ONE SHOT UNIT 5 (Autosaved)

FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (BME-101/201)
ONE SHOT - UNIT 5

Today’s Target: (16 MARKS)
Unit-5:
Introduction to Measurement:
Concept of Measurement, Error in measurements, Calibration, measurements of
pressure(Bourdon Tube Pressure and U-Tube Manometer), temperature(Thermocouple
and Optical Pyrometer), mass flow rate(Venturi Meter and Orifice Meter),
strain(Bonded and Unbonded Strain Gauge), force (Proving Ring) and torques(Prony
Brake Dynamometer); Concepts of accuracy, precision and resolution.
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Introduction to Mechatronics Systems:
Evolution, Scope, Advantages and disadvantages of Mechatronics, Industrial applications
of Mechatronics, Introduction to Autotronics, bionics, and avionics and their applications.
Sensors and Transducers: Types of sensors, types of transducers and their characteristics.
Overview of Mechanical Actuation System
Kinematic Chains, Cam, Ratchet Mechanism, Gears and its type, Belt, Bearing.
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuation Systems:
Overview: Pressure Control Valves, Direction Control Valves, Rotary Actuators,
Accumulators and Pneumatic Sequencing Problems.

MECHATRONICS:
 Mechatronics is a concept of Japanese origin and can be defined as the application of
electronics and computer technology to control the motions of mechanical systems.
 Mechatronics may be defined as “the complete integration of mechanical system with
electronics, electrical and computer system into a single system”.
 It is a multidisciplinary approach to product and manufacturing system design.
 It involves application of electrical, mechanical, telecommunication, control and
computer engineering to develop products, processes and systems with greater
flexibility, ease in redesign and ability of reprogramming.


BASIC ELEMENTS OF MECHATRONICS SYSTEM:
Various elements in typical mechatronics systems are described here under.
(i) Actuators and Sensors
(ii) Signals and Conditioning
(iii) Digital Logic Systems
(iv) Software and Data Acquisition Systems
(v) Computers and Display Devices.

(I) ACTUATORS AND SENSORS
 Sensors and actuators mostly come under mechanical systems.
 The actuators produce motion or cause some action.
 The sensors detect the state of the system parameters, inputs, and
outputs.
 The various actuators used in the mechatronics system are
pneumatic and hydraulic actuators, electro-mechanical actuators,
electrical motors.
 The various types of sensors used in the mechatronics system are
linear arid rotational sensors, acceleration sensors, force, torque and
pressure sensors, flow sensors, temperature sensors, proximity
sensors, light sensors.

(II) SIGNALS AND CONDITIONING
 The various input signal conditioning devices used in
the mechatronics system are discrete circuits,
amplifiers, Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converters, Digital-
to-Digital (DZD) convertors.
 The output signals from the system are sent to

output/display devices through interfacing devices. The
various output signal conditioning devices used in the
mechatronics system are Digital-to-Analog (D/A)
converters, Display Decoders (DD) converters

(III) DIGITAL LOGIC SYSTEMS
 Digital logic devices control overall system operation.
 The various digital logic systems used in the

mechatronics system are logic circuits,
microcontrollers, programmable logic controllers,
sequencing and timing controls, and control
algorithms.

(IV) SOFTWARE AND DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
 The data acquisition system acquires the output

signals from sensors in the form of voltage,
frequency, resistance etc. and it is inputted into the
microprocessor or computer.
 The various data acquisition systems used in the

mechatronics system is data loggers, computer with
plug-in boards, etc.

(V) COMPUTERS AND DISPLAY DEVICES
 Computers are used to store many data and process
further through software.
 Display devices are used to give visual feedback to

the user.
 The various display devices used in the mechatronics

system are LEDs, CRT, LCD, digital displays, etc.

ADVANTAGES:
 It is cost effective, and it can produce high quality products.
 It provides high degree of flexibility to modify or redesign the systems.
 It provides excellent performance characteristics.
 It Results in automation in production, assembly and quality control.
 Mechatronics systems provide the increased productivity in manufacturing
organization.
 It provides the possibility of remote controlling as well as centralized monitoring and
control.
 Higher life is expected by proper maintenance and timely diagnosis of the fault.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Higher initial cost of the system.
 Maintenance and repair may workout costly.
 Multi-disciplinary engineering background is required to design and implementation.
 It needs highly trained workers to operate.
 Techno-economic estimation must be done carefully in the selection of mechatronics system.
 It has complexity in identification and correction of problems in the systems.
 As Mechatronics systems becoming more advanced, it may lead to job loss in certain industries
as machines can be programmed to perform the tasks that used to be done by humans.
 Mechatronics systems can be very complex, with lots of different parts that all parts work
together. This can make them difficult to design, build, and maintain.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MECHATRONICS SYSTEM:
1. High quality product.
2. Safe.
3. Low cost.
4. Portable produced quickly
5. Serviceability, maintainability and upgradeability.

APPLICATIONS OF MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS:
 Automotive machines.
 Fax and photocopier mechanics.
 Dishwashers.
 Automatic washing machine.
 Automatic Air conditioners.
 Documents scanners.
 IC manufacturing systems.
 Robotics employed in welding, nuclear inspection, painting etc.
 VCRs and CD Players.
 Drones.
APPLICATIONS OF MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS:
 CNC Machines.
 Automated guided vehicles.
 Industrial Barcode reading.
 Robotics.
 Automatic door systems.
 Airbag deployment system.
 Rapid prototyping systems.
 Medical scanner.
 Cranes.
 Bomb detection robot.
ORIGIN & EVOLUTION OF MECHATRONICS:
 Mechatronics began as an A to Z kind of engineering for a new technological age.
 It has caught on with students who want to learn all the skill sets required to build a
whole machine by themselves.
 Mechatronics is a crossover form of engineering born out of the need for engineers
with both electrical and mechanical knowledge.
 Before the 1970s, most household products based on mechanical engineering alone in
their design.
 Even large manufacturing plants were powered by people controlling mechanically
driven devices.

 The early 1970s saw a shift towards incorporating electrical power with mechanical
features into our tools and machines.
 Think of all the items in your home that move and are powered by electricity: your
washing machine, your ceiling fan, your food processor, your power drill.
 In the 1980s, with the boom in microprocessors, mechatronics grew more popular.
 By the 90s, the field began to incorporate aspects of computer science and
programming, creating almost endless possibilities to the usefulness of mechatronics
engineering.
 Now a days we use many engineering field to design a system for domestic purpose,
industrial purpose, nation security system and others.
 With all crossover knowledge, mechatronics engineers have brought amazing features
into the products they work on.
 Cars are a great example. Backup cameras, sensors, and anti-lock brakes all required
crossover engineering skills to design and implement. Areas like automation and
robotics are also full of mechatronics engineers.

AUTOTRONICS:
 Autotronics can be defined as the combination of automobile and electronics, or we
can say that the use of electronics science in automobile vehicles is called Autotronics.
 A lot of research and implementation had been done in this context to make the
design of automobiles easier.
 The use of electronics in the automobile field makes the system safe, improved and
efficient.
 In a vehicle almost all significant parts are featured with electronic items.
 New developments are coming very frequently in this field because there no
limitations in the development of new Autotronics. It helps to improve overall
automobile system.
AUTOTRONICS:
 At present, in the new generation automobiles almost 75%-85% of automobile parts
are embedded with electronics system.
 The main areas of automobiles using Autotronics are engine controlling system,
airbags, antilock braking system, lightening interiors, GPS, music systems etc.
 The application area of Autotronics is very vast, brakes, steering system, engine
controlling unit, transmission, accessories, antilock brakes, audio & video
entertainment systems, security alarm, GPS system, and suspension in the vehicles
are the main phases where autotronics are used.
 The use of these technologies has given a phenomenal revolution in the automobile
industry from past few decades.
AUTOTRONICS:
 The gradual improvements in systems causes the new features in reduced cost.
 All this made driving more comfortable, more secure & more sufficient & has turned
driving into delightful experience.

AVIONICS:
 Avionics is a word derived from the combination of aviation and electronics.
 Avionics is a variant mechatronics system. Every modern aircraft, spacecraft &
artificial satellite uses electronics systems to perform a range of functions for their
purpose & mission.
Such system may include:
 Engine control & flight control systems in order to reduce pilot error & workload at
landing or take off.
 Fuel control & monitoring system to report fuel remaining on board.

AVIONICS:
 Navigation & communication systems, Air navigation is the determination of position
& direction on or above the surface of the earth.
 Weather & anti- collision systems. The transport aircraft uses a traffic alert &
collision avoidance systems which can detect the location of nearby aircraft &
provide instructions for avoiding mid air collision. The weather detectors give
information on lightning & turbulence.
 Flight Recorders (Black Boxes). These stores flight information & audio from the
cockpit. They provide information on control settings & other parameters when there
is any unfortunate incident of crash.

AVIONICS:
 Display & management of systems fitted to the aircraft to perform individual tasks.
 Avionics increase safety for crew members & passengers.
 Avionics reduce the workload of crew members.
 Avionics air data like altitude, atmospheric pressure, temperature, etc.
 Reduction in aircraft weight which can be translated into increased number
of passengers.

BIONICS:
 Bionics is a variant of mechatronics systems that is the combination of Biology &
electronics.
 Bionics technologies create mechanical or electronics versions of living things or body
parts.
 Bionics is a science of constructing artificial system that have some of the
characteristics of living systems.
 Example of common bionics device are pacemakers, artificial joints, cochlear implant
etc.

BIONICS:
 With the help of bionics, its make of artificial hands with sensors in the fingertips
that monitor & adjust the strength of the hand’s grip.
 We can develop smart clothing that adapts to changing temperature. The smart
fabric opens (loose) when the weather is warm & sweating & shuts tight when cold.
This developments came from a study of pinecones (a type of plant).
 In artificial cardiac pacemakers that use electrical impulse to regulate a person’s
heartbeat.

BIONICS:
 With the help of bionics, we can improve the standard of living for people who have
damaged parts such as arms, legs, eyes cars etc.
 In the field of computer science, the study of bionics has produced artificial neurons,
artificial neural networks & swarm intelligence.

SENSOR:
 A sensor is a device that detects and measures a physical, chemical, or biological
parameter and converts it into an electrical signal that can be processed and
analyzed.
 Sensors are used in a wide range of applications, including industrial process control,
environmental monitoring, biomedical diagnostics, and consumer electronics.
 A sensor can detect various types of quantities such as heat, light, pressure, humidity,
motion, etc.

TRANSDUCERS:
 A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another. In the context
of electronics and electrical engineering, transducers are commonly used to convert
physical signals or environmental parameters, such as temperature, pressure, or
sound, into electrical signals that can be measured or processed by electronic circuits.
 A transducer is made of two parts; a sensor and a signal conditioning unit.
 The sensor detects the change in the physical environment and generates a non-
electrical signal. The signal conditioning unit converts the signal into electrical form
and also amplifies, attenuate or process it into a readable electrical signal.

SPECIFICATION OF SENSOR & TRANSDUCERS:

1. Range: The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary.
For example, a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a
range of 25-225 °C.
2. Span: The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the
input. Thus, the above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200 °C.
3. Error: Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true
value of the quantity being measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading of
29.8 mm, when the actual displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is –0.2 mm


4. Accuracy: The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual
measurement result and a true value of the measured.
5. Sensitivity: Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of
a sensor to the per unit change in input value that causes the output change.
6. Response Time: Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-
wise change of the measured.
7. Repeatability: It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated
applications of same input value.


8. Dead band/time: The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input
values for which there is no output. The dead time of a sensor device is the time
duration from the application of an input until the output begins to respond or
change.
9. Stability: Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to
measure a constant input over a period.
10. Resolution: Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input
parameter that can be detected in the output signal.

TYPES OF SENSOR:
Here are some common types of sensors and their applications:
1. Temperature Sensors: Temperature sensors measure the temperature of a system
and convert it into an electrical signal. They are used in applications such as heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, temperature control of industrial
processes, and medical devices.
2. Pressure Sensors: Pressure sensors measure the pressure of a fluid or gas and
convert it into an electrical signal. They are used in applications such as tire pressure
monitoring systems, aerospace and aviation, and medical devices.

TYPES OF SENSOR:
3. Level Sensors: Level sensors measure the level of liquid or solid material in a tank or
container and convert it into an electrical signal. They are used in applications such
as fuel level monitoring in vehicles, wastewater treatment plants, and food and
beverage manufacturing.
4. Flow Sensors: Flow sensors measure the flow rate of a fluid or gas and convert it into
an electrical signal. They are used in applications such as water and gas meters,
chemical and petrochemical manufacturing, and HVAC systems.

TYPES OF SENSOR:
5. Motion Sensors: Motion sensors detect the motion of an object or person and convert
it into an electrical signal. They are used in applications such as security systems,
motion-activated lighting, and gaming devices.
6. Humidity Sensors: Humidity sensors measure the relative humidity of the air and
convert it into an electrical signal. They are used in applications such as weather
monitoring, HVAC systems, and food storage and processing.

TYPES OF SENSOR:
7. Light Sensors: Light sensors detect the presence and intensity of light and convert it
into an electrical signal. They are used in applications such as photography, automatic
lighting systems, and solar panels.

TYPES OF TRANDUCERS:
Here are some common types of sensors and their applications:
1. Strain Gauge: A strain gauge is a type of transducer that measures the strain or
deformation of an object due to an applied force. It consists of a thin strip of metal
that changes its electrical resistance when subjected to mechanical strain. When a
force is applied to the object, the strain gauge deforms, causing a change in
resistance that is proportional to the applied force.

2. Thermocouple: A thermocouple is a type of transducer that measures temperature by
detecting the voltage generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals. When the junction
is heated, it generates a voltage that is proportional to the temperature difference between
the junction and the other end of the thermocouple.
3. Piezoelectric Transducer: A piezoelectric transducer is a type of transducer that

converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It consists of a material, such as quartz,
that produces an electrical charge when subjected to mechanical stress or deformation.
Piezoelectric transducers are used in applications such as ultrasonic imaging, vibration
sensing, and energy harvesting.

4. Photoelectric Transducer: A photoelectric transducer is a type of transducer that
converts light energy into electrical energy. It consists of a photoelectric material, such as
a photodiode or phototransistor, that produces an electrical signal when exposed to light.
Photoelectric transducers are used in applications such as optical sensing, photography,
and laser-based measurements.
5. Accelerometer: An accelerometer is a type of transducer that measures acceleration or
vibration by detecting changes in motion. It consists of a mass suspended by a spring or
other elastic material, which moves in response to changes in acceleration or vibration.
The motion of the mass generates an electrical signal that is proportional to the
acceleration or vibration.

KINEMATIC LINK:
Each part of a machine, which moves relative to some other part of same machine, is
known as a kinematic link (or simply link) or element.
A link may consist of several parts, which are rigidly fastened together, so that they do
not move relative to one another.
For example, in a reciprocating steam engine piston, piston rod and crosshead constitute
one link ; connecting rod with big and small end bearings constitute a second link ; crank,
crank shaft and flywheel a third link and the cylinder, engine frame and main bearings a
fourth link.

KINEMATIC LINK:

KINEMATIC PAIR:
The two links or elements of a machine, when in contact with each other, are said to form
a pair. If the relative motion between them is in a definite direction, the pair is known as
kinematic pair.

KINEMATIC CHAINS:
A kinematic chain may be defined as a combination of kinematic pairs, joined in such a
way that each link forms a part of two pairs and the relative motion between the links or
elements is in definite direction.
For example, the crank- shaft of an engine forms a kinematic pair with the bearings
which are fixed in a pair, the connecting rod with the crank forms a second kinematic pair,
the piston with the connecting rod forms a third pair and the piston with the cylinder
forms a fourth pair. The total combination of these links is a kinematic chain.


KINEMATIC CHAINS:

KINEMATIC CHAINS:
A kinematic chain may be defined as a combination of kinematic pairs, joined in such a
way that each link forms a part of two pairs and the relative motion between the links or
elements is in definite direction.
For example, the crank- shaft of an engine forms a kinematic pair with the bearings
which are fixed in a pair, the connecting rod with the crank forms a second kinematic pair,
the piston with the connecting rod forms a third pair and the piston with the cylinder
forms a fourth pair. The total combination of these links is a kinematic chain.

CAM AND FOLLOWER:
A Cam and follower mechanism is a profiled shape
mounted on a shaft that causes a lever or follower to
move.
Cams are used to convert rotary to linear
(reciprocating) motion.
 As the cam rotates, the follower rises and falls in a
process known as reciprocating motion.
The motion of the follower is restricted to a pre-
determined pattern by a guide.
The follower maintains contact with the cam through
the force of gravity or by a spring.
CAM AND FOLLOWER:
The total range of movement produced by the cam is
called the stroke.
The range of movement of the follower will depend on
the distance from the shaft supporting the cam to the
upper and lower points of the rotation circle.
Cams are commonly used in engines to control valves
(in which the valve is the follower), sewing machines,
children's toys and many other mechanical applications.

TRAIN RATCHET MECHANISM:
 ratchet mechanism is based on a wheel that has teeth cut out
of it and a pawl that follows as the wheel turns.
Studying the diagram you will see that as the ratchet wheel
turns and the pawl falls into the 'dip' between the teeth.
The ratchet wheel can only turn in one direction - in this case
anticlockwise.
Ratchet mechanisms are very useful devices for example, they
are used in mechanical clocks.
They are also very useful when using to lift heavy weight.
The contact surfaces of wheel and pawl should be inclined so
they don't disengage under pressure.
BEARING:
Bearings are one of the simplest yet important machine elements used to get desired
motion.
It assists with rotation, support shafts or load and reduces friction between two moving
parts.
For example to reduce unwanted vibration or deviation of a shaft; a bearing is used in
between.
You can find them everywhere from airplanes to automobiles and from generators to
air-conditioners. They are found in the refrigerator, pumps, fan, vacuum cleaner, etc.

TYPES OF BEARING
There are mainly two types of bearing:
1. BALL BEARINGS
Ball Bearings are mechanical assemblies that consist of rolling spherical elements that
are captured between circular inner and outer races.
They provide a means of supporting rotating shafts and minimizing friction between
shafts and stationary machine members.
Ball bearings are used primarily in machinery that has shafts requiring support for low
friction rotation.

There are several configuration, Ball bearings are standardized to permit
interchangeability.
Ball bearings are also known as rolling element bearings or anti-friction bearings.

ADVANTAGES OF BALL BEARINGS:
1. Good wear resistance.
2. Do not need much lubrication.
3. Provide low friction, thus little energy loss.
4. Long service life.
5. Easy to replace.
6. Small general dimensions.
7. Comparatively cheap.
8. Can handle thrust loads.

DISADVANTAGES OF BALL BEARINGS:
1. May break due to shocks.
2. Can be quite loud.
3. Cannot handle large weights.

2. ROLLER BEARINGS:
Roller Bearings are mechanical assemblies that consist of cylindrical or tapered rolling
elements usually captured between inner and outer races.
They provide a means of supporting rotating shafts and minimizing friction between
shafts and stationary machine members.
Roller bearings are used primarily in machinery with rotating shafts that require the
support of heavier loads than ball bearings provide.
Tapered roller bearings are often used to accommodate higher thrust loads in addition
to the radial loads.

Types range from cylindrical to spherical rollers. Roller bearings are standardized like
ball bearings.

ADVANTAGES OF ROLLER BEARINGS:
Easy maintenance.
Low friction.
Can take high radial loads.
Tapered roller bearings can withstand high axial loads.
Great accuracy.
Used to adjust axial displacement.
Low vibrations.

DISADVANTAGES OF ROLLER BEARINGS:
Noisy
Quite expensive

GEAR:
A gear is a wheel with teeth that mesh together with other gears.
It is mainly used to obtain different torque and speed ratio or changing the direction of
driving shaft and driven shaft.
There are many other power transmission devices like belt drive, chain drive, rope drive
etc. but the main advantage of gear system has almost negligible or no slippage between
driving and driven member.
 It is mainly use where, there is short distance between axis driving and driven shaft like
bicycle motorcycle, car etc.

TYPES OF GEARS:
Gears can be classified in various types according to construction of teeth, Use, the
direction of motion transfer etc. but basically it is classified according to design of teeth.
1. SPUR GEAR:
These gears are used to transmit the power in same plane or when the driving and
driven shafts are parallel to each other.
In this type of gear teeth are cut parallel to the axis of the shafts so when is meshes with
another spur gear it transmit the power in parallel shaft and when it connects with the
helical gear it will transmit power at an angle from the driving axis.


2. HELICAL GEAR:
On the helical gears teeth are cut at an angle from the axis of it.
It has cylindrical roller with helicoids teeth.
The main advantage of helical gears is that they work with less noise and vibration
because the load is distributed on the full helix as compared to spur gears.
 It also has less wear and tear due to which they are widely used in industries.
It also used for transmit power in parallel shaft but sometime they are used to transmit
power in non-parallel shaft also.
In the helical gears if the pinion (driving gear) is cut with right handed teeth then the
gear (driven gear) is cut with left handed of in opposite direction.


3. DOUBLE HELICAL OR HERRINGBONE GEAR:
This gear has both right- and left-handed teeth on one gear. This gear is used to provide
additional shear area on gear which further required for higher torque transmission.
This is same as helical.

4. BEVEL GEAR:
This gear is used to transmit power between perpendiculars.
The driving shaft and driven shaft makes a right angle with each other, and both the
axis of shaft meets each other at one point.
This gear has helical or spiral teeth on a conical shaped geometry and meshes with the
same gear.

5. RACK AND PINION GEAR:
This gear is used in steering system of automobile. In this type of gear, teeth are cut on a
straight rectilinear geometry know as rack and one spur gear known as pinion. This is
used to transmit rotary motion to linear motion.

6. WORM GEAR:
This type of gear is used to transmit the power in nonintersecting shaft which makes
right angle. In this type of arrangement, the driving gear is a screw gear, and the driven
gear is helical gear or gear with spiral teeth as shown in figure.

BELT DRIVES:
To transmit power from one shaft to another, pulleys are mounted on the two shafts. The
pulleys are then connected by an endless belt passing over the pulleys.
 The connecting belt is kept in tension so that motion of one pulley is transferred to the
other without slip. The speed of the driven shaft can be varied by varying the diameters of
the two pulleys.
Belt Drives are a type of frictional drives used for transmitting powers from one shaft to
another by means of pulleys which rotate at the same speed or at the different speed.

BELT DRIVES:
A belt drive is shown in the figure. It consists of two pulleys over which an endless belt it
passed over them. The mechanical power or rotary motion is transmitted from the driving
pulley to the driven pulley because of the frictional grip that exists between the belt and
the pulley surface.
The portion of the belt which is having less tension is called slack side and the one which
has higher tension is called tight side.
The tensions in the tight and slack sides of the belt depend on the angle of contact, the
belt drives have to be arranged such that the slack side comes above and the tight side
comes below the pulleys.

BELT DRIVES:

TYPES OF BELT DRIVES:
The following are the 5 main types of Belt Drives:
1. Open belt drive.
2. Cross belt drive.
3. Stepped cone pulley or speed cone drive.
4. Fast and loose pulleys.
5. Jockey pulley drive.

1. Open Belt Drive.
In these types of belt drive, the belt is employing when the two parallel shafts have to
rotate in the same direction.
When the shafts are far apart, the lower side of the belt should be the tight side and the
upper side must be the slack side.
This is because, when the upper side becomes the slack side, it will sag due to its own
weight and thus increase the arc of contact.

1. Open Belt Drive.

2. Cross Belt Drive.
This types of belt drives, the belt is employing when two parallel shafts have to rotate in
the opposite direction.
At the junction where the belts cross, it rubs against itself and wears off.
To avoid excessive wear, the shafts must be placed at a maximum distance from each
other and operated at very low speeds.

2. Cross Belt Drive.

3. Stepped Cone Pulley or Speed Cone Drive:
This types of belt drives are used when the speed of the driven shaft is to be changed
very frequently as in the case of machine tools such as lathe, drilling machine, etc.
A stepped cone pulley is an integral casting having three or number of pulleys of
different sizes one adjacent to the other as shown in fig.
One set of stepped cone pulley is mounted in reverse on the driven shaft. An endless belt
will be wrapped around one pair of pulleys.
By shifting the belt from one pair of pulleys to the other, the speed of the driven shaft
can be varied.
The diameter of the driving and driven pulleys is such that the same belt will operate
when shifted on different pairs of pulleys.
3. Stepped Cone Pulley or Speed Cone Drive:

4. Fast and Loose Pulley Drive:
This types of belt drives are used when the driven or machine shaft is to be started or
stopped whenever desired without interfering with the driving shaft.
A pulley which is keyed to the machine shaft is called a fast pulley and run at the same
speed as that of the machine shaft.
A loose pulley runs freely over the machine shaft and is incapable of transmitting any
power.
When the driven shaft is required to be stopped, the belt is pushed on to the loose pulley
by means of a sliding bar having belt forks.

4. Fast and Loose Pulley Drive:

5. Jockey Pulley Drive:
In an open belt drive arrangement, if the center distance is small, or if the driven pulleys
are very small, then the arc of contact of the belt with the driven pulley will be very small,
which reduces the tensions in the belt, or if the required tension of the belt cannot be
obtained by other means, an idler pulley, called jockey pulley is placed on the slack side of
the belt as shown in fig., Which increases the arc of contact and thus the tension which
results in increased power transmission.

5. Jockey Pulley Drive:

Advantages of Belt-drive:
A belt-drive has following advantages:
It can easily install and easily remove.
The price of the belt drive is low.
Simple in construction.
The maintenance cost is low.
No additional lubricant is required.
It can transfer power vertical, horizontal and inclined too.
Power consumption is low.

Disadvantages of Belt-drive:
Also, there are some disadvantages of belt drive and those are:
Power loss due to slip and creep.
Not used for a very short distance.
Longer life is not possible.
Chances of breaking are more.
The operation temperature is limited between -35 to 85 degrees Celsius. If it exceeds
temperature then it causes wear.

Applications of Belt-drive:
Belt-drives are used in various places like.
A belt drive is used to transfer power.
The belt drive is used in the Mill industry.
The belt drive is used in Conveyor.

PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE:
 A pressure control valve is used to regulate or maintain the
required pressure in a process control loop.
 The pressure relief valve is used to protect the hydraulic
components from excessive pressure.
 It is one of the most important components of a hydraulic
system and is essentially required for safe operation of the
system.
 Its primary function is to limit the system pressure within a
specified range.
 It is normally a closed type, and it opens when the pressure
exceeds a specified maximum value by diverting pump flow
back to the tank.
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE:
 The simplest type valve contains a poppet held in a seat
against the spring force as shown in the figure. The
fluid enters from the opposite side of the poppet.
 When the system pressure exceeds the preset value, the

poppet lifts, and the fluid is escaped through the orifice
to the storage tank directly.
 It reduces the system pressure and as the pressure

reduces to the set limit again the valve closes.

DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE:
 Directional control valves are used to control the distribution of energy in a fluid
power system.
 They provide the direction to the fluid and allow the flow in a particular direction.
These valves are used to control the start, stop and change in direction of the fluid
flow.
 These valves regulate the flow direction in the hydraulic circuit.
power system.

flow.
power system.
flow.

 These control valves contain ports that are external openings for the fluid to enter
and leave. The number of ports is usually identified by the term ‘way’.
 For example, a valve with four ports is named as four-way valve.
 The pressure control valves protect the system by maintaining the system pressure
within the desired range.
 The direction control valve are classified according to certain factor such as:
 Number of ports or ways: 2- way valve, 3 -way valve, 4 -way valve etc.
 Method of actuation: Manual, Mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic etc.
 Shape of valving elements: Ball, sliding spool, rotary spool etc.
Four Way Direction Control valve:
 It is generally used to operate the cylinders and fluid motors in both the directions.
The four ways are: pump port P, tank port T, and two working ports A and B
connected to the actuator. The primary function of a four-way valve is to pressurize
and exhaust two working ports A and B alternatively.

 A four-way has four ports labeled P, T, A and B.
 P is the pressure inlet and T is the return to the tank; A and B are outlets to the
system.
 In the normal position, pump flow is sent to outlet B. Outlet A is connected to the
tank. In the actuated position, the pump flow is sent to port A and port B connected
to tank T.

ROTARY ACTUATORS:
 Some machine actions require rotary motion for only a portion of a turn.
 Rotary actuators are hydraulic devices used to convert fluid pressure into rotary
motion.
 They are often used in industrial applications where precise rotation(below than 360
degree) is required, such as in robotics, material handling equipment, and heavy
machinery.
 A hydraulic rotary actuator typically consists of a cylinder, a piston, and a rotating
shaft. The piston is connected to the shaft and moves back and forth within the cylinder
when pressurized fluid is applied.

ROTARY ACTUATORS:
 The name rotary actuator is reserved for a particular type of unit that is limited in
rotation to less than 360 Degree.
 A hydraulic motor is a device which converts fluid power into rotary power or
converts fluid pressure into torque.
 The most common types of rotary actuators are vane, rack-and-pinion, or helical
designs or electric actuators.
 Vane actuators are a good fit for applications requiring extremely high endurance,
high rotational speeds, and a need for constant control of movement without the need
to maintain the load in a particular position.

ROTARY ACTUATORS:
 Their compact size makes vane actuators good for use in applications requiring
positioning, harmonic motion, and high-speed oscillating motion and are used in tool
machines, robotics and for handling containers.
 A vane actuator consists of a vane mounted on a central shaft enclosed in a
cylindrical chamber.
 The vane rotates upon pressurization and continues to rotate until it reaches the end
of the stroke.
 Air pressure applied to the other side of the vane causes it to rotate the shaft in the
opposite direction.

ROTARY ACTUATORS:

ACCUMULATORS:
 In hydraulic systems, accumulators are devices used to store hydraulic energy in the
form of pressurized fluid.
 They act as a reservoir or a temporary storage system that helps maintain system
stability, improve efficiency, and provide additional power when required.
 An accumulator in a hydraulic system provides a means of storing these incompressible

fluids under pressure created either by a spring, compressed a gas.

ACCUMULATORS:
 Typically, a hydraulic system with an accumulator can use a smaller pump because the
accumulator stores energy from the pump during periods of low demand.
 This energy is available for instantaneous use, released upon demand at a rate many
times greater than what could be supplied by the pump alone.
 There are many types of accumulators like diaphragm type, piston type, bladder type.

ACCUMULATORS:

MEASUREMENT:
 The word measurement is used to tell us the length, the weight, the temperature, the
colour or a change in one of these physical entities of a material.
 Measurement provides us various physical and chemical parameters of materials in
quantitative terms.
 The measurement is a comparison between a quantity, whose magnitude is unknown
with a similar quantity whose magnitude is known(standard value).
 These are two requirements which are to be satisfied to get good result from the
measurement.
1. The standard must be accurately known and internationally accepted.
2. The apparatus and experimental procedure adopted for comparison must be provable.

MEASUREMENT:

Methods of measurement:-
1. Direct and indirect measurement.
2. Primary and secondary & tertiary measurement.
3. Contact and non-contact type of measurement.
Direct and indirect measurement.

 Direct measurement:
 The value of the physical parameter is determined by comparing it directly with
different standards. The physical standards like mass, length and time are measured
by direct measurement.

❖ Indirect Measurement
 The value of the physical parameter is more generally determined by indirect
comparison with the secondary standards through calibration.
Eg: The measurement is converting into an analogous signal which subsequently process
and fed to the end device at present the result of measurement.

2. Primary and secondary & tertiary measurement.
 Primary Measurement
 In the primary mode, the value of physical parameter is determined by comparing it
directly with reference standards the required information is obtained to sense of side
and touch.
 Examples are:
a) Matching of two lengths is determining the length of a object with ruler.
b) Estimation the temperature difference between the components of the container by
inserting fingers.

 Secondary & tertiary measurement.
 Secondary and tertiary measurement are the indirect measurements involving one
transmission are called secondary measurements and those involving two convergent
are called tertiary measurements.
 Example:
 The convergent of pressure into displacement by means of be allows and the
convergent of force into displacement.
• Pressure measurement by manometer and the temperature measurement by mercury
in glass tube thermometer.
• The measurement of static pressure by boundary tube pressure gauge is a typical
example of tertiary measurement.

3. Contact and non-contact type of measurements:
Contact type:
 Where the sensing element of measuring device as a contact with medium whose
characteristics are being measured.
Non-contact type:
 Where the sense doesn't communicate physically with the medium.
 Ex: The optical, radioactive and some of the electrical/electronic measurement belong
to this category.

ERROR IN MEASUREMENT:
 An error may be defined as the difference between the measured and actual values.
 For example, if the two operators use the same device or instrument for
measurement, It is not necessary that both operators get similar results.
 The difference between the measurements is referred to as an ERROR.
Errors are Classified into:
1. Gross errors
2. Systematic (or) instrumental errors.
3. Random (or) Accidental errors

1. Gross Errors:
 This cause of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments and
recording and calculating measurement result.
 Ex: The temperature is 31.50 C, but it will write as 21.50 C
 They can be avoided by adopting two means
 1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
 2. Two, three (or) even more readings should be taken for quantity under
measurement.

2. Systematic errors:
These type of errors are divided into three categories.
a. Instrumental errors
b. Environmental errors
c. Observational errors.
(a) Instrumentation errors:
 These errors occurs due to three main reasons.
a. Due to inherent short comings of the instrument.
b. Due to misuse of instruments.
c. Due to loading effects of instruments.

b. Environmental errors:
 These errors are caused due to changes in the environmental conditions in the area
surrounding the instrument, that may affect the instrument characteristics, such as
the affects of changes in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure.
c. Observational errors:
 These errors are produced by the experiment.
 These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers.
 To minimize parallax errors modern electrical instruments have digital display of
output.

3. Random (or) accidental errors:
 The causes of such errors is unknown (or) not determinable in the ordinary process
making measurements.
 Such errors are normally small and follow the law of chance.
 Random errors they may be treated mathematically according to the law of
probability.
a. Certain human errors
b. Errors caused due to the disturbances to the equipment’s
c. Errors caused by fluctuating experimental conditions.

CALIBRATION:
 Calibration is the process of testing or restoring the accuracy of an instrument or
measuring equipment by comparing it with an established standard to ensure that it
is operating safety and efficiently.
RESOLUTION:
 Resolution refers to the smallest change in value that the instrument can detect or
display.

ACCURACY:
 The ability of an instrument to measure the accurate value is known as accuracy.
 In other words, it is the closeness of the measured value to a standard or true value.
PRECISION:
 Precision is defined as the ability to reproduce the same output repeatedly for the
same input.
 If any device give same output again and again at same input it is said to have high
precision.

TORQUE MEASUREMENT:
 Dynamometer is a device which is used to measure the frictional resistance. By know
frictional resistance we can determine the torque transmitted and hence the power of
the engine.
PRONY BRAKE DYNAMOMETER:
 These dynamometers are of absorption type.
 Two wooden blocks are mounted diametrically opposite on a flywheel attached to the
rotating shaft whose power is to be measured.
 One block carries a lever arm, and an arrangement is provided to tighten the rope
which is connected to the arm.


 The rope is tightened to increase the frictional resistance between the blocks and the
flywheel.
 The torque exerted by the prony brake
T = W.L
 where force W is measured by conventional force measuring instruments, like
balances or load cells etc.
 The power dissipated in the brake is calculated by the following equation.
P = 2π NT/60 Watt = 2π WLN/60
 where force W is in Newton, L is the length of lever arm in meters, N is the angular
speed in revolution per minute, and Power P in watts.

FORCE MEASUREMENT:
Proving Ring:
 The proving ring is a device used to measure force.
 It consists of an elastic ring of known diameter with a measuring device located in
the center of the ring.
 Proving rings can be designed to measure either compression or tension forces. Some
are designed to measure both.
 The basic operation of the proving ring in tension is the same as in compression.
 When an external compressive or tensile load is applied to the external bosses, the
ring change in its diameter.


 The change in diameter is proportional to the applied force.
 The resulting change in diameter, referred to as the deflection of the ring, is measured
with a micrometer screw and the vibrating reed mounted diametrically within the
ring.
 The proving ring deflection can also be picked by LVDT, resulting in a proportional
voltage
 The difference in the micrometer reading taken before & after the application of load
is the measure of amount of the elongation or compression of the ring.

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT:
OPTICAL PYROMETERS:
 A temperature measuring device that is used to measure the temperature of molten
metal’s, overheated material, furnaces otherwise liquids. It is one kind of measuring
device of temperature with a non-contact.
 The working principle of this optical pyrometer is to match the object’s brightness of
the filament within the device. By using contact type instruments, measuring the
temperature of the highly heated body is not possible.
 So this non-contact type device is used to measure the temperature.


 The construction of the optical pyrometer is quite simple.
 The pyrometer is cylindrical inside which the lens is placed on one end and the
eyepiece on the other end.
 The lamp is kept between the eyepiece and the lens.
 The filter is placed in front of the eyepiece.
 The filter helps in getting the monochromatic light.
 The lamp has the filament which is connected to the battery, ammeter and the
rheostat.
 In order to measure the temperature of a body, the radiation emitted from that body
is made to fall on the reference temperature lamp filament.

 Now by observing the lamp's filament through the eyepiece, the brightness of the
lamp is varied until the brightness of both the reference temperature lamp and
radiation emitted from the hot body becomes same.
 When the brightness of both the filament of the lamp and the hot body becomes equal
the filament gets disappeared.
 In order to measure the temperature of a body, the radiation emitted from that body
is made to fall on the reference temperature lamp filament.
 Now by observing the lamp's filament through the eyepiece, the brightness of the
lamp is varied until the brightness of both the reference temperature lamp and
radiation emitted from the hot body becomes same

 When the brightness of both the filament of the lamp and the hot body becomes equal
the filament gets disappeared. Since the radiations emitted from the hot body i.e., the
brightness of the hot body depends upon its temperature, and the brightness of the
lamp depends upon current passing through the filament.
 The temperature can be determined by calibrating the optical pyrometer in terms of
current flowing through the filament of the lamp.
 Therefore, the reading indicated by the PMMC meter that measures the flow of
current through the lamp's filament gives the temperature of the hot body.

 .

THERMOCOUPLE:
 A thermocouple is a device to measures temperature difference by detecting the
voltage generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals.
 When two conductors of dissimilar metals are joined together in the form a
loop(thermocouple) & two unequal temperature are imposed at the both junction, an
electric current flows through the loop.
 It generates a voltage that is proportional to the temperature difference between the
junction of the thermocouple.

THERMOCOUPLE:

STRAIN MEASUREMENT:
Bounded Strain Gauge:
In bonded strain gauge, a fine resistance wire of diameter 0.25 mm or less is bonded or
pasted on a thin flexible sheet of a paper, tissue, Bakelite or Teflon etc. and this substrate
or sheet is directly attached using adhesive to the surface of the structure whose stress or
strain to be measured.
The grid of fine resistance wire is cemented to carrier. It can be a thin sheet of paper,
Bakelite or a sheet of Teflon. To prevent gauge wire from any mechanical damage, it is
being covered on top with a thin sheet of insulating material.


Bounded Strain Gauge:
When bonded wire strain gauges are attached to the structure surface under study and
structure is subjected to a force, gauge gets elongated, hence a change in resistance occurs
which can be detected and measured by bridge circuits and can be calibrated in unit of
measurement of process variable such as force, pressure, stress etc.

Unbounded Strain Gauge:
In Unbounded strain gauge, fine resistance wire of diameter 0.003mm or less is stretched
between two frames using insulated pins.
Here both the frames can move relative with respect to each other and are held together
by a spring-loaded mechanism.
Gauge wire is connected to one arm of wheat stone bridge network. The major
difference between bonded and unbounded strain gauge is that resistance wire is not
directly bonded here on the surface of the structure under stress analysis.
There can be various configurations possible when changing method to stretch gauge
wire.


Working Principle Unbounded Strain Gauge:

Principle of operation is similar to bonded type strain gauge.
When movable frame is subjected to a force, pressure, weight etc., frame get shifted
slightly hence gauge wire gets elongated, which causes a change in resistance that can be
detected and measured by bridge circuits and can be calibrated in unit of measurement of
process variable such as force, pressure, weight etc.

Mass Flow Rate Measurement:
Venturimeter:
A Venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid flowing
through a pipe.
It is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation.
Inside of the Venturimeter pressure difference is created by reducing the cross sectional
area of the flow passage.
The pressure difference is measured by using a differential U-tube manometer.
This pressure difference helps in the determination of rate of flow of fluid or discharge
through the pipe line.


 As the inlet area of the Venturimeter is large than at the throat, the velocity at the
throat increases resulting in decrease of pressure.
 By this, a pressure difference is created between the inlet and the throat of the
Venturimeter.
 Increase in the speed of the fluid occurs proportionately with an increase in both its
dynamic pressure and kinetic energy, and a decrease in its static pressure and
potential energy.

ORIFICE METER
The orifice Meter is a device that is used to measure the flow rate or average velocity of
the flowing fluid (Liquid or gases) in a pipe.
Here the orifice plate is used for the restriction in the direction of the fluid flow.
Therefore the restriction process we also called Orifice Plate.
The restriction effect results in pressure drops of the flowing fluid.
The drop in pressure is associated with the rate of flowing fluid or the average velocity
of the fluid.

ORIFICE METER

The working principle of Orifice Meter is the same, like that of Venturimeter.
The orifice plate is being fixed at a section of the pipe, creates an obstruction to the flow
by providing an opening in the form of an orifice to the flow passage.
The fluid flows inside the Inlet section of the Orifice meter having a pressure P1.
As the fluid proceeds further into the Converging section, its pressure reduces gradually
and it finally reaches a change value P2 at the end of the Converging section and enters
the Cylindrical section.

The differential pressure sensor connected between the Inlet and the and the Cylindrical
Throat section of the Orifice meter displays the difference in pressure (P1-P2).
This difference in pressure is in direct proportion to the flow rate of the liquid flowing
through the Orifice meter.

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:
BOURDON TUBR PRESSURE GAUGE:
When bourdon tube is subjected to a pressure, it defects. This deflection is proportional
to the applied pressure when calibrated.
The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a elliptical tube tends to change to a
more circular cross-section when pressurized.
The main parts of this instrument in which is a bourdon tube which is fixed and open at
one end to receive the pressure which is to be measured. The other end of the bourdon
tube is free and closed.


The cross-section of the bourdon tube is elliptical. The bourdon tube is in a bent form to
look like a circular arc.
To the free end of the bourdon tube is attached an adjustable link, which is in turn
connected to a sector and pinion.
 To the shaft of the pinion is connected a pointer which sweeps over a pressure
calibrated scale.
The applied pressure acts on the inner walls of the bourdon tube.
Due to the applied pressure, the bourdon tube tends to change in cross-section from
elliptical to circular.

This tends to straighten the bourdon tube causing a displacement of the free end of the
bourdon tube.
This displacement of the free closed end of the bourdon tube is proportional to the
applied pressure.
As the free end of the bourdon tube is connected to a link – section – pinion
arrangement, the displacement is amplified and converted to a rotary motion of the
pinion.
As the pinion rotates, it makes the pointer to assume a new position on a pressure
calibrated scale to indicate the applied pressure directly.

U-Tube Manometer:
 Manometers are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are used to measure
the difference in pressure between two points or between a certain point and the
atmosphere.
 It consists of transparent (glass) tube constructed in the form of an elongated U and
is partially filled with a liquid, most commonly water or mercury.
 Water and mercury are used because their specific weights for various temperature
are known exactly and they do not stick to the tube.

U-Tube Manometer:

 One end of the tube is connected to one pressure tap and other end of tap is
connected to the other pressure tap, or it may be left open to the atmosphere.
 When there is a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube, the liquid level
goes down on one side of the tube and up on the other side.
 The difference in liquid levels from one side to the other indicates the difference in
pressure. The differential pressure (PA-PB) is obtained by the relation:

(PA-PB) = (ρ-ρ1) (h1-h2) g

P = (ρ-ρ1) hg
Where ρ = density of fluid in U-tube
ρ1= density of fluid whose pressure is being measured
h = (h1-h2), difference in fluid levels
g = acceleration due to gravity.
 When a manometer is used to measure low pressures then water is used as the liquid,
and when it is used to measure high pressure then mercury is used as the liquid.
Mercury is almost 14 times as heavy as water.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONICS
Success Classes
ENGINEERING
Bijnor (BEC-101/201)
THANK YOU
For
Watching

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FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (BME-101/201)

ONE SHOT - UNIT 5

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 The output signals from the system are sent to

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 The various digital logic systems used in the

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 The data acquisition system acquires the output

 The various data acquisition systems used in the

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 Display devices are used to give visual feedback to

 The various display devices used in the mechatronics

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SPECIFICATION OF SENSOR & TRANSDUCERS:

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SPECIFICATION OF SENSOR & TRANSDUCERS:

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SPECIFICATION OF SENSOR & TRANSDUCERS:

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3. Piezoelectric Transducer: A piezoelectric transducer is a type of transducer that

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called the stroke.

The range of movement of the follower will depend on

the distance from the shaft supporting the cam to the

upper and lower points of the rotation circle.

Cams are commonly used in engines to control valves

(in which the valve is the follower), sewing machines,

children's toys and many other mechanical applications.

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