4. Nitrogen sesquioxide (N2O3)
5. Nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4)
6. Nitrogen pentoxide (N2O5)

NO2 - heavier than air and readily soluble in water

forming nitric acid and either nitrous acid or
nitric oxide
Both nitric and nitrous acid will fall out in the rain or
combine with ammonia in the atm to form ammonium
nitrate.
Effects of Nitrogen Oxides on Human Health
Nitric oxide (NO) is readily oxidized to NO2 which irritates the
alveoli of the lungs.
Effects on Plants and Materials
There is no evidence that NO is damaging to plants outside the lab
and while NO2 and primary pollutants can cause
some injury to vegetation, PAN and O3, secondary
pollutants produced during photochemical reactions
involving NOX, are far more likely to be damaging to
plants.

Exposure to high levels of NO can cause fading of

textile dyes, yellowing of white fabric, and oxidation
of metals.
Secondary Pollutants and NO

Hydrocarbons react with nitrogen oxides to produce

photochemical smog consisting of air contaminants such as O3
PAN, aldehydes, ketones,alkyl nitrates, and CO.

Sources
1. Natural source – NOX produced in the atm
- by lightning & forest fires
- bacterial decomp. of org. matter
- produce approx. 10 times as
much NOX as do anthropogenic
sources
2. Anthropogenic source – fuel combustion in
stationary sources and in transportation
Detection and Analysis of NO and NO2
Monitoring of NO requires that nitric oxide first be converted to
NO2 and its concentration determined indirectly.
Methods used:
`` 1. Older methods:
a. Griess-Ilosvay colorimetric method
b. Jacob-Hockheiser colorimetric method
2. New methods:
a. chemiluminescense
b. UV spectrophotometry
c. electrical transducers
d. dispersive infrared spectrometry
e. lasers
f. ion-selective electrodes
g. pulsed UV fluorescense
Photochemical Oxidants
Oxidants or total oxidants – two terms used to describe levels of
photochemical oxidants, generally indicate the net oxidizing
ability of the ambient air.
Ozone – photochemical oxidant, makes up approx. 90 % of the
oxidant pool.
Other photochemical oxidants of concern in air
pollution monitoring are:
• a. nascent oxygen (O)
• b. excited molecular oxygen (O2)
• c. peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)
d. peroxy-butyl nitrate (PBN)
e. nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
f. hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
g. alkyl nitrates
Effects of Oxidants on Human Health
Photochemical oxidants can cause coughing, shortness of breath,
airway constriction, headache, chest tightness and soreness,
impaired pulmonary function, altered red blood cells,pharyngitis
laryngitis, and eye, nose, and throat irritation.
Effects on plants and materials:

O3 and PAN can cause damage to plants bec. both

can enter the plant leaf thru the stomata and
interfere with plant cell metabolism.
O3 is an extremely active compound and readily
oxidizes paints, elastomers (such as rubber),
textile fibers, and dyes.
Sources of Oxidants
• Produced in the upper atm by solar radiation.
• Also produced by lightning and forest fires.
Detection and Analysis
• buffered KI method as reference method for
calibration
• UV photometry is currently recommended as
primary calibration method
Other devices for monitoring O3:
• chemiluminescence
• coulimetric analysis
• long-path infrared spectroscopy
• gas chromatography to monitor PAN