LYMPHATIC SYSTEM 3. Carries out immune responses.

Lymphatic tissue initiates highly specific

Consists of a fluid called lymph, vessels responses directed against particular microbes
called lymphatic vessels that transport the or abnormal cells.
lymph, a number of structures and organs
containing lymphatic tissue (lymphocytes within INNATE IMMUNITY
a filtering tissue), and red bone marrow.
Innate (nonspecific) immunity includes the
Assists in circulating body fluids and external physical and chemical barriers
helps defend the body against disease-causing provided by the skin and mucous
agents. membranes.

Most components of blood plasma filter Includes various internal defences, such
through blood capillary walls to form interstitial as antimicrobial substances, natural
fluid. After interstitial fluid passes into lymphatic killer cells, phagocytes, inflammation,
vessels, it is called lymph. and fever.

MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN First line of defence: skin and mucous

INTERSTITIAL FLUID AND LYMPH IS membranes
LOCATION
The skin and mucous membranes of
Interstitial fluid is found between cells. the body are the first line of defence
against pathogens.
Lymph is located within lymphatic
vessels and lymphatic tissue. Provide both physical and chemical
barriers that discourage pathogens
3 PRIMARY FUNCTIONS and foreign substances from
penetrating the body and causing
1. Drains excess interstitial fluid. disease.

Lymphatic vessels drain excess interstitial fluid Summary of First Line of Defense
from tissue spaces and return it to the blood.
This function closely links it with the PHYSICAL FACTORS
cardiovascular system. In fact, without this
Epidermis of skin Forms a physical barrier to
function, the maintenance of circulating blood
entrance of microbes.
volume would not be possible.
Mucous Inhibit entrance of many
2. Transports dietary lipids. membranes microbes, but not as
effective as intact skin.
Lymphatic vessels transport lipids and
lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) absorbed Mucous Traps microbes in respiratory
and gastrointestinal tracts.
by the gastrointestinal tract.
Hairs Filter out microbes and dust
Second line of defence: internal defences
in the nose.
Cilia Together with mucous, trap Summary of First Line of Defense
and remove microbes and
dust from the upper ANTIMICROBIAL SUBSTANCES
respiratory tract.
Interferons Protect from uninfected host
Lacrimal Tears dilute and wash away (IFNs) cells from viral infection.
apparatus irritating substances and
microbes. Complement Causes cytolysis of
system microbes; promotes
Saliva Washes microbes from phagocytosis; contributes to
surfaces of the teeth and inflammation.
mucous membranes of the
mouth. Iron-binding Inhibit growth of certain
proteins bacteria by reducing amount
Urine Washes microbes from of available iron.
urethra.
Antimicrobial Have broad-spectru
Defecation and Expel microbes from the proteins (AMPs) antimicrobial activities and attra
vomiting body. dendritic cells and mast cells.

CHEMICAL FACTORS NATURAL Kill infected target cells by

KILLER (NK) releasing granules that
Sebum Forms protective acidic film CELLS contain perforin and
over skin surface that granzymes; phagocytes
inhibits growth of many then kill released microbes.
microbes.
PHAGOCYTES Ingest foreign particulate
Lysozyme Antimicrobial substance in matter.
perspiration, tears, saliva,
nasal secretions, and tissue INFLAMMATION Confines and destroys
fluids. microbes; initiates tissue
repair.
Gastric juice Destroys bacteria and most
toxins in the stomach. FEVER Intensifies effects of
interferons; inhibits growth
Vaginal Slight acidity discourages of some microbes; speeds
secretions bacterial growth; flush up body reactions that aid
microbes out of vagina. repair.
 SEQUENCE OF LYMPHATIC FLUID FLOW
FROM BLOOD CAPILLARIES TO THE EFFERENT LYMPHATIC VESSELS carry
HEART lymph from lymph nodes.

The sequence of fluid flow is blood capillaries VALVE ensures one way flow of lymph.
(blood) → interstitial spaces (interstitial fluid) →
lymphatic capillaries (lymph) → lymphatic LYMPHATIC VESSELS pass lymph to
vessels (lymph) → lymphatic ducts (lymph) → lymphatic ducts.
junction of the internal jugular and subclavian
veins (blood). LYMPHATIC DUCTS (thoracis duct, right
lymphatic duct) empty lymph to the junction of
MOVEMENT OF LYMPHATIC FLUID jugular and subclavian veins of the
THROUGH THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS cardiovascular system.

FUNCTION OF LYMPH ORGANS

Lymphatic organs and tissues are

classified into two groups based on their
functions.

1. Primary lymphatic organs - are the sites

where stem cells divide and become
immunocompetent, that is, capable of
mounting an immune response.

Primary lymphatic organs:

1. Red bone marrow (in flat bones and the

epiphyses of long bones of adults)
Blood plasma is filtered from blood capillaries
into interstitial fluid to become INTERSTITIAL Pluripotent stem cells in red bone
FLUID. marrow give rise to mature,
immunocompetent B cells and to pre-T
LYMPATHIC CAPILLARIES absorb interstitial cells. The pre-T cells in turn migrate to
fluid and pass lymph to afferent lymphatic the thymus, where they become
vessels. immunocompetent T cells.

AFFERENT LYMPATHIC VESSELS carry 2. Thymus

lymph from lymphatic capillaries to lymph
nodes. A bilobed organ, located in the
superior mediastinum posterior to the
LYMPH NODES filter lymph and remove foreign sternum and between the lungs, in
substances through filtering, phagocytes and which T cells develop
immune reactions. immunocompetence.

An enveloping layer of connective
tissue holds the two lobes closely
together, but a connective tissue
capsule separates the two. Extensions
of the capsule, called trabeculae,
penetrate inward and divide each lobe
into lobules.
Each thymic lobule consists of a deeply
staining outer cortex and a lighter-staining
central medulla (figure 22.5b).
The cortex is composed of large numbers of T
cells and scattered dendritic cells, epithelial
cells, and macrophages.
Immature T cells (pre-T cells) migrate from
red bone marrow to the cortex of the thymus,
where they proliferate and begin to mature.
Dendritic cells, which are derived from
monocytes, assist the maturation process.
Each of the specialized epithelial cells in the
cortex has several long processes that
surround and serve as a framework. These
epithelial cells help ‘educate’ the pre-T cells
in a process known as positive selection. It
produces thymic hormones that are thought
to aid in the maturation of T cells.
Only about 2% of developing T cells survive in
the cortex. The remaining cells die via
apoptosis (programmed cell death).
Thymic macrophages help clear out the
debris of dead and dying cells. The surviving
T cells enter the medulla. The medulla
consists of widely scattered, more mature T
cells, epithelial cells, dendritic cells, and
macrophages.
Thymic corpuscles or Hassall’s
corpuscles - serve as sites of T cell death in
the medulla.
2. Secondary lymphatic organs and
tissues - are the sites where most immune
responses occur.
Secondary Lymphatic Organs
1. Lymph nodes
Located along lymphatic vessels are
about 600 bean-shaped lymph nodes.
Large groups of lymph nodes are present
near the mammary glands and in the
axillae and groin.
Function: a type of filter. It filter out
harmful substances and waste products.
They also contain immune cells called
lymphocytes that destroy bacteria and
cancer cells. The filtered fluid is then
returned to your blood.
2. Spleen
The oval spleen is the largest single mass of
lymphatic tissue in the body, measuring about
12 cm (5 in.) in length.
It is located in the left hypochondriac region
between the stomach and diaphragm.
Function: formation of blood cells during
early foetal development, phagocytosis of
ruptured blood cells, and proliferation of B
cells during immune responses.
The spleen performs three functions related to
blood cells: (1) removal by macrophages of
ruptured, worn out, or defective blood
cells and platelets; (2) storage of platelets,
up to one-third of the body’s supply; and
(3) production of blood cells The single pharyngeal tonsil or adenoid is
(haemopoiesis) during foetal life. embedded in the posterior wall of the
nasopharynx.
NOTE:
The two palatine tonsils lie at the posterior
The thymus, lymph nodes, and spleen are region of the oral cavity, one on either side;
considered organs because each is these are the tonsils commonly removed in a
surrounded by a connective tissue capsule; tonsillectomy.
lymphatic nodules, in contrast, are not
considered organs because they lack a The paired lingual tonsils, located at the
capsules. base of the tongue, may also require
removal during a tonsillectomy.
LYMPATHIC NODULES
Aggregations of lymphatic nodules occur in the
Egg-shaped masses of lymphatic tissue appendix.
that are not surrounded by a capsule.
Function: Guard the body from and respond to
Scattered throughout the lamina propria entry of infectious organisms and toxins.
(connective tissue) of mucous membranes
lining the gastrointestinal, urinary, and
reproductive tracts and the respiratory airways,
lymphatic nodules in these areas are also
referred to as mucosa-associated lymphatic
tissue (MALT).

Lymphatic nodules are small and solitary,

some occur in multiple large aggregations in
specific parts of the body.

Among these are the tonsils in the pharyngeal

region and the aggregated lymphatic follicles
(Peyer’s patches) in the ileum of the small
intestine.

Usually there are five tonsils, which form a ring

at the junction of the oral cavity and
oropharynx and at the junction of the nasal
cavity and nasopharynx.

Tonsils are strategically positioned to

participate in immune responses against
inhaled or ingested foreign substances.