ANALYTICAL

INSTRUMENTS

ASSIGNMENT – II

NAME: Sree Aswin M

REG NO: 113220061012
YEAR & SEM :4TH &7TH
ROLL NO: 12
Conductivity Meter:
Conductivity meter is used in atmospheric monitoring mainly for atmospheric
pollutants such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and various
nitrogen oxides, through the gas absorption device, the gas through the absorption
solution to see the changes in conductivity, monitoring the degree of pollution
area exceeds the standard.

How Is Conductivity Measured?

A conductivity meter has a probe that measures conductivity. A conductivity

meter measures conductivity by applying an alternating electrical current (I) to
two or four electrodes. It determines the electrical resistance of the solution. To
do this, the current method or potentiometric method is used.

After immersing electrodes in a solution the meter applies a voltage between two
electrodes. Electrical resistance from the solution creates a drop in voltage, which
is read by the meter.

When the electrical current is applied to the solution, the cations or ions with a +
charge transmit to the negative electrode, and the anions or ions with a - charge
transmit to the positive electrode. This transition of the ions leads to the solution
being conductive.

The Conductivity Meter Basic Principle:

There are two technical approaches or principles to measure conductivity
- inductive and contracting.

Inductive Conductivity:
Inductive conductivity meters or electrodeless conductivity meters use two
electromagnetic coils inside a corrosion-resistant casing to measure the
conductivity of a solution.

When the device submerges into the solution, it applies an alternating voltage to
the drive coil, which causes a voltage in the receiving coil. The voltage makes an
ionic current move proportional to the conductance of the solution.

Contacting Conductivity:
Contacting meters have conducting electrodes made of metal that are in direct
contact with the solution.

The meter applies an alternating voltage to the electrodes, and the electric field
created in the solution causes the ions to move back and forth.

This creates a current between the two conductivity meter electrodes.

Conductivity is highly dependent on the temperature, therefore you must choose

a temperature-compensated device. you should calibrate the device to be the
same temperature as the solution under testing.

Conductivity Meter Units:

Conductivity is usually expressed in micro- or millisiemens per

centimeter (uS/cm or mS/cm).

It can also be measured in micromhos or millimhos/centimeter (umhos/cm or

mmhos/cm), but these units are less common. One siemen is equal to one ohm.
Advantages:

• Intuitive interface and operation.

• Automatic temperature compensation for maximized accuracy.
• Simplified calibration protocols for easy maintenance.
• Compact and durable design.
• Easy calibration system.

Colorimetry:
A colorimeter is a device that is used in Colorimetry. It refers to a device which
helps specific solutions to absorb a particular wavelength of light. The
colorimeter is usually used to measure the concentration of a known solute in a
given solution with the help of the Beer-Lambert law. The colorimeter was
invented in the year 1870 by Louis J Duboscq.
Principle of Colorimeter:
It is a photometric technique which states that when a beam of incident light of
intensity Io passes through a solution, the following occur:

• A part of it is reflected which is denoted as Ir

• A part of it is absorbed which is denoted as Ia
• Rest of the light is transmitted and is denoted as It
Therefore, Io = Ir + Ia + It

To determine Ia the measurement of Io and It is sufficient therefore, Ir is

eliminated. The amount of light reflected is kept constant to measure Io and It.

Colorimeter is based on two fundamental laws of photometry. We have

discussed them below:

Beer’s law:
According to this law the amount of light absorbed is proportional to the solute
concentration present in solution.

Log10 Io/It = asc

where,

as is absorbency index

c is the concentration of solution

Lambert’s law:
According to this law the amount of light absorbed is proportional to the length
as well as thickness of the solution taken for analysis.

A = log10 Io/It = asb

Where,

A is the test absorbance of test

as is the standard absorbance

b is the length / thickness of the solution

Diagram of Colorimeter:

Working of Colorimeter:
Step 1: Before starting the experiment it is important to calibrate the colorimeter.
It is done by using the standard solutions of the known solute concentration that
has to be determined. Fill the standard solutions in the cuvettes and place it in the
cuvette holder of colorimeter.

Step 2: A light ray of a certain wavelength, which is specific for the assay is in
the direction of the solution. The light passes through a series of different lenses
and filters. The coloured light navigates with the help of lenses, and the filter
helps to split a beam of light into different wavelengths allowing only the required
wavelength to pass through it and reach the cuvette of the standard test solution.

Step 3: When the beam of light reaches’ cuvette, it is transmitted, reflected, and
absorbed by the solution. The transmitted ray falls on the photodetector system
where it measures the intensity of transmitted light. It converts it into the electrical
signals and sends it to the galvanometer.

Step 4: The electrical signals measured by the galvanometer are displayed in the
digital form.

Advantages and disadvantages of Colorimeter

Some benefits are as follows:

It is an inexpensive method, widely used in the quantitative analysis of coloured samples,

easy to carry, and transport.
Some disadvantages are as follows:

Analysis of colourless compounds is not possible, does not work in IR and UV regions.

Gas Chromatography
• Gas chromatography differs from other forms of chromatography in that
the mobile phase is a gas and the components are separated as vapors.
• It is thus used to separate and detect small molecular weight compounds in
the gas phase.

Principle of Gas chromatography :

• The separation is hence accomplished by partitioning the sample between
the gas and a thin layer of a nonvolatile liquid held on a solid support.
• A sample containing the solutes is injected into a heated block where it is
immediately vaporized and swept as a plug of vapor by the carrier gas
stream into the column inlet.
• The solutes are adsorbed by the stationary phase and then desorbed by a
fresh carrier gas.
• The process is repeated in each plate as the sample is moved toward the outlet.
• Each solute will travel at its own rate through the column.
• Their bands will separate into distinct zones depending on the partition
coefficients, and band spreading.

The procedure of Gas Chromatography:

Step 1: Sample Injection and Vapourization
1. A small amount of liquid sample to be analyzed is drawn up into a syringe.
 2. The syringe needle is positioned in the hot injection port of the gas
chromatograph and the sample is injected quickly.
3. The injection of the sample is considered to be a “point” in time, that is, it
is assumed that the entire sample enters the gas chromatograph at the same
time, so the sample must be injected quickly.
Step 2: Separation in the Column
• Components in the mixture are separated based on their abilities to adsorb
on or bind to, the stationary phase.
• A component that adsorbs most strongly to the stationary phase will spend
the most time in the column (will be retained in the column for the longest
time) and will, therefore, have the longest retention time (Rt). It will emerge
from the gas chromatograph last.
• A component that adsorbs the least strongly to the stationary phase will
spend the least time in the column (will be retained in the column for the
shortest time) and will, therefore, have the shortest retention time (Rt). It
will emerge from the gas chromatograph first.
Step 3: Detecting and Recording Results
The components of the mixture reach the detector at different times due to
differences in the time they are retained in the column.

Applications:
• Gas chromatography is used in the analysis of:
➢ air-borne pollutants
➢ performance-enhancing drugs in athlete’s urine samples
➢ oil spills
➢ essential oils in perfume preparation

Advantages
• GC is typically used in applications where small, volatile molecules are
detected and with non-aqueous solutions.
• GC is favored for non-polar molecules.

Limitations
• Compound to be analyzed should be stable under GC operation conditions.
• They should have a vapor pressure significantly greater than zero.