LG Implment Soil Health and Plant Nutrition

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TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION AND TRAINING BUREAU
Soil and water conservationLevel III
Unit of Competence: Implement soil health and plant nutrition program
Module Title: Implementingsoil health and plant nutrition program
LG Code: NRC SWC 311 LO 01-04
TTLM Code: NRC SWC 311 TTLM 1012v1
TTLM NRC SWC 311 LO TVET Program: Soil and water conservation Level III
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Revision: 0 Author: WehabrebiAwel
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This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
following content coverage and topics –
 Determine relevant site characteristics
 Define the requirements for plant production
 Document the soil health and plant nutrition program and specifications
 Monitor production and evaluate the program
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will be able to –
After reading this module, the reader should:
 Know the 17 elements essential for plant nutrition
 Know the macronutrients and micronutrients
 Be familiar with the function and mobility of nutrients withinplants
 Understand the forms of each nutrient that are taken up byplants
 Identify and diagnose common plant nutrient deficiency andtoxicity symptoms
Learning Activities
1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
2. Read the information written in the “Information Sheets 1-2”.
3. Accomplish the “Self-check” in page 24.
4. If you earned a satisfactory evaluation proceed to “Operation Sheet” in page 29. However, if
your rating is unsatisfactory, see your teacher for further instructions or go back to Learning
Activity #2.
5. Submit your accomplished Self-check. This will form part of your training portfolio.
6. Read the “Operation Sheet” and try to understand the procedures discussed.
7. Read the “Job Sheet” and try to understand the procedures discussed.
8. Do the “LAP test” in page 30(if you are ready) and show your output to your teacher. Your
teacher will evaluate your output either satisfactory or unsatisfactory. If unsatisfactory, your
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teacher shall advice you on additional work. But if satisfactory you can proceed to Learning
Guide 6.
Lo1. Determine relevant site characteristics
Introduction
I. Soil health
Soil health is the foundation of productive farming practices. Fertile soil provides essential
nutrients to plants. Important physical characteristics of soil-like structures and aggregation allow
water and air to infiltrate, roots to explore, and biota to thrive. Diverse and active biological
communities help soil resist physical degradation and cycle nutrients at rates to meet plant needs.
Soil health and soil quality are terms used interchangeably to describe soils that are not only
fertile but also possess adequate physical and biological properties to “sustain productivity,
maintain environmental quality and promote plant and animal health”.
II .Plant Nutrition
Essential elements
Scientists have found that only 17 of them are essential for plant growth. To be classified as
essential, the element needs to meet the following criteria:
1. The plant cannot complete its life cycle (seed to new seed) without it.
2. The element’s function cannot be replaced by another element.
3. The element is directly involved in the plant’s growth and reproduction.
4. Most plants need this element to survive.
Macronutrients
 Macronutrients can be broken into two more groups: primary and secondary nutrients.
 The primary nutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). These major
nutrients usually are lacking from the soil first because plants use large amounts for their
growth and survival.
 The secondary nutrients are calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S). There are usually
enough of these nutrients in the soil so fertilization is not always needed. Also, large amounts
of Calcium and Magnesium are added when lime is applied to acidic soils. Sulfur is usually
found in sufficient amounts from the slow decomposition of soil organic matter, an important
reason for not throwing out grass clippings and leaves.
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Micronutrients
 Micronutrients are those elements essential for plant growth which are needed in only very
small (micro) quantities. These elements are sometimes called minor elements or trace
elements,. The micronutrients are boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), chloride (Cl), manganese
(Mn), molybdenum (Mo) and zinc (Zn). Recycling organic matter such as grass clippings and
tree leaves is an excellent way of providing micronutrients (as well as macronutrients) to
growing plants.
1.1.Goals and targets of the program
As the world population continues to grow, much more effort and innovation will be urgently
needed in order to sustainably increase agricultural production, improve the global supply chain,
decrease food losses and waste, and ensure that all who are suffering from hunger and
malnutrition have access to nutritious food. Many in the international community believe that it
is possible to eradicate hunger within the next generation, and are working together to achieve
this goal.
At the same time that we need to grow more food on a shrinking available land base, we are also
asking more and more of our farmers and ranchers. We ask that they help reduce our Nation’s
dependency on fossil fuels by growing more bioenergy crops, that they provide adequate
pollinator habitat (required for about 35% of our food supply), that they protect water quality,
and that they incorporate management practices and technologies that optimize efficiencies of
water and nutrient use. In addition, while addressing these needs, producers are increasingly
faced with extreme weather events, ranging from drought to flood.
The goal of soil management is to protect soil and enhance its performance, so you can farm
profitably and preserve environmental quality for decades to come.
1.2. Develop program for site assessment

There is a need to holistically assess the soil resource to achieve the appropriate balance between
utilization and sustainability. There exists no comprehensive, coordinated approach for this
assessment. Therefore, land managers and resource conservationists are not able to qualitatively
or quantitatively evaluate (with necessary accuracy) the effects of land use practices or
management decisions on the soil resource.
1.3. Conduct Soil, plant and water tests

Understanding the current environment and planning your most appropriate soil health and Plant
nutrition program, will also require you to ‘look under the covers’ and conduct a range of soil,
plant or water tests. These tests all serve different purposes and can reveal a range of information
about soil fertility, water quality, contamination, nutrient deficiencies, pests and diseases etc. It is
often the combination of scientific (e.g. laboratory) and other tests (e.g. using a penetrometer to
test soil compaction) that provides the information required to make informed decisions about
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soil health and plant nutrition programs. The tests that are appropriate for your enterprise will
need to be determined after considering a number of factors:
 Plant species
 Signs and symptoms of pests and disease
 Climatic conditions
 Growth media used
 Industry best practice and enterprise guidelines (E.g. quality assurance, environmental
management system, certification requirements)
 Cost benefit
 Availability of services and service providers
 What you are trying to achieve.
1.3.1. Soil testing
Soil testing is an important management practice on all farms, whether growing crops for fresh
market or pasture for livestock. It’s nearly impossible to determine what a soil needs to be
productive, without a soil analysis. There are many types of soil analyses available depending on
what information you are seeking. The most commonly requested analysis is for nutrient
content, though you may wish to know what organisms are working in your soil, if there are
pesticide residues or determine the particle size analysis.
Why should you have your soil tested?
Soil testing:
 Encourages plant growth by providing the best lime and fertilizer recommendations.
 Diagnoses whether there is too little or too much of a nutrient.
 Promotes environmental quality.
 Saves money that might otherwise be spent on unneeded lime and fertilizer

The soil testing program starts with the collection of a soil sample from a field. The first basic
principle of soil testing is that a field can be sampled in such a way that chemical analysis of the
soil sample will accurately reflect the field’s true nutrient status. This does not mean that all of
the samples must, or will, show the same test results, but rather that the results must reflect true
variations within the field. Remember that the soil test recommendations for lime and fertilizer
can never be more accurate than the accuracy of soil sampling.
Soil sample preparation

Soil samples usually need preparation before laboratory analysis:
 Air-drying. Crush large soil clods to facilitate drying. Do not dry at high temperature.
During air-drying, avoid contamination (i.e. from dust, gases, rain, etc.). Air-drying
usually takes one week.
 Crushing. Crush the sample in a mortar using a rubber or porcelain-capped pestle . The
mortar is usually made from porcelain.
 Pulverizing. Not all samples require pulverizing. The subsampling error is a function of
the ratio between the average weight of the largest particles and the weight of the
subsample. If the subsample being analyzed is small (i.e. for total nitrogen and organic
carbon analysis), the sample has to be pulverized to a fine powder (less than 0.5 mm).
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 Sieving. Sieve the soil through a 2 mm sieve made of brass, stainless steel, or plastic. Use
plastic sieves when micronutrients are to be analyzed.
 Mixing and storage. Mix samples thoroughly, then store in clean closed containers (i.e.
polyethylene bags or bottles). Label the containers.
1.3.2.Plant testing
Soil testing can provide an estimate of plant nutrient availability in a soil. However, soil testing
cannot predict the quantity of nutrients a plant or crop will actually use because many factors
other than soil fertility levels are involved in plant nutrition. Only through plant tissue analysis
can we assess the plant’s nutritional status and determine how well the soil is supplying the
plant’s nutritional requirements. Plant tissue analysis cannot replace a good soil testing program;
however, plant tissue analysis can provide additional information on plant nutrient status not
obtained from soil analysis
Plant Tissue sampling is an important part of a crop fertility program. Tissue analysis shows if
the crop is taking up the nutrients from the soil or through the tissue from a foliar application.
Nutrient deficiencies in plants can result in a poor quality crop with lower than average yields.
This is true even if the symptoms are not yet visible. Different deficiencies can also show similar
symptoms. Tissue testing can provide valuable information on nutrient levels and can help
prevent further crop damage. Tissue testing results shouldn’t stand alone. Analyze your soil, too.
Together they can be used as an effective monitoring tool. This information can be used to
improve management practices that can impact crop nutrient uptake
Plant Tissue Testing is valuable for:
 Monitoring crop nutrient status for optimal crop production

 Ensuring balanced plant nutrient levels for top produce quality.
 Predicting plant nutrient problems during the growing season before they cause
production loss.
 Understanding interactions between the soil and plant nutrient uptake.
 Formulating foliar spray programs to address nutrient deficiencies and imbalances.
 Determining if applied nutrients have been taken up by the plant
 Provide a guide to animal health problems
1.3.3.water testing
Losses from the application of fertilizers and spreading of manures contribute to diffuse
water pollution, due to the activities of many farms.
Testing irrigation waters is important for diagnosing problems that may be related to water
quality as well as for assessing irrigation water nutrient content when used for fertigation.
The quality and content of the irrigation water can greatly affect the success of your crop.
Testing your irrigation water is important for assessing the suitability of the water source for
irrigation.
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Knowing what is in your irrigation water is also essential for the day-to-day practice,
affecting both the irrigation regime and fertilizer schedule.
1.4.Characteristics, condition and nutritional status of soils and plant species
1.4.1. Characteristics of a soil
Soil Fertility/Soil Nutrient Content
Soil provides the medium for root development and with the exception of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and some nitrogen, plants depend on soil for all other nutrients and water. Soils develop
by the disintegration of rocks, and minerals therein, through biotic actions of the microbes and
the fauna sustained by them. Earlier, only the physical and chemical properties of soil were
considered important. However, the role of soil biodiversity in maintaining fertility, and the
interdependence of soil biological activities with physical and chemical characteristics is well
recognizednow.
Soil nutrient levels vary from year to year, and frequently will vary within fields, even on fields
that seem to be uniform. It is therefore necessary to follow certain recommended steps for soil
sampling and testing to develop a sound ongoing soil fertility management program.
Healthy Soils Produce Healthy Crops

A healthy soil produces healthy crops with minimal amounts of external inputs and few to no
adverse ecological effects. It contains favorable biological, physical and chemical properties.
Soil health is the foundation of productive farming practices. Fertile soil provides essential
nutrients to plants. Important physical characteristics of soil-like structures and aggregation allow
water and air to infiltrate, roots to explore, and biota to thrive. Diverse and active biological
communities help soil resist physical degradation and cycle nutrients at rates to meet plant needs.
Soil health and soil quality are terms used interchangeably to describe soils that are not only
fertile but also possess adequate physical and biological properties to “sustain productivity,
maintain environmental quality and promote plant and animal health’’.
Characteristics of Healthy, high-quality soil:

 Good soil tilth
 Sufficient depth
 Sufficient, but not excessive, nutrient supply
 Small population of plant pathogens and insect pests
 Good soil drainage
 Large population of beneficial organisms
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 Low weed pressure

 No chemicals or toxins that may harm the crop
 Resilience to degradation and unfavorable conditions
Water and nutrient supply from soil, particularly N and P, determine the plant growth both in
natural and agro-ecosystems. The above ground vegetation is the ultimate source of C for the
microbes in the rhizosphere that, in turn, support the macro-fauna. Thus, the above ground
vegetation influences the below ground microbial community structure and soil properties.
Soil quality Measure What it tells us Why it’s important

characteristic
Fertility Soil pH Whether a soil is acid or Some plants and animals will only live in soils at a
alkaline. particular pH.
Olsen P How much phosphate is Phosphate (P) is an essential nutrient for plants
(phosphate) available for plant and animals. Plants get their P from phosphates in
growth. soil.
Humus (organic Total C (carbon) Organic matter content. Organic matter helps the soil store water and
matter) releases it in a steady way. Organic matter also
helps a soil store nutrients and form a crumbly
structure suitable for plant roots.
Total N Organic N reserves in the Nitrogen (N) is an essential nutrient for plants and
(nitrogen) soil. animals.Nearly all the N in soil is in organic form
(see mineralisable N).
Physical condition Bulk density Whether a soil is firm Plant roots cannot grow through compacted soil.
and compacted or loose Compacted soils also become waterlogged
and friable. quickly, starving roots of oxygen. If a soil is too
loose, it dries out very quickly and may be easily
eroded.
Macropores How many large pores Large pores (0.03–0.3 mm diameter) are needed
there are in soil. for air to reach roots and for water drainage. The
larger pores are the first to be damaged by
compaction.
Aggregate How resistant A stable ’crumbly’ texture lets water quickly soak
stability soilaggregates are to into soil, doesn’t dry out too quickly, and allows
breaking. roots to spread easily. This measure is most useful
for soils used for horticulture and cropping.
Biological activity Mineralisable N How much of the total N Mineralisable N is related to the amount and
(nitrogen) is available to plants quality of organic matter and biological activity in
throughmicrobial soil. Soil life breaks down the total N in organic
activity. matter and converts it into forms plants can use.
1.4.2. Conditions that affect crop nutrition

Range of conditions that affect crop nutrition may include:
• crop load
• crop quality requirements
• cropping and fertilizer history
• grazing intensity
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• growth media characteristics

• irrigation methods and scheduling
• seasonal influences
• soil management practices
• spraying program
• weather conditions
1.4.3.Analyzing nutritional status of soils and plant species
Soil analysis
Soil is the main source of nutrients for crops. Soil also provides support for plant growth in
various ways. Knowledge about soil health and its maintenance is critical to sustaining crop
productivity. The health of soils can be assessed by the quality and stand of the crops grown
on them. However, this is a general assessment made by the farmers. A scientific assessment
is possible through detailed physical, chemical and biological analysis of the soils.
Essential plant nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S are called macronutrients, while Fe,
Zn, Cu, Mo, Mn, B and Cl are called micronutrients. It is necessary to assess the capacity of a
soil to supply nutrients in order to supply the remaining amounts of needed plant nutrients
(total crop requirement - soil supply). Thus, soil testing laboratories are considered nerve
centres for nutrient management and crop production systems.
• Available nutrient content of soils
Soils may have large amounts of nutrient reserves in them. All or a part of these reserves
may not be of any use to crops because they may not be in plant-available form. For the
purpose of estimation or analysis of plant-available soil nutrients, such methods are to be
used that have been tested/verified for the correlation of nutrients extracted and their plant
availability.
Apart from nutrients, soil pH estimation is also critical in the assessment of soil health.
Generally, plants prefer soils that are close to either side of neutrality. However, there are
acid-loving crops and also crops that can withstand high soil alkalinity. Hence, good crop
yields are possible in acid and alkali soils. With proper amendments, still higher yields
can be obtained in acid and alkali soils. Soil pH also has a considerable influence on the
activity of soil microflora and on the availability of soil nutrients to crops. It is also
important to estimate physical properties such as soil texture and soil structure.
 The following estimations are generally carried out in a service-oriented soil testing
laboratory:
o Soil texture,
o Soil structure,
o cation exchange capacity (CEC),
o Soil moisture,
o Water holding capacity,
o pH,
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o Lime requirement,
o Electrical conductivity,
o Gypsum requirement,
o Organic C,
o Total N,
o mineralizable N,
o Inorganic N,
o Available P,
o Available K,
o Available S,
o Calcium,
o Calcium plus magnesium,
o Micronutrients available Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, B and Mo
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pH
Soil pH is a characteristic that describes the relative acidity or alkalinity of the soil. Technically,
pH is defined as the negative (-) log or base 10 value of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+).
Pure water will be close to a neutral pH, that is 10 to the minus 7 concentration of H+ ions (10-7
[H+]). This concentration is expressed as 7. Any value above 7 means the H+ ion concentration
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is lower than at a neutral pH and the solution is alkaline and there are more hydroxyl (OH-) ions
present than H+ ions. Any value below 7 means the H+ ion concentration is greater than at
neutral pH and the solution is acidic. Soils are considered acidic below a pH of 5, and very acidic
below a pH of 4. Conversely, soils are considered alkaline above a pH of 7.5 and very alkaline
above a pH of 8. Typically, soil pH values are measured when 10 g of air-dried soil is mixed with
20 ml of double-distilled water or 20 ml of 0.01 M CaCl2 solution, and the pH is measured using
an appropriate electrode connected to a pH meter. This soil analysis is a regular partof most if not
all soil test protocols.
The availability of some plant nutrients is greatly affected by soil pH. The “ideal” soil pH is
close to neutral, and neutral soils are considered to fall within a range from a slightly acidic pH
of 6.5 to slightly alkaline pH of 7.5. It has been determined that most plant nutrients are
optimally available to plants within this 6.5 to 7.5 pH range, plus this range of pH is generally
very compatible to plant root growth.
Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K), and Sulfer (S) are major plant nutrients that appear to be less
affected directly by soil pH than many others, but still are to some extent. Phosphorus (P),
however, is directly affected. At alkaline pH values, greater than pH 7.5 for example, phosphate
ions tend to react quickly with calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) to form less soluble
compounds. At acidic pH values, phosphate ions react with aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe) to again
form less soluble compounds. Most of the other nutrients (micronutrients especially) tend to be
less available when soil pH is above 7.5, and in fact are optimally available at a slightly acidic
pH, e.g. 6.5 to 6.8. The exception is molybdenum (Mo), which appears to be less available under
acidic pH and more available at moderately alkaline pH values.
For example, copper, iron, manganese, nickel, and zinc are all more available at low pH levels
than at high pH levels because metals are bound very tightly to the soil or exist in solid minerals
at high pH. Conversely, the ‘base’ cations (Na+, K+, Ca+2, Mg+2) are bound more weakly to the
soil, so can leach out of the surface soil, especially at low pH. Therefore, they are less available
at low pH. In soils with pH levels above 7.5; therefore, there is a higher likelihood for iron,
manganese, nickel, copper, zinc, and phosphorus deficiencies than in soiuls with lower pH
values, although deficiencies of the micronutrients are not often observed. The optimum pH
appears to be near pH 7, but keep in mind that every crop has different nutrient needs, and hence
optimum pH levels. For example, sweet clover has been found to have maximum yields near pH
7.5, whereas soybeans and corn grow best near pH 6.8 (Foth and Ellis, 1997).
Lower pH generally causes lower CEC, because the higher concentration of H+ ions in solution
will neutralize the negative charges on clays and organic matter. Fertilizing with ammonia-based
fertilizers is one way that pH may decrease over time. The effect of pH on CEC is more
pronounced for soil organic matter than for layer silicates, because all of the CEC on organic
matter is dependent on pH. Note that the negative charges on the clay particle that are not on the
edge of the particle are not neutralized.
CATION AND ANION EXCHANGE CAPACITY
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Some soil particles called ‘aluminosilicates’, or ‘layer silicates’, have a negative charge that
attracts positively charged ions (cations) such as ammonium (NH4 +) in the same way that hair is
attracted to a balloon. Other soil particles, such as iron hydroxides (e.g. rust), have positive
charges that attract negatively charged ions (anions), such as sulfate (SO4 -2). Soils generally
have much higher amounts of the layer silicates than metal hydroxides; therefore, soils generally
have a ‘net,’ or bottom line, negative charge.
The total negative charge on soil is called the ‘cation exchange capacity’, or
CEC, and is a good measure of the ability of a soil to retain and supply nutrients to a crop.
Note CEC is typically expressed in terms of milliequivalents (or meq) of negative charge/100 g
of soil. A meq is equal to 6 x1020 charges; therefore, a soil with a CEC of 1 meq/100 g means
that there are 6x1020 negative charges on 100 g (0.22 lb.) of soil. This is a very large number,
but because atoms weigh so little, this 0.22 lb of soil would only be able to hold 0.023 grams or
0.0008 ounces of sodium ions (2% of the weight of a standard paper clip). A CEC above about
15 meq/100 g has a relatively high capacity to hold nutrient cations, which include Ca+2, Mg+2,
K+, NH4 +, Cu+2, Fe+2, Mn+2, and Ni+2. Soils that are high in clay generally have higher CEC
values, although the type of clay can substantially affect CEC. Nutrients that are held by charges
on a soil are termed ‘exchangeable’. Soil testing (NM Module 1) is often done for exchangeable
nutrients, such as K, because it has been found that exchangeable nutrients are available to plants
Soils also have the ability to hold anions. This ability is termed the ‘anion exchange capacity’, or
AEC. The AEC is generally smaller than the CEC, but is high enough in most soils to hold
substantial amounts of some nutrient anions such as SO4-2.
ORGANIC MATTER
Organic matter, like clay, has a high surface area and a high CEC, making it an excellent supplier
of nutrients to plants. In addition, as organic matter decomposes, it releases nutrients that are
bound in the organic matter’s structure, essentially imitating a slow release fertilizer. The CEC of
organic matter can be as high as 215 meq/100 g, a much higher value than for clay. However, the
CEC of organic matter drops substantially as pH decreases as explained in the following section.
Organic matter can also hold large amounts of water, which helps nutrients move from soil to
plant roots.
TEXTURE
Soil texture,or the relative amounts of sand, silt, and clay, plays a very important role in plant
nutrition due to its effect on the ability to retain both water and nutrients. Soils are classified into
textural classes by their percentages of sand, silt, and clay (Figure 4). Note that a soil with 20%
clay and 45% sand would be classified as a loam. Sand particles are smaller than 2 millimeters
(the thickness of a nickel) and larger than 0.05 mm (1/2 the thickness of a piece of paper), and
have very little ability to hold water or nutrients due to large pore spaces between particles and
low surface area. Conversely, clay particles are smaller than 0.002 millimeters (invisible to the
naked eye), and can hold large quantities of water and nutrients. Soils dominated by clay have
small pores that prevent water from draining freely and have very high surface areas, ranging up
to 90 acres per pound of soil. This high surface area gives nutrients numerous binding places,
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which is part of the reason that fine textured soils have such high abilities to retain nutrients. The
second reason is that clays are often made up of minerals that have net charges on their surfaces
Figure 1 textural triangle of soil
How Do I Tell What Texture My Soil Is?

You can determine a soil’s texture by how the soil feels. Does it feel gritty, greasy, or floury?
Gritty soils are sandy. Silty soils feel floury when they are dry and greasy when they are wet.
Clay will always feel greasy. Take a small handful of soil and drop enough water on it that you
can form a ball. When you rub it in the palm of your hand, it will fall apart and you will feel the
grit rub into your palm if it is sand. A silt will form a ball, but when you try to roll it out into a
ribbon it will crack. A clay soil will roll out into a long ribbon.
Saline Soils:
Salinity is a measure of soluble salts in the soil. A saline soil has, at the surface and/or in the soil
profile, an accumulation of free salts that affects plant growth and/or land use (Isbell,
2002). Salinity is generally attributed to changes in land use or natural changes in drainage or
climate that affect the movement of water through the landscape. Field observations are also
useful indicators of salinity. Saline soils and plants grown on these soils may exhibit one or more
of the following visual symptoms (Gupta and Arbol, 1990; Pearson and Waskom, 2003):
 Seed germination inhibited and seedling emergence irregular
 Symptoms of water stress even when the soil is wet
 Soil surface appears fluffy.
 Visible whitish salt crusts on soil surface
 Plants with leaf tip burn, especially on young foliage, under sprinkler irrigation with
saline water
Water-Holding Capacity
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High-quality soils have a high available water-holding capacity.Plants are like people, right?
They need food, water, and oxygen to grow. Soils with a high available water holding capacity
have a larger reservoir and can supply water over time when plants need it. Technically, a soil’s
available water-holding capacity is the amount of water the soil can hold between field capacity
(after gravity has drained the soil) and the permanent wilting point. So what is field capacity?
Imagine you just had a heavy rain that fully saturated the soil. Then you wait two days just until
the point that the soil has stopped draining. That is field capacity. The permanent wilting point is
defined as the soil moisture level at which a wilted plant cannot recover even after 12 hours in a
remoistened soil. So, available water-holding capacity is the amount of water a soil can hold
between the time it is fully saturated but drained and when it is so dry that plants die.
Clay and sandy soils will have different waterholding capacities. The available water-holding
capacity is an indicator of how much water the soil can store. Sandy soils often cannot store as
much water for crops between rains.
Figure 2.Water Holding Capacity

(a) Saturated soil; (b) Field capacity; (c) Permanent wilting point
The water-holding capacity is the amount of water in soil field capacity (b) minus wilting point
(c).
How Can I Improve Its Water-Holding Capacity?
The addition of organic matter to soils either from manure, compost, or cover crops can improve
the soil’s capacity to hold water. In the short term, you may want to consider adding stable
organic materials like compost or crop residue high in lignin or cover crops high in carbon. In the
long term, rotation to sod and reduced tillage are known to help.
Self-Check 1 Written Test

1.What is field capacity (5 points)
2. How do you tell what texture your soil is? (5 points)
3.Difine healthy soil. (5 points)
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LO2. Define the requirements for plant production
Information Sheet 1 Identifying nutrients required for plant growth
2.1. Identify different nutritional requirement of plant

Proper nutrition is essential for satisfactory crop growth and production. The use of soil tests can
help to determine the status of plant available nutrients to develop fertilizer recommendations to
achieve optimum crop production. The profit potential for farmers depends on producing enough
crops per acre to keep production costs below the selling price. Efficient application of the
correct types and amounts of fertilizers for the supply of the nutrients is an important part of
achieving profitable yields.
Why is Plant Nutrition Important?

Plant nutrition is important for three main reasons
1. To maximize productivity
2. To improve quality
3. To improve human nutrition
What factors affect crop/ plant productivity?

–Genetic makeup of the crop
–Environmental factors
•Nutrients
•Water
•Disease
•Weeds
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Interpreting visual nutrient deficiency and toxicity symptoms in plants can be difficult and plant
analysis or soil testing is necessary to confirm nutrient stress. Precautions in identifying nutrient
stress symptoms include the following:
1. Many symptoms appear similar. For instance, nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) deficiency symptoms
can be very alike, depending upon placement, growth stage, and severity of deficiencies.
2. Multiple deficiencies and/or toxicities can occur at the same time. More than one deficiency or
toxicity can produce symptoms, or possibly a deficiency of one nutrient can induce the
excessiveness of another (i.e., excessive P causing Zn deficiency).
3. Crop species, and even some cultivars of the same species, differ in their ability to adapt to
nutrient deficiencies and toxicities. For example, corn is typically more sensitive to a Zn
deficiency than barley (NM 7).
4. Pseudo (false) deficiency symptoms (visual symptoms appearing similar to nutrient deficiency
symptoms). Potential factors causing pseudo deficiency include, but are not limited to, disease,
drought, excess water, genetic abnormalities, herbicide and pesticide residues, insects, and soil
compaction.
5. Hidden hunger. Plants may be nutrient deficient without showing visual clues.
6. Field symptoms appear different than ‘ideal’ symptoms. Many of the plants shown in this
module as photographs were grown under controlled nutrient conditions, and deficiency/toxicity
symptoms observed in the field may or may not appear as they do here.Experience and
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knowledge of field history are excellent aids in determining causes for nutrient stress. In addition
to the above precautions, visual observation is also limited by time. Between the time a plant is
nutrient deficient (hidden hunger) and visual symptoms appear, crop health and productivity may
be substantially reduced and corrective actions may or may not be effective. Therefore, regular
soil or plant testing is recommended for the prevention and early diagnosis of nutrient stress.
If visual symptoms are observed, record which crop(s) are affected, their location with respect to
topography, aspect, and soil conditions, a detailed description of symptoms, and time of season
that the symptoms first appeared.
Affected field locations can be marked and monitored over time using either flagging or GPS
readings. This information will be useful in preventing nutrient stress for subsequent years.
Diagnosing Nutrient Deficiencies
Common Deficiency Symptoms
A first step in diagnosing nutrient deficiencies is to describe what the symptoms look like. Each
deficiency symptom must be related to some function of the nutrient in the plant (Havlin et al.,
1999). Symptoms caused by nutrient deficiencies are generally grouped into five categories:
1) Stunted growth;
2) Chlorosis;
3) Interveinalchlorosis;
4) Purplish-red coloring; and
5) Necrosis.
Stunting is a common symptom for many deficient nutrients due to their varied roles in the plant.
For example, when nutrients involved in plant functions such as stem elongation, photosynthesis,
and protein production are deficient, plant growth is typically slow and plants are small in
stature.
Chlorosis and interveinal chlorosis are found in plants deficient of nutrients necessary for
photosynthesis and/or chlorophyll (green leaf pigment involved in photosynthesis) production.
Chlorosis can result in either the entire plant or leaf turning light green to yellow, or appear more
localized as white or yellow spotting.
Interveinal chlorosis is the yellowing of leaf tissue between veins, with the veins themselves
remaining green (Figure 2). Interveinalchlorosis occurs when some nutrients (B, Fe, magnesium
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(Mg), Mn, nickel (Ni), and Zn) are deficient.
Purplish-red discolorations in plant stems and leaves are due to above normal levels of
anthocyanin (a purple coloredpigment) that can accumulate when plant functions are disrupted or
stressed. This symptom can be particularly difficult to diagnose because cool temperatures,
disease, drought, and even maturation of some plants can also cause anthocyanin to accumulate
(Bennett, 1994). Certain plant cultivars may also exhibit this purple coloring.
Necrosis generally happens in later stages of a deficiency and causes the parts of the plant first
affected by the deficiency to brown and die. Since a number of nutrient deficiencies can produce
similar symptoms, further evaluation of symptoms related to particular leaf patterns or locations
on the plant will be needed to diagnose nutrient specific deficiencies.
2.1.1. Uptake of Plant Nutrients
1.Roots
Nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by cation exchange, where root hairs pump hydrogen ions
(H+) into the soil through proton pumps. These hydrogen ions displace cations attached to
negatively charged soil particles so that the cations are available for uptake by the root.
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Plant nutrition is a difficult subject to understand completely, partially because of the variation
between different plants and even between different species or individuals of a given clone. An
element present at a low level may cause deficiency symptoms, while the same element at a
higher level may cause toxicity. Further, deficiency of one element may present as symptoms of
toxicity from another element. An abundance of one nutrient may cause a deficiency of another
nutrient. Also a lowered availability of a given nutrient, such as SO2−4 can affect the uptake of
another nutrient, such as NO3–. Also, K+ uptake can be influenced by the amount NH4+
available.
The root, especially the root hair, is the most essential organ for the uptake of nutrients. The
structure and architecture of the root can alter the rate of nutrient uptake. Nutrient ions are
transported to the center of the root, the stele in order for the nutrients to reach the conducting
tissues, xylem and phloem.[4] The Casparian strip, a cell wall outside of the stele but within the
root, prevents passive flow of water and nutrients to help regulate the uptake of nutrients and
water. Xylem moves water and inorganic molecules within the plant and phloem counts organic
molecule transportation. Water potential plays a key role in a plants nutrient uptake. If the water
potential is more negative within the plant than the surrounding soils, the nutrients will move
from the higher solute (soil) concentration to lower solute concentration (plant).
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Figure 3cross section of lower portion of root
There are 3 fundamental ways plants uptake nutrients through the root: 1.) simple diffusion,
occurs when a nonpolar molecule, such as O2, CO2, and NH3 that follow a concentration
gradient, can passively move through the lipid bilayer membrane without the use of transport
proteins. 2.) facilitated diffusion, is the rapid movement of solutes or ions following a
concentration gradient, facilitated by transport proteins. 3.) Active transport is the active
transport of ions or molecules against a concentration gradient that requires an energy source,
usually ATP, to pump the ions or molecules through the membrane.
 Nutrients are moved inside a plant to where they are most needed. For example, a plant will
try to supply more nutrients to its younger leaves than its older ones. So when nutrients are
mobile, the lack of nutrients is first visible on older leaves. However, not all nutrients are
equally mobile. When a less mobile nutrient is lacking, the younger leaves suffer because the
nutrient does not move up to them but stays lower in the older leaves. Nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium are mobile nutrients, while the others have varying degrees of mobility. This
phenomenon is helpful in determining what nutrients a plant may be lacking.
A symbiotic relationship may exist with 1.) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, like rhizobia which are
involved with nitrogen fixation, and 2.) mycorrhiza, which help to create a larger root surface
area. Both of these mutualistic relationships enhance nutrient uptake.[4]
Though nitrogen is plentiful in the Earth's atmosphere, relatively few plants engage in nitrogen
fixation (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a biologically useful form). Most plants therefore
require nitrogen compounds to be present in the soil in which they grow. These can either be
supplied by decaying matter, nitrogen fixing bacteria, animal waste, or through the agricultural
application of purpose made fertilizers.
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2) Nutrient Mobility Within the Plant

All nutrients move relatively easily from the root to the growing portion of the plant through the
xylem. Interestingly, some nutrients can also move from older leaves to newer leaves if there is a
Deficiency of that nutrient. Knowing which nutrients are ‘mobile’ (i.e., able to move) is very
useful in diagnosing plant nutrient deficiencies because if only the lower leaves are affected, then
a mobile nutrient is most likely causing the deficiency. Conversely, if only the upper leaves show
The deficiency, then the plant is likely deficient in an immobile nutrient, because that nutrient
cannot move from older to newer leaves.. Sulfur is one element that lies between mobile and
immobile elements depending on the degree of deficiency.
Mobile nutrients Immobile
nutrients
Nitogen (N) Sulfur(S)
Phosphorus(P) Calcium(Ca)
Potassium(K) Iron (Fe)
Chloride(Cl) Zinc(Zn)
Magnesium(Mg) Manganese(
Mn)
Molybodenum(Mo) Boron(B)
Copper(Cu)
Nickel(Ni)
2.2. Soil amendment/ameliorants

Soil chemical imbalances can be addressed through application of chemical amendments such
as lime and fertilizer. Although there are only four main strategies for improving soil biological
and physical health (cover crops, organic amendments ,tillage and crop rotation), the options
within each strategy are numerous and the combinations are endless. Not all soil management
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practices are practical or adaptable to all farm situations therefore trying out practices on a
smaller scale and modifying them to suit the particular farm operation is recommended.
The followings are descriptions of some of the management options.
1. Cover Crops
Cover crops provide a canopy for seasonal soil protection and improvement between the
productions of the main crops. Cover crops usually are grown for less than one year. When
plowed under and incorporated into the soil for improved fertility, cover crops are also referred to
as green manure. Cover crops have the potential for recycling nutrients which otherwise would
be lost through leaching during off-season periods. Cover crops with shallow fibrous root
systems, such as many grasses, rapidly build soil aggregation in the surface layer. Cover crops
with deep roots can help break-up compacted layers, and bring nutrients from deeper soil layers
to make them available for the following cash crop. Leguminous cover crops can also fix
atmospheric nitrogen for the benefit of the crop that follows. Other benefits from cover crops
include protection of the soil from water and wind erosion, improved soil tilth and suppressing
soil-borne pathogens. Dead cover crop material may be left on the soil surface, and are then
referred to as mulch, which can reduce evaporation of soil moisture, increase infiltration of
rainfall, increase soil organic matter and aid in the control of annual weeds.
When selecting cover crops it is important to consider:

• What are your goals for using a cover crop(s)? Is it to increase organic matter, break-
up surface or subsurface compaction, weed and disease suppression, nutrient
management, or prevent erosion?
• Where can cover crops fit into the rotation? Summer, winter, or season-long?
• When and how should the cover crop be killed or incorporated? Winter-kill vs.
chemical applications vs. rolled and chopped?
• What cover crops are suitable for the climate?
• What cover crops fit with the current production practices including any equipment
constraints?
• Susceptibility or host status of the cover crop to major pathogen(s) of concern

2. Organic Amendments
organic matter is critical for maintaining soil structure, and increasing water infiltration as well as
water holding capacity. It can also increase cation exchange capacity (CEC), nutrient retention,
and microbial diversity and activities. Organic matter can be added through incorporation of
cover crops as green manures as well as additions of composts, animal manures, and crop
residues. The addition of organic amendments is particularly important in vegetable production
where minimal crop residue is returned to the soil and more intensive tillage is required that
promotes the rapid depletion of soil organic matter. The impact of various organic amendments
on soil physical, chemical and biological properties can be different and thus is important to
consider when making soil management decisions.
i).Animal manure:
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The application of manure can have many soil and crop health benefits such as increasing
nutrient levels (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in particular) that benefit not only the crop
but also the soil microbial community.
However not all manures are created equal and will vary depending on the animal, feed, bedding,
and manure-storage practices employed. Manure containing a lot of bedding is typically applied
as a solid while manure with minimal bedding is applied as a liquid.
ii).Compost:
Unlike manure, compost is very stable and not a readily available source of nutrients. The
composting process uses heat and microbial activity to quickly decompose simple compounds
like sugars and proteins, leaving behind more stable complex compounds such as lignins and
humic acids.
The stable products of composting are an important source of organic matter. The addition of
compost increases available water capacity by improving water retention and pore space on
which water and nutrients can bind. Compost is less effective at building soil aggregation than
fresh manure, because the readily-degradable organic compounds have already been
decomposed. Composts differ in their efficiency to suppress various crop pests, although they
can sometimes be quite effective.
iii).Green manure crops:

Green manure crops are those grown for the purpose of improving the soil fertility with microbial
diversity and organic matter content in general as opposed to cover crops which are grown more
for the purpose of erosion protection and cycling of nutrients. When incorporated, green manures
add a lot of fresh, readily degradable material to the soil, which fuels the soil’s microbial
community. The increased production of microbial exudates helps hold the individual soil
particles together as aggregates. A soil with better aggregation (aggregate stability) is more
resilient in heavy rain storms and is capable of greater water infiltration.
In reduced tillage systems, one way to get the added benefits of green manure crops is to only
incorporate them in the planting row and use the killed crop between the rows as a mulch.
iv).Crop residue:
Crop residue is another important source of organic matter. As it decomposes, the organic matter
is going back into the soil and improving soil tilth. Crop residue left on the surface will protect
against erosion and improve surface aggregation, thereby reducing crusting and surface
compaction. However, diseased crop debris can harbor inoculum that can become a problem
during the next season if a susceptible crop is planted. Crop rotation with non-host crops
belonging to different plant families will reduce pathogen inoculum. Removal and composting of
crop debris may be an option in some situations. Incorporation or plowing down of crop debris to
encourage the decomposition process may be an option depending on the tillage system and crop
rotation sequence being employed.
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3).Tillage
As new technologies have been developed, the reliance on tillage to kill weeds, incorporate crop
debris, and prepare seedbeds has been diminished. Extensive tillage reduces soil aggregation,
resulting in crusting and soil compaction as well as often stimulating the microbial community
that burns off organic matter quickly. There is consensus that reducing tillage intensity will
improve soil health and over time reduce production costs.
4).Crop Rotation
Initially, crop rotation was practiced as a way to avoid depleting the soil of various nutrients.
Today, crop rotation is also an important component of soil and pest management in many
agricultural production systems. Crop rotations can be as simple as rotating between two crops
and planting sequences in alternate years or they can be more complex and involve numerous
crops over several years. Proper crop rotation can reduce insects and disease-causing pathogens
as well as weed pressure by breaking their lifecycles through removal of a suitable host. Crop
rotation can also aid in nutrient management through incorporation of crop residues and improve
soil resiliency after a root crop such a carrot or potato. Many growers find yield increases when
crops in different families are grown in rotation versus in monoculture and this is often referred
to as the “rotation effect”.
Amelioration of unproductive soils

i) Amending acidic soils
 Increasing/raising the soil pH using liming materials such as:-
- Carbonates, oxides or hydroxides of Ca and Mg Compounds
- Limestone (CaCO3) is the most commonly used liming material
Amelioration of acid soils:
Liming of acid soils has been advocated by soil scientists. However the lime requirement based
on laboratory tests is usually too high for most of the farmers to afford. Besides, high transport
cost of large quantity of lime and inadequate storage facilities at consumption sites have
discouraged large scale use of the ameliorant. Now, it has been established that band
placement/incorporation of lime requirement along with recommended level of fertilizers every
year is economical, practicable and effective.
2) Amending alkaline soils

 Decreasing/lowering the soil pH using:-
CaSO4.2H2O, sulphur, pyrite (FeS2)
Gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O) is most commonly used
Amelioration of alkalin soils:

Amelioration of alkali soils involves replacement of exchangeable sodium from soil exchange
complex and leaching out of soluble salts from root zone. This is accomplished through
application of chemical ameliorants (which furnish calcium for replacement of sodium from the
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exchange complex of the soil) followed by leaching. Soil of affected area should be tested for
gypsum requirement (GR).
3) Amelioration of Saline/sodic soils

The chief characteristic of sodic soils from the agricultural stand point is that they contain
sufficient exchangeable sodium to adversely affect the growth of most crop plants. For the
purpose of definition, sodic soils are those which have an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
of more than 15. Excess exchangeable sodium has an adverse effect on the physical and
nutritional properties of the soil, with consequent reduction in crop growth, significantly or
entirely.
Basically, reclamation or improvement of sodic soils requires the removal of part or most of the
exchangeable sodium and its replacement by the more favourable calcium ions in the root zone.
This can be accomplished in many ways, the best dictated by local conditions, available
resources and the kind of crops to be grown on the reclaimed soils. If the cultivator can spend
very little for reclamation and the amendments are expensive or not available, and he is willing to
wait many years before he can get good crop yields, soil can still be reclaimed but at a slow rate
by long-continued irrigated cropping, ideally including a rice crop and sodic tolerant crops in the
cropping sequence, along with the incorporation of organic residues and/or farmyard manure. For
reasonably quick results cropping must be preceded by the application of chemical soil
amendments followed by leaching for removal of salts derived from the reaction of the
amendment with the sodic soil.
Chemical amendments for sodic soil reclamation can be broadly grouped into three
categories:
a. Soluble calcium salts, e.g. gypsum, calcium chloride.

b. Acids or acid forming substances, e.g. sulphuric acid, iron sulphate, aluminum
sulphate, lime-sulfur, sulfur, pyrite, etc.
c. Calcium salts of low solubility, e.g. ground limestone.
2.3. Identify resources, tools, Equipments and machineries

It is now time to consider the materials that will be required for the implementation of your
nominated programs, calculate the quantities required and determine the cost of proceeding.
Think about:
 How much land is affected?
 What materials you will need
 Quantities of materials required
 Equipment required
 The people (e.g. staff, contractors and consultants) required to design, implement,
manage, and maintain the program
 Any other necessary inputs.
In general the following tools, materials, Equipments and machineries may be

required
 Aerial photographs, charts and tables of soil characteristics and plant soil parameters
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 Application equipment and machinery such as:
 Air blowers
 backpack spray equipment
 Irrigation systems set up for Fertigation
 Pumps and pump fittings
 Rippers and spray equipment
 Seeders
 Tractors and trailed or three-point linkage spreaders
 Backhoe
 Charts and illustrations of symptoms of plant nutrient deficiencies and toxicities
 Hand-held salinity or electrical conductivity meter
 Hand or powered auger
 Nutrient application methods, including placement methods such as:
 banding
 broadcasting
 ripping
 Spraying and fertigation on or below soil surface
 pH test kit or electronic pH testing device

 Plastic overlays
 sample bags
 Tape measure.
2.4.Determine cost effective approach to soil management
Environmental Earth Sciences provides environmentally sustainable and cost effective

approaches to managing contaminated soil and waste materials.
Our soil waste and disposal classification methods can create significant cost savings by
minimizing the amount of contaminated material taken to landfill.
By classifying and segregating waste into groups that pose similar risk to the environment and
human health, Environmental Earth Sciences is able to determine the most appropriate method of
2.5. Identifying OHS Hazards
Occupational Health and safety (OHS) is a cross disciplinary area concerned with assuring the
safety and health of workers by setting and enforcing standards; providing education, outreach,
training and encouraging continual improvement in workplace safety and health (OSHA, 2005).
OHS hazards may include:

 air
 chemicals and hazardous substances
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 disturbance or interruption of services

 dust
 incorrect manual handling
 machinery and machinery parts
 moving vehicles
 noise
 sharp hand tools and equipment
 slippery and uneven surfaces
 soil and water-borne micro-organisms
 solar radiation.
Controls introduced to minimize the risk of OHS hazards

May includes
• enterprise OHS policies and procedures for:
 appropriate use of personal protective equipment, including sun protection
 appropriate use of safety equipment, including signage and protective barriers
 assessing and reporting risks
 basic first aid available on site
 cleaning, maintaining and storing tools, equipment and machinery
 correct manual handling
 identifying hazards
 maintaining personal hygiene
 reporting problems to supervisors
 safe handling, use and storage of chemicals and hazardous substances
 safe operation of tools, equipment and machinery.
2.6. Minimizing environmental impact of nutrient use in agriculture

There are different mechanisms that can help in minimizing environmental impacts of nutrient
use. Some of them are:-
1. Apply correct nutrient rate (use soil testing, plant analysis, etc)
2. Apply small amounts more frequently (split application)
3. Use subsurface placement (depends on crop)
4. Use crop rotations
5. Minimize other factors that potentially can reduce yield and recovery of applied
nutrients
In the section above you have considered the risk to your own and others health and safety. You
now need to apply the same thought processes to the health and safety of the environment.
For example:
• Applying minerals/fertilizers includes the risk of potential runoff into local waterways
• Earthworks may disturb the soil and if not well managed, increase the risk of soil
erosion
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• Use of foliar sprays may drift into neighboring properties and contaminate land/water.
Identifying Environmental implications
Environmental implications include
 Beneficial impacts, including minimization of nutrient

 Run-off and toxic side effects in soil and surrounding environment achieved by:
 Improved application techniques and rates

 improved assessment and targeting of nutrient requirements
 Reduction of toxic side effects of applied nutrients in crop plants
 Negative impacts, including over-spraying or run-off into
 External environment resulting in nutrient overload or excess water
affecting things such as:
 loading atmosphere with greenhouse gas
 Mining native soil fertility
 Native plants
 Natural waterways
 Salinization
 Water erosion
 Water logging
 Water tables and ecosystems

 Methods which may aid in reversal of environmental
 Degradation includes:
 allowing natural recovery and regeneration of native ecosystems

 Responsible fertilization and watering practice
Self-Check 1 Written Test
Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet provided in the
next page
1. Listall essential elements used for plant growth?

 macro nutrient
 micro nutrient
2. What is soil amendment mean? What soil amending material can be used?
3. What are the characteristics of good quality soil?
4. List five tools required in soil health program.
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LO3.Document the soil health and plant nutrition program and specification
Establish detailed plan, objectives and specification

 Establish detailed plan
Now that you have completed the planning for your soil health and plant nutrition program, it is
time to organize the data into a suitable report to aid decision making.Throughout this process it
is important to keep in mind what the data will be used for, who will use it and what their needs
are. In this way, you will deliver a report that is practical, meaningful and ‘fit for purpose.
The benefits of having a soil health plan

The Soil Health Plan provides:
1. The opportunity for potential synergies
2. Efficient utilization of limited financial resources (private and public) and human
resources
3. Knowledge and understanding of soil condition, levels of awareness and farm practice
through an effective monitoring program
The cost of implementing soil health improvement actions need not rest on the shoulders of the
farming community. The costs of implementing this Plan should be based on cost-sharing
principles between private and public investment in proportion to the expected gains.
Monitoring and evaluation of the plan is the critical Management Action Target for the long
term success of any soil health program. The current state of knowledge of soils and
implementation of soil enhancement methods in the catchment are not known. Appropriate
methods for soil enhancement and protection, whilst supporting productive and profitable
agriculture, are untested, under development or not fully understood for local soil types,
conditions and enterprises. Through the implementation process, opportunities – e.g. surveys and
feedback from workshops – to assess the current conditions of soils, knowledge and
implementation must be utilized to establish benchmarks for each condition for sub-catchments.
Objectives for soil health management
Soil health management have the following objectives:-
1. Outline appropriate soil management practices that will deliver measurable outcomes
towards achieving the targets.
2. Guide future investment in soil health, conservation and protection in an effective cost-
sharing manner
3. Identify the most effective institutional mechanisms for achieving effective soil
management action
4. Determine priority areas and activities for soil management
5. A clear plan for priority actions / programs
6. A guide to the roles and responsibilities of relevant agencies and stakeholders in soil
management in the region
7. A defensible basis for seeking and allocating resources for soil health and soil
management, consistent with Federal and State strategies.
8. A sub-catchment scale analysis of values, threats, risks and management priorities for
the region’s soil health
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9. A technically robust analysis of soil health and soil management priorities

Goal: Protect, maintain, restore, and enhance soil ecosystem health andproductivity.
Objective
 To provide habitat for soil organisms by considering forest floor litter composition when
planning management activities.
Actions:
1.Diversify forest floor litter composition by encouraging forest diversity.
2.Maintain sufficient woody debris and forest floor litter.
3.Follow Silvicultural Guidelines for protecting soil resources.
 To Prevent accelerated soil erosion and mitigate ongoing soil erosion on problem sites.
Actions:
1.Follow Silvicultural Guidelines for protecting soil resources.
2.Implement Best Management Practices on all Bureau of Forestry operations.
3.Develop and implement project-specific erosion and sedimentation control plans.
4.Identify and prioritize areas that have accelerated soil erosion.
5.Remediate conditions that cause accelerated soil erosion.
 To Plan management activities to protect and maintain soil productivity and attempt to
restore and enhance soil productivity whenever possible.
Actions:
1.Consider soil productivity when planning management activities, such as silvicultural
treatments by:
 Considering timing and skid trail design and layout to minimize soil compaction;
 Prohibiting whole-tree harvesting on nutrient-poor sites;
 And, when prescribing regeneration treatments, match tree species (natural or
planted) to site and soil characteristics.
 To Support and engage in soil ecosystem research and efforts focused on developing
applications for:
 Identifying and inventorying areas of diminished soil productivity;
 Identifying and eliminating ongoing causes of loss of productivity;
 And identifying and implementing cultural practices to increase soil
productivity.
 To Increase Bureau of Forestry staff knowledge and understanding of the relationships
between soil ecosystems, forest ecosystems, and forest management activities.
 To develop partnerships with other agencies and organizations to investigate the
feasibility of implementing a program to monitor soil health and productivity.
Action:
1.Develop partnerships with agencies and organizations with expertise on soil resources.
Self check 1
1. Explain the objectives of documenting soil health and plant nutrition program.
2. What is the overall goal of soil health and plant nutrition program?
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LO4. Monitoring production and evaluating the program

4.1. Establishing a monitoring program
A Crop Monitoring Program is a method of observing plant nutrient status throughout the
growing season. By obtaining plant nutrient information at all the critical stages in the growing
cycle, the grower can make full use of fertilizer inputs to achieve optimum growths. Soil
reaction and the salt content of soil are two factors of extreme importance in evaluating its
production potential for all crops.
• Start by selecting at least 3-5 areas that will be regularly monitored.

These should represent a range of planting conditions on the property such as:
 Areas at different points in a standard crop rotation (same soil type)
 Areas on different soil types under the same rotation
 Areas with typically good vs. typically poor crop performance
 Areas which represent different soil management practices (e.g. minimum vs.
conventional tillage, grazing, permanent crops).
Avoid fence lines, gateways, tramlines, water troughs, shelterbelts and areas of double
cultivation. Also avoid obvious dung and urine patches, stock camps and small areas of unusual
crop growth (high or low).
• Determine the properties of the soil to be monitored in each area.
• Measure soil property indicators once each year, at about the same time each year and
under approximately the same environmental conditions.
• Follow a consistent pattern of sample collection and measurement on each area.
• Record results.
• Identify areas with indicator values that fall outside the optimum range and determine a
suitable course of action.
• For each indicator, note consistent patterns of change in the short term (2–3 years) and
trends over the longer term (>3 years).
Soil monitoring can be carried out after harvest each year as this is when the soil is at its most
depleted. Do not monitor directly after the application of soil amendments or fertilizer
application.
Once preparations are finalized you are ready to implement your soil health and plant nutrition
Program. This will require careful management of all activities until works are completed. As
with all projects, there may be delays (e.g. weather, availability of resources, conflicting
schedules) which will need to be managed and resolved as the project progresses. Naturally, soil
health and plant nutrition programs are ongoing. Once incorporated into your enterprise, you will
need to monitor and evaluate the program’s effectiveness and make improvements along the way.
This is a process of continuous improvement and allows you to make gradual improvements to
your program (over the short, medium and longer term) based on your learning and keeping
abreast of evolving technologies and innovations.Without good record keeping and monitoring, it
is difficult for a business to accurately determine if objectives and specifications are being met.
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This is especially important when there are multiple participants/staff. Monitoring is the regular
gathering and analysis of information needed for your day-to-day management, to ensure that the
soil health and plant nutrition program is implemented and expected outcomes/objectives are
achieved. Monitoring needs to be based on a realistic but effective system suited to your business
needs. Firstly you must be clear about:
• What it is you are monitoring?
• The decisions you want to be able to make using the monitoring results.
• The information you need to collect to make these decisions.
Then you need a system that enables you to:
• Collect the information easily that you need.
• Use it to make decisions.
Managing for soil health is one of the easiest and most effective ways for farmers to
increase crop productivity and profitability while improving the environment.
Results are often realized immediately, and last well into the future. Using these four basic
principles is the key to improving the health of your soil.
1. Keep the soil covered as much as possible
2. Disturb the soil as little as possible
3. Keep plants growing throughout the year to feed the soil
4. Diversify as much as possible using crop rotation and cover crops
Use the checklist on the next table to determine if you’re using some or all of the core Soil
Health Management System farming practices.
It is important to note that not all practices are applicable to all crops. Some operations will
benefit from just one soil health practice while others may require additional practices for
maximum benefit. But these core practices form the basis of a Soil Health Management System
that can help you reduce your inputs costs, protect against drought, and increase production.
What is it? What does it do? How does it help?

Conservation Crop Rotation • Increases nutrient • Maximize nutrients
cycling • Decreases use of pesticides
Growing a diverse number of crops in a • Manages plant pest • Improves water quality
planned sequence in order to increase soil (weeds, insects, and • Conserves water
organic matter and biodiversity in the soil. diseases) • Improves plant production
• Reduces sheet, rill, and
wind erosion
• Holds soil moisture
• Adds diversity so soil
• .microbes can thrive
Cover Crop • Increases soil organic • Improves crop production
matter • Improves water quality
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An un-harvested crop grown as part of • Prevents soil erosion • Conserves water Maximize
planned rotation to provide conservation • Conserves soil nutrients
benefits to the soil. moisture • Decreases use of pesticides
• Increases nutrient • Improves water efficiency to crops
cycling
• Provides nitrogen for
plant use
• Suppresses weeds
• Reduces compaction
No Till • Improves water holding • Improves water efficiency
capacity of soils • Conserves water
A way of growing crops without disturbing • Increases organic matter • Improves crop production
the soil through tillage. • Reduces soil erosion • Improves water quality
• Reduces energy use • Saves renewable resources
• Decreases compaction • Improves air quality
• Increases productivity
Mulch Tillage • Reduces soil erosion • Improves water quality
from wind and rain • Conserves water
Using tillage methods where the soil • Increases soil moisture • Saves renewable resources
surface is disturbed but maintains a high for plants • Improves air quality
level of crop residue on the surface. • Reduces energy use • Improves crop production
• Increases soil organic matter
Mulching • Reduces erosion from • Improves water quality

wind and rain • Improves plant productivity
Applying plant residues or other suitable • Moderates soil • Increases crop production
materials to the soil surface to compensate temperatures • Reduces pesticide usage
for loss of residue due to excessive tillage. • Increases soil organic • Conserves water
matter • Improves air quality
• Controls weeds
• Conserves soil moisture
• Reduces dust
Nutrient Management • Increases plant nutrient • Improves water quality
uptake • Improves plant production
• Improves the physical, • Improves air quality
Managing soil nutrients to meet crop needs
while minimizing the impact on the chemical, and biological
environment and the soil. properties of the soil
• Budgets, supplies, and
conserves nutrients for
plant production
• Reduces odors and nitrogen
emissions
Pest Management • Reduces pesticide risks to • Improves water quality
Managing pests by following an ecological water quality • Improves air quality
approach that promotes the growth of • Reduces threat of • Increases plant pollination
healthy plants with strong defenses, while chemicals entering the air • Increases plant productivity
increasing stress on pests and enhancing the • Decreases pesticide risk
habitat for beneficial organisms. to pollinators and other
beneficial organisms
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• Increases soil organic matter
4.2 Review and Refine program
Understanding soil health impacts in relation to climate change is possible through the use of
indicators (measurable attributes or values) which relate soil physical, chemical and biological
properties to ecological functions and which can be monitored in the context of sustainable land
management and climate change. Key soil health indicators affected by climate change include
aggregate stability, SOM, carbon and nitrogen cycling, microbial biomass and activity, and
microbial fauna and flora diversity. Selection of indicators within a minimum data set depends on
their sensitivity to management and climate changes, capacity to integrate and relate to other soil
functions, ease of use, repeatability and cost of measurement. Soil health “tests” recommending a
minimum data set of soil health indicators are being promoted within research and government
organizations for agricultural management and to assist monitoring efforts and policy
development. This minimum dataset could be used to assess the effect of climate change on soil
health. Although tentative steps are underway, greater efforts are required to explore individual
and interactive effects of drivers of global change (e.g. land use change, increasing temperatures,
elevated CO2 concentration, variability in the amount,. intensity and distribution of rainfall, and
increasing atmospheric N deposition) using controlled environment and long-term research
experiments to assess soil health indicators that can be responsive to such treatment variations
over wider spatiotemporal scales, and consequently, their monitoring and inclusion in a minimum
data set can assist us in devising greenhouse gas mitigation and climate adaptive strategies.
4.3. Identify noncompliance with document objective, specification and

implement remedial action
Objective
The first step in the investigation is to state an objective for the action. In the “Identification”
section the problem was defined and the current situation stated. The objective is a statement of
the desired outcome of the corrective or preventive action.
State what the situation will be when the action is complete. This may be a statement in the form
of: “the problem will be corrected, all effects of the problem identified and rectified, and controls
will be in place to prevent the situation from happening again.’
Document or Specification changes List any documents that will be modified and describe in
general terms what the modifications will be. Process, Procedure, or System changes if any
changes to processes, procedures, or systems must be made they are described.
Enough detail should be included so that it is clearly understood what must be done. The
expected outcome of these changes should also be explained.
01-04
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Employee Training
Employee training is an essential part of any change that is made and should be part of the action
plan. To assure that the actions taken will be effective, any modifications made to documents,
processes, etc. must be effectively communicated to all persons or departments that will be
affected.
Action Plan form

A sample “Action Plan” form is included. This should provide a set of written procedures that
detail all of the actions that must be done to resolve the problem and prevent it from recurring.
This includes corrective and preventive activities, document changes, training, etc. The person or
persons responsible and an expected completion date should also be entered on the form.
Action Implementation
The corrective / preventive action plan that has been created is now implemented. All of the
required tasks listed and described in the action plan are initiated, completed, and documented.
Implementation Summary
All of the activities that have been completed as required in the “Action Plan” should be listed
and summarized. This section should contain a complete record of the actions that were taken to
correct the problem and assure that it will not recur. This includes changes, preventive measures,
process controls, training, etc.
4.4. Remedial action to improve plant nutrition

Remedial action undertaken to improve plant nutrition may include:
 adjustments to soil amendments

 changes to fertilizer application and soil management practices
 irrigation scheduling
 nutrient application rates and methods
 Use of foliar sprays.
Adjustments to soil amendments
The type, mix, and amounts of soil amendments will vary from site to site in response to the local
mix of site contaminants, soil conditions, and type of desired vegetation. The first and most essential
components of any soil amendment strategy are an accurate assessment of existing site soil
conditions and knowledge of the range of target soil conditions appropriate for the re vegetation
species of interest. Post-revitalization land use also is an important consideration in choosing soil
amendments and remedial strategies. Additionally, it is essential that potential soil amendments be
carefully characterized for all important physical, chemical and microbiological properties.
Organic Soil Amendments
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A wide array of organic soil amendments, with varying levels of processing and characterization
is available in most regions. Organic amendments most frequently are used to provide essential
nutrients (such as N and P), to rebuild soil organic matter content, and re-establish microbial
populations. Benefits directly associated with improved organic matter content are: enhanced
water infiltration and moisture-holding, aggregation, aeration, nutrient supply for plant growth,
and microbial activity
Changes to fertilizer application and soil management practice
Note: Nitrate leaching is not easily measured by users so the emphasis should be on avoiding
leaching by following best management practices such as nitrogen fertiliser application, animal
grazing and dairy effluent irrigation rather than remedial action after it has occurred.
Possible cause Best practice for remedial action

Nitrogen input exceeding nitrogen  Reduce nitrogen input.
uptake  Increase nitrogen uptake in plants by matching nitrogen
applications to plant growth.
 Ensure low or excessive pH is not directly or indirectly restricting
N uptake.
 Ensure pastoral growth is sufficiently abundant to cope with the

uptake. Pasture should be at least 25 mm high (approx. 1000 kg
DM per ha) before nitrogen is applied.
 Balance nutrients (fertiliser inputs).
 Avoid winter application of N when the temperature is low and

/or it is wet.
High nitrogen application rates (e.g.  Reduce nitrogen input.

greater than 200 kg N/ha/yr)  Ensure high nitrogen uptake by:
o Timing for growth periods

o Splitting dressings
o Ensure appropriate placement
Applying nitrogen in a single  Split the nitrogen applications so that smaller amounts are applied
application more frequently.
Heavy rainfall (i.e. >20mm within a  Check weather forecast and avoid application if heavy rain seems
day of applying N) or irrigation within likely.
a day of applying fertilizer
 Avoid applying fertilizer when soil is above field capacity (i.e.
puddles on the ground).
 Select a less mobile nitrogen fertilizer (containing ammonium N

rather than nitrate N).
 Apply fertilizer after irrigation (e.g. border-dyke irrigation)
especially when ground cover is low (>80%).
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Permeable soils which can cause  Apply smaller amounts of fertilizer more often.
nitrogen leaching. (i.e. if puddles
disappear quickly after heavy rainfall)  Reduce the amount of nitrogen applied.
 Select a less mobile nitrogen fertilizer e.g. Ammonium N rather

than nitrate.
Nitrogen fertiliser not securely stored  Ensure nitrogen is contained within the storage area on an
impervious floor.
 Protect stored N from rain.
High water table present  Reduce amount of N applied per application.

 Match application to plant uptake.
Contamination from loading sites  Ensure no spillage when loading in or out of storage, or into
application equipment.
Self check 1
1. What are the two main options for adding soil nutrients?
2. What are the difference between compost and manure?
LAP TEST: A Theory
LAP Test No 1 Written Exam
Name:________________________________________Date: _________________
Time Started: _______________________ Time Finished: ___________________
Instructions: You are required to perform the following-

1. Contact with your instructors for fixing the time for starting & ending the work
01-04
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and for providing adequate materials

2. Understand briefly the following
2.1. Describe the concept ofsoil health and plant nutrition
2.2. Identify and diagnose common plant nutrient deficiency andtoxicity

symptoms.
2.3. Describing the function the 17 essential elements in plant metabolism.
2.4. Be familiar with the function and mobility of nutrients within
Plants.
2.5. Determine soil amendment practices.
3. Request your trainer for an evaluation and feedback.
LAP TEST: B PRACTICAL
I. Soil testing-nutrientrecommendation system P

Operation Sheet
urpose:To obtain a value that will help to predict the amount of nutrients
(fertilizer) needed to supplement the nutrient supplyingcapacity of the soil such
that maximumeconomic yield is achieved
II. Conditions/Situations: follow recommendations for soil sampling.
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III. Equipment Tools and Equipment

A. Equipment/Tools
1. pH test kit or electronic pH testing device
2. Plastic overlays
Note: This will be used in the laboratory analysis if the applicator wishes to identify
the specific pathogen or species of the small insects but it is not necessary to used it in
the field
B. Materials
1. PPE
2. Notebook
3. Pencil
4. Sample bags
5. Tape measure
IV. Procedure
1. Collect soil samples
2. Determine the nutrient availability of the soil represented by the samples (soil test)
3. Interpret the soil test results (soil testcalibration)
4. Estimate the quantity of nutrient requiredby the crop (nutrient recommendation)
]
Soil Testing & Plant Analysis
JOB SHEET
I. Reading : Conducting appropriate soil, plant and water tests

II. Objectives
 To provide an index of nutrient availability(or supply) in a given soil Identify
01-04
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 To predict the probability of obtaining aprofitable response to lime and fertilizer.

 To provide a basis for recommendations onthe amount of lime and fertilizer to
apply.
III. Laboratory Works

A. Equipment/Facilities Tools, and Materials
1) Equipment
2) Tools
3) Materials
1. Learning Materials, Pest Manual, IPM Manual
B. Illustration
C. Procedures
Demonstration
Procedure Checklist
Yes No
1. Identify deficiency symptoms.
2. Aid in determining nutrient supplying capacity ofthe soil.
3. Aid in determining effect of nutrient addition onthe nutrient
supply in the plant.
4. Study the relationship between nutrient status
of plant and crop performance.
01-04

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1

TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL

Soil and water conservationLevel III

Unit of Competence: Implement soil health and plant nutrition program

Module Title: Implementingsoil health and plant nutrition program

LG Code: NRC SWC 311 LO 01-04

TTLM Code: NRC SWC 311 TTLM 1012v1

 Determine relevant site characteristics

 Define the requirements for plant production

 Monitor production and evaluate the program

2. The element’s function cannot be replaced by another element.

3. The element is directly involved in the plant’s growth and reproduction.

4. Most plants need this element to survive.

1.1.Goals and targets of the program

1.2. Develop program for site assessment

1.3. Conduct Soil, plant and water tests

Soil sample preparation

Plant Tissue Testing is valuable for:

 Monitoring crop nutrient status for optimal crop production

1.4.1. Characteristics of a soil

Soil Fertility/Soil Nutrient Content

Healthy Soils Produce Healthy Crops

Characteristics of Healthy, high-quality soil:

 Low weed pressure

Soil quality Measure What it tells us Why it’s important

1.4.2. Conditions that affect crop nutrition

• growth media characteristics

• Available nutrient content of soils

CATION AND ANION EXCHANGE CAPACITY

Figure 1 textural triangle of soil

How Do I Tell What Texture My Soil Is?

Figure 2.Water Holding Capacity

Self-Check 1 Written Test

LO2. Define the requirements for plant production

Information Sheet 1 Identifying nutrients required for plant growth

2.1. Identify different nutritional requirement of plant

Why is Plant Nutrition Important?

3. To improve human nutrition

What factors affect crop/ plant productivity?

Diagnosing Nutrient Deficiencies

Common Deficiency Symptoms

4) Purplish-red coloring; and

(Mg), Mn, nickel (Ni), and Zn) are deficient.

2.1.1. Uptake of Plant Nutrients

Figure 3cross section of lower portion of root

2) Nutrient Mobility Within the Plant

2.2. Soil amendment/ameliorants

The followings are descriptions of some of the management options.

When selecting cover crops it is important to consider:

• Susceptibility or host status of the cover crop to major pathogen(s) of concern

iii).Green manure crops:

Amelioration of unproductive soils

2) Amending alkaline soils

Gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O) is most commonly used

Amelioration of alkalin soils:

3) Amelioration of Saline/sodic soils

a. Soluble calcium salts, e.g. gypsum, calcium chloride.

2.3. Identify resources, tools, Equipments and machineries

In general the following tools, materials, Equipments and machineries may be

 Application equipment and machinery such as:

 Nutrient application methods, including placement methods such as:

 pH test kit or electronic pH testing device

2.4.Determine cost effective approach to soil management