Grade10 (ဇီဝဗေဒ)

TEXTBOOK BIOLOGY GRADE 10
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
Learning Outcomes
It is expected that students will
explain how the study of biology is important in daily life
identify the common characteristics of living things
know how living things are classified into three domains andd six kingdoms
doms
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1.1 THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY
Biology is the study of living things. A large variety
riety of living
ving things exists on the
t
land, in the water and in the air. Living things (organisms)
ms) include plants, animals including
sms) inc
incl
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humans and other organisms. Thus, biology dealss with the study of all organism
organisms that live
or have ever lived on the earth.
1.1.1 The Importance of Biology in Everyday eryday Life

Biology is very fundamental and important rtantt science dealing w with bacteria, protista,
fungi, plants and animals including humans. Their
g hhum ructures and ffunctions are associated
ir structures
with one another in their respective environments. To
tive env
environ o a great extent, we owe our daily high
reat ext
ex
standard of living to biological cal advances in two areas: food
oodd pproduction and disease control.
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food than did older varieties. eties. The improvements in the plants, along with better farming
arieties.
practices, have greatly atly increased food production.
Biological
al research has also improved fo food production by developing controls for
the disease organisms,
rganisms, pests and weeds that rreduce yields. Biologists must understand the
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biology are:
The main branches of bio
biol
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Botany : study of
o plants
Z
Zoology study
tud of animals
: stud
Micr
Microbiology : study of microscopic organisms
other branches of biology are:
Some othe
Morphology
hology : study of forms and structures of organisms
Anatomy
omyy : study of gross internal structures
Histology : study of microscopic structures of tissues
Cytology : study of cells
Physiology : study of living processes or functions of the various parts of organisms
Embryology : study of early development of organisms
Palaeontology : study of fossils (the remains of organisms that lived millions of years
ago; now preserved in rocks)
1
GRADE 10 BIOLOGY TEXTBOOK
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Ecology : study of the relationships of organisms to their environments
Biodiversity : study of varieties among living organisms
Evolution : study of the origin and change in forms of organisms over time
Genetics : study of heredity and variations
Mycology : study of fungi
Protistology : study of protists
Phycology : study of algae
Virology : study of viruses
Bacteriology : study of bacteria
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Molecular Biology : study of molecules in organisms
Biotechnology : study of utilization of living organismss in industrial
strial processes
process
Bioinformatics : study of information technology to interpret molecular biology data
dat
1.1.3 Characteristics of Living Things
Cellular structure
s.
the various life processes.
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The main characteristics of living thingss are their cellular structure, metabolism,
nd adaptability.
growth, movement, irritability, reproduction and
All living things consist of the llivin

living substance
ntain DNA
the basis of cells. These cells contain DN (de
biological information. Cells off plants and an
ns and systems. These stru
in turn organized into organs struc
nce called pro
nucleic
eic aac
(deoxyribonucleic
animals are organized
ize
me
protoplasm which forms

acid) molecules that carry
ze into tissues and tissues are
structures are responsible for carrying out
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Metabolism
lism is the sum of the various pprocesses that give the organism’s life. The
Metabolism
two aspects of metabolism are anabolism an and catabolism. The food material is made into
a part of the organism
nism in the process oof aanabolism. The food material, when broken down,
ess energy and results in the for
releases form
formation of waste products. This process is termed as
abolism. The important metabo
catabolism. metabolic processes that take place in organisms involve the
utilization of food. This includes nutrition, respiration and excretion.
Growth
Grow
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The growth of aan organism is seen as an increase in size and weight resulting from
thee usee of food to fu
further develop structures in the organism.
Movement ent
All living things show some kinds of movement. This is more obvious in animals
since they have organs of movement or locomotion. Movements in plants mainly take place
inside the cells although some results from a stimulus such as light.
2
Irritability
Living things respond to stimulus. The stimulus can be any changes in the
environment (light, sound, touch, temperature, etc.) which brings about a reaction in an
organism due to a sensitivity to the stimulus.
Reproduction
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xual reproduction,
reproduction are asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction. In asexual duct th
the
new individual may be produced by a part of the old one. There is only one parent
arent org
organism
needed for asexual reproduction.
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Sexual reproduction produces a new individual as a result of the fusion of two
ndividual of the same species. T
parental sex cells. These two cells come, one from each individual Th
The
cells are fused to form a single new organism.
Adaptability
favourable. A plant may grow very
the environment.
1.2 TAXONOMY Y
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Living organisms are able to adjust and
y stra
cies to ge
enables this plant or plant species
straigh
get eno
d adapt themselves to changes in their external
reases the chances of species
and internal environments. Adaptability increases
result in the formation of a new species. Forr instance,
of food may cause certain birds to mig
ight to su
enough sunlight
spec surviving
stance, a change of seasons
nother
migrate to anotherer place where the
sea
su and can
or a shortage
tth conditions are more
ight to stand above
straight and upright ab plants around it. This
survive and even to dominate
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1.2.1 versity of Organisms

Diversity
There are vast numbers of livi living things in the world. The word ‘biodiversity’ is a
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species.
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nature. It is because, previously
previ unknown species are being discovered all the time.
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1.2.2 T Taxonomy my in the Study of Biology

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ngs to sort oout and compare unless they are organized into manageable categories. With
things
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and make generalizations.
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related, fossils should also be considered in this scheme.
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x giving every organism an agreed name
x placing the organism into a group based on the common characteristics
it shares with others in the group.
1.2.3 The Importance of Taxonomy

lions of known
By taxonomy, it is much easier to learn biology as there are millions kno
utionary history
and unknown organisms. Taxonomy can be used to examine the evolutionary stor of
organisms and the relationships between organisms.
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1.2.4 Taxonomic Hierarchy
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possible in placing similar organisms together. Just as similar species are grouped ttoge together
into the same genus (plural genera).
by other taxonomic ranks of division

For examples,
Kingdom
Division :
ntae
: Plantae
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Similar genera are grouped together into families
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n or pphyl
Magnoliophyta
phyta
fam
families.. This
sions and kingdoms.
families to orders, then classes, phyla or divisions
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phylum, class,, order,
Kingd
Kin
Kingdom
Phylum
hylu
his approach is exten
kingdoms
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der, family,
: Animalia
:
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extended from
ngdoms.. This is the hierarchical
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family genus and species.
Chordata
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Class : Monocotyledons Cla
Class : Mammalia
Order : Cyperales Order : Primates
mily
Family : Poaceae Family : Hominidae
Genus : Ory
Oryza Genus : Homo
Species : O. sativa Species : H. sapiens
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Everyone must be ab able to identify objects and to relate their observations to other
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people.
eople. Most people aare ffamiliar with some of the common forms of plants and animals.
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Linnaeus
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thousandsds of pplants and animals. He introduced the Binomial System of Nomenclature in
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name is the genus and the second is the species. The name of the genus is always started
with a capital letter and the name of the species is started with a small letter. These two
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human is Homo sapiens and that of paddy plant is Oryza sativa.
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1.3 KINGDOMS
A Kingdom is a subdivision of a Domain7KHOLYLQJWKLQJVDUHFODVVL¿HGDQGSODFHG
in one of the six kingdoms. The three domains - Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya diverged
early in the history of life. Subsequently, many new kinds of organisms have evolved. Each
of these kingdoms has its own set of characteristics.
1.3.1 Kingdoms of Living Things

Organisms are divided into six kingdoms. There are two kingdoms within
wit the
domains Archaea and Bacteria, namely kingdoms Archaebacteria cteria and
d Eubacteria.
Euba
Eubacteria .
Their differences are based primarily on the metabolism andd genetic composition of
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ur kingdoms: Protista, Fungi,
the organisms. Within the domain Eukarya, there are four Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia (Table 1.1 and Figure 1.1).
Table 1.1 Characteristics

tics
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Kingdoms Characteristics
Characteristic Examples Diagrams
Archaebacteriaa - Primitive
mitive Thermophiles
- Live in
n extreme environm
environment Methanogens
- Prokaryo
Prokaryote
- Unic
Unicellular
- Obligate anaero
anaerobic
Thermophiles
Eubacteria - Prokaryote Bacteria
- Unicellular
Unicell Cyanobacteria
D
- Autotrophs
A
Auto or heterotrophs
- Asexual
A reproduction by
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Bacteria
ista
Protista - Eukaryote Amoeba
- Unicellular Euglena
- Autotrophs or heterotrophs Slime mold
- Asexual or sexual Paramecium
reproduction
Paramecium
5
Table 1.1 Characteristics of six kingdoms (continued)

Kingdoms Characteristics Examples Diagrams
Fungi - Eukaryote Yeast
- Unicellular or multicellular Rhizopus
- Heterotrophs Mushroom
- Asexual or sexual
reproduction
Mushroom
oom
Plantae - Eukaryote Algae
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- Multicellular Liverworts
- Autotrophs Mosses
- Vegetative, asexual or Ferns
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sexual reproduction ers
Conifers
ngiosperms
Angiosperms Angiosperm
Animalia - Eukaryote Eart
Earthworms
- Multicellular Insects
nsects
- Heterotrophs Fishh
- Asexual or sexual Birds
rds
reproduction Mammals
mals
Mammal
Viruses
Viruses are not included
ded in the six kingdoms of living
luded livi organisms. Viruses, although not
li
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Figure 1.2 An influenza virus

Characteristics
ris
is of viruses
1. Viruses are not generally considered to be alive.
2. They are very small (20-400 nm) non-cellular particles.
3. Each virus particle contains DNA or RNA covered by a protein coat.
6
4. They are parasites and causing diseases in plants and animals.

5. Virus in infected cells can make copies of themselves for reinfection in other host
cells.
6. Viruses cannot move, feed, excrete, show sensitivity or grow and can reproduce
only in the living host cells.
7. Virus cannot survive outside the host cells.
1.3.2 Kingdom Protista

The term protist means “any eukaryotic organism that is not a plant,ant, ani
animal or
ey are thee most diverse of
fungus”. About 60,000 protist species have been described. They
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otista contains unicellular
the four kingdoms in the domain Eukarya. The kingdom Protista ular and
colonial groups.
Characteristics of protista
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1. They live in water, but a few species livee in moist area. Some can even live l in
the human intestine.
2. Nucleus and other organelles are present.
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4. Contractile vacuole helps the cell remove movee exces
excess water.
5. They reproduce asexually y bby ffission, budding
udding
ng or fragmen
fragmentation.
ivided iinto tthree main
6. Most protists can be divided n groups
oups babas
based on their characteristics:
a. Plant-like protists
pro – co
contain chlorophyll yll
ll in chloroplasts and make
wn food (autotrophs) (e.g.,
their own (e.g. Euglena).
(e.g
mal-likee protists – no chloroph
b. Animal-like oro
chlorophyll, feed on other organisms
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heterotrophs) and can move from place to place (e.g., Amoeba).
(heterotrophs)
c. Fungus-like protists – no ch chlorophyll, feed on dead organic matter
(heterotrophs) and lack ch chitin in their cell walls (e.g., slime mold,
water mold).
ists include six gener
The protists general groups according to the characteristics (Table 1.2).
Table 1.2 Divisions/Phyla of pprotists

Divisions/Phyla
Phyla Characteristics Examples
AUTOTROPHIC PROTISTS
PRO
D
Chlor
Chlorophyta - Photosynthetic, unicellular, without
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Chlorella
Euglenophyta - Some photosynthetic, others
heterotrophic, unicellular, contains
chlorophylls or none
Euglena
7
Table 1.2 Divisions/Phyla of protists (continued)

Divisions/Phyla Characteristics Examples
HETEROTROPHIC PROTISTS
Chrysophyta - Unicellular, manufactures the
carbohydrate chrysolaminarin, unique
double shells of silica, contains
chlorophylls
Diatom
Rhizopoda - Movement by pseudopodia, lack
x
chromatophores (pigment containing
cells), possess a single nucleus, asexuall
UHSURGXFWLRQE\ELQDU\¿VVLRQ Amoeba
moeba
Actinopoda - Glassy skeletons, needle-like
Foraminifera
1.3.3 Kingdom Fungi

pseudopods
streaming
Characteristics of fungi
gi
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- Rigid shells, move by protoplasmic
rotoplasmic
plasmic
Actinosphaerium
Ac
Actinosph
Podia
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1. A collection filaments form the mycelia.
on of hyphae, thin thread-like fi
2. Chlorophyll
ophyll is absent and unable to carry
car out photosynthesis.
3. They organisms or as saprophytes on decaying
y grow as parasites on other org
organic water.
ganic matter in the soil and wa
4. Cell wall of hypha is made uup of chitin.
variety of ways: vegetatively, asexually or sexually.
5. They reproduce in a variet
subdivided into five divisions (Table 1.3).
Thee fungi are subdivide
Table 1.3 Divisions oof fun

fungi
D
Divisions
Divisio Characteristics Examples
Chytridiomycota
ytridiomycota
omycota - The simplest and most primitive form
- Coenocytic hyphae (no septum)
- Unicellular or multicellular
- Sexual or asexual reproduction
Chytrids
8
Table 1.3 Divisions of fungi (continued)

Divisions Characteristics Examples
Zygomycota - Conjugated fungi
- Aseptate hyphae with many nuclei
(coenocytic)
- Formation of zygospore in sexual
reproduction Rhizopus
pus
Ascomycota - Sac fungi
x
- Hypha is septate and branched
except in yeast (unicellular).
- Mostly reproduce by budding
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Yeast
Basidiomycota - Club fungi
- Unicellular or multicellular
lular
- Sexual or asexual reproduction
duction
tion
- Club-shaped fruiting
uit bodiess (basidia)
asidia)
present Mushroom
Deuteromycota - Imperfectct fu
fungi
- Septate
ate hyp
hyphae
- Strictly
ictly asexual reproduction by
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means of conidia
onidia
Penicillium
1.3.4 Kingdom
ngdom Plantae
Characteristics
cteristics
ristics of plant
plantae
1. Plants are eukaryotic and chlorophyll containing organisms.
2. They obtain their energy
ener from sun through photosynthesis.
ell wall of plant is composed of cellulose.
3. Cell
ts reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods.
4. Plants
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cycle oof plants, interchanges occur from the embryo and are supported by
5. In life cy
tissues.
other tiss
tissu
6. They lalack motility.
The pplantae are subdivided into five divisions (Table 1.4).
9
Table 1.4 Divisions of plantae

Thallophyta - Plant body is simple (thallus).
- Grow in water, on damp soil, on wet
rocks and on tree trunks
- Vascular system absent
- Reproduce by means of asexual or Spirogyraa
sexual
x
- No embryo formation
Bryophyta - Most primitive land plants
- Grow on damp and shaded soil
- Thallus dorsiventral with thread-like
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ike
ke
rhizoids
- No vascular system Liverworts ((Ri
(Riccia)
R
- Have parenchymatous tissue su
sue
- Sporophyte upright, foliose type
- Life cycle of bryophytes
yop
yophyt shows two
distinct generations (gametophytic and
ations (g
(game
sporophyticc generations).
generation Hornworts (Anthoceros)
- Those two generations regularl
regularly
alternate
rnate single
ate with each other in a sin
singl
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life
fe cycle, is called alternation of
generation
generations.
Mosses (Funaria)
Pteridophyta
hyta - More advanced than
th bryophytes
b
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well-developed vascular system
- A well-d
Ferns (Adiantum)
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Reproduction by spores
- Repro
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-LLife cycle shows distinct alternation of
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Gymnospermae
osperma
- Seed-bearing vascular plants
- Seeds are not enclosed in a fruit.
- Seeds develop either on the surface of
scale or leaf-like appendages known as
sporophylls. Coniferous trees (Pine)
10
Table 1.4 Divisions of plantae (continued)

Angiospermae - Flowering vascular plants
- The plants with roots, stems and leaves
- Widely distributed on the earth’s surface
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and seeds Monocots (Maize)
Maiz
- Seeds are produced inside the ovary of
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x
- Seed with one cotyledon (monocots)
- Seed with two cotyledons (dicots)
Dicots ((Mango)
D Mango)
1.3.5 Kingdom Animalia
up more than 95 percent of all animalBo

Animals are multicellular and heterotrophic
two main groups: those that do not have a backbone
invertebrates and those that have a backbone
ack
Table 1.5 Major phyla of invertebrates

Phyla
nvertebrates
species alivee today
mal spe
Characteristics
haracteristics
Animals are
rotrophic organisms. Ani
kbone (vertebral co
are grouped
a divided into
column) are grouped as
colum
vertebrates. Invertebrates make
uped as vertebra
vertebrate
ay (Table 1.5
1 and 1.6).
Examples
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Porifera - Asymmetrical
- Pore-filter feeders
- Not
ot motile (sessile)
- Consists of two cel
cell layers only;
ectoderm and endoderm
en with mesoglea
(non-cellular layer) between them
(e.g., sponges)
spon
Sponge
Cnidaria
Cn -RRadial symmetry
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- Two cell layers only; ectoderm and

endoderm with mesoglea between them
- Body plan is with sessile polyp (vase-
shaped) or motile medusa (inverted
bowl-shaped).
- Gastrovascular cavity present
- All have stinging cells
(e.g., corals, jellyfish) Jellyfish
11
Table 1.5 Major phyla of invertebrates (continued)

Platyhelminthes - Bilateral symmetry

- Cephalization with head and brain
- Three distinct cell layers (ectoderm,
mesoderm and endoderm)
- Acoelomate (no body cavity)
- Incomplete digestive system (one
opening)
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- Some are parasitic and others free living
g Tapeworm
(e.g., tapeworm, flatworm)
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Nematoda - Bilateral symmetry
- Cephalization with head and d brai
brain
(ectod
mesoderm and endoderm) m)
- Pseudocoelomate
ive system with
- Complete digestive ith
separate mouthth and anus
anu (2 openings)
nings)
s)
- Many are parasitic
paras Roundworm
(e.g., roundworms)
undw
undworms)
Annelida - Bilateral
ilateral symmetry
ymmetry and segmen
segmente
segmented
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- Cephalization with head and bbrain
- Three distinct cell layers (ec
(ectoderm,
mesoderm
derm and endoderm
endoderm)
- True
ue coelom present, coelomate
(e.g., earthworm
earthworms, leeches) Earthworm
Mollusca
ollusca - Bilateral
ilateral sym
symmetry
- Threee dist
distinct cell layers (ectoderm,
mesode
D
- Hav
Have soft body with or without shell
((e.g., snails, slugs, clams, mussels,
scallops, oysters, octopuses, squids)
Snail
12
Table 1.5 Major phyla of invertebrates (continued)

Arthropoda - Bilateral symmetry with jointed

appendages
- Exoskeleton present
(e.g., insects, spiders and scorpions,
shellfishes (crustaceans), centipedes
x
(one pair of leg per segment), millipedes
des In
Insect
(two pairs of leg per segment)
Echinodermata - Bilateral symmetry in embryo o and rad

radial
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symmetry in adult
- Three distinct cell layers
- Tube feet present

(e.g., starfishes,
cucumbers)
Phylum Chordata (Vertebrata)

All the chordates
tebrata
rs (ec
derm)
(ectoderm,
- Water vascular system present

en on arms
sent
shes, sea urchins, sea

ers)
tebrata)
tes have bilateral symmetry w
Starfish
with three cell layers (ectoderm, mesoderm

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and endoderm) and addition, they all have notochord, pharyngeal
d dorsal hollow nerve cord. In add
gill slits and taill in embryo or in adults. The bo
body of most of the vertebrates is divided into
head, trunk and tail (Table 1.6).
Table 1.6 Major

jor groups of vertebrates
vertebra
Groups
Group Characteristics Examples
Fish - Vertebrat
Vertebrates with scaly skin, except a few
scaleless
aree sc
- Live
i in water
Liv
D
- Have gills
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- Poikilothermic Fish
(e.g., bony and cartilaginous fish)
13
Table 1.6 Major groups of vertebrates (continued)

Groups Characteristics Examples
Amphibians - Vertebrates with moist, scaleless skin
- Larva has gills and adult has lungs.
- Poikilothermic
- Eggs laid in water, larva (tadpole) lives
in water which metamorphoses into adult.
- Adult often lives on land Frog
rog
(e.g., frogs, newts and salamanders).
x
Reptiles less
- Vertebrates with scaly skin, some limbless
- Lungs present
Bo
- Poikilothermic
- Lay eggs with shells
(e.g., lizards, snakes, turtles)
tles) Snake
Snak
Birds - Vertebrates with feathers and beak

- Forelimbs have beco
become wingss forr flight.
flight
- Lungs present nt
- Homoiothermic
herm
hermic
- Lay eggs
ggs with hard shell
shells
(e.g.,
g., birds)
Bird
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Mammals - Vertebrates with hair
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canines,
nes, premolars and molars)
- Have lungs and diadiaphragm
- Homoiothermi
Homoiothermic
- Have
ave a place
placenta and young feed on milk
from mam
mammary glands Wild cat
(e.g., cats, dogs, humans)
D
14
Review questions
1. What are the main branches of biology?
6WDWHWKHGL൵HUHQWfLHOGVRIELRORJ\DQGWKHLUGH¿QLWLRQV
3. Explain the term taxonomy in your own words.
4. Define the term biodiversity.
5. Why are living organisms grouped into domains, kingdoms andd lower category cat
hierarchies?
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7. Write down the names of the three domains and the six x kingdoms.
ms.
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similarities.
9. Explain how living things have been separated d into six kingdoms.
10. Explain why Protists could be considered as animals.
Bo
11. Explain why Protista are classified separately
arately from Animali
Animalia.
12. Can heterotrophic Protists be placed under a single phylum? Explain your
reasoning.
13. State the characteristics of Fungi.i
i.
14. What are the characteristics of Bryophyta
yophyta
yta with examples?
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RZH WV
16. Describe the characteristics that allow nematodes
ristics tha odes to bbe distinguished from
ematodes
platyhelminth worms.
ms.
17. Where can you ffind
ind metamorphosis
metamorph aamong the vertebrates? Give examples.
BE
D
15
Concept map
x
D
16
CHAPTER 2
CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION
Learning Outcomes
distinguish between the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells by reviewing
wing their co
comm
common
characteristics, roles and functions
examine cellular components and describe their characteristics
cs and functions
nctions
study how cells are organized into tissues, organs and organ
an systems
x
2.1 CELLS AS THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE
All living organisms are composed of basic sic functional units called cells.
cell The
2.1.1 The Cell Theory

The basic principles
Bo
simplest organisms are made up of the single cells
The complex organisms are composed of millions
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nciples of the cell theory are:

lls which perform all the functions
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are specialized to carry out particular functions
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n plants or animals.
ns in
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subunits are often of a particular size bbut all are microscopically
croscopically
REVHUYH
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functio of life.
functi
llions of cells. In multicellular (many-celled)
(m
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FDOOHG RUJDQHOOHV 7KHVH

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small. So that a microscope
copically sm
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1. Cells aree the building blocks or basic str
structures in all living things.
2. Cellss are the smallest units of living things, they are the basic units of
organization
rganization of all organisms.
3.. All cells are derived from other cells (pre-existing cells) by means of division.
(i.e. information) outlining their growth, development
4. Cells contain a blueprint (i.e
and function.
5. Within cells, there are sites and structures where the chemical reactions of life
occur (metabolism).
cur (metabolism
D
2.1.
2.1.2 Prokaryotic
yoti anand Eukaryotic Cells
Both types oof cells are bounded by the plasma membrane which is semipermeable.
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GH WKH FHOOV
HOOV LV D VHPLÀXLG MHOO\OLNH VXEVWDQFH FDOOHG F\WRSODVP LQ ZKLFK FHOOXODU
organelles
lles are suspended. All cells contain chromosomes which carry genes in the form of
ganelles
DNA. All ccells have ribosomes, tiny organelles that make proteins according to instructions
from the genes.
17
The cells of bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic (Figure 2.1) while those of protists,
fungi, plants and animals are eukaryotic (Figure 2.2 and 2.3). Prokaryotic cells evolved before
eukaryotic cells and they lack a true nucleus. A membrane bounds the nuclear materials of
a true nucleus. Eukaryotic cell possesses a true nucleus. Prokaryotic cell possesses nuclear
materials but lacks a nuclear membrane. Prokaryotic cells are 0.1 - 5.0 Pm in diameter while
eukaryotic cells are typically 10 - 100 Pm in diameter.
Figure 2.1 Prokaryotic

k i ce
ox
cell: a rrod-shaped
d ba
bbacterium
BE
D
Figure 2.2 Eukaryotic cell: a plant cell
18
x
their DNA. In a eukaryotic
Figure
ure
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re 2.3 Euka
Eukaryotic cell: an animal
EHWZHHQ SURNDU\RWLF
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ima cell
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aryotic cell, most of DNA is in the nucleus, which is bounded by a
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double membrane. In a prokaryotic cell, the DNA is concentrated in a region that is not
membrane bound nd called the nucleoid, which is ppart of cytoplasm. The DNA of prokaryotic
cell is circular
ar and contains only nucleic acid with no proteins while that of eukaryotic cells
is linear and
nd made up of nucleic acid and the proteins called histones.
Membrane organelles are present in eukaryotic cell, whereas membrane
rane bounded organe
bounded
ded organelles are not present in prokaryotic cell. In eukaryotes, cell walls are absent
unded
except in plants and fungi. In prokaryotes,
pro cell walls are present (Table 2.1).
D
19
Table 2.1 Comparison between the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
- Average diameter is 0.1 - 5 Pm. - Average diameter is 10 - 100 Pm.
- Single copy DNA present and it is - Multiple copies DNA present
circular and contains only nucleic - They are linear and made up of nucleic
ucleic acid
acid with no proteins. and proteins.
- DNA is located in the nucleus,
eus, chloroplasts
oplasts
- DNA is located in the cytoplasm.
and mitochondria.
x
- Nucleus absent - Nucleus present
- Ribosomes are about 20 nm in size. - Ribosomes are about 25 nm in size.
Bo
- No membrane bounded organelles - Membrane
ne bounded organelles present
- Cell wall present which is made up - Cell wall present in plants and fungi oonly
of murein, a peptidoglycan - In plants, it is made up of ccellulo
cellulose or lignin
whilee in fungi, it is made up oof cchitin. Cell wall
absent inn animal
imal cell.
c
2.2 EUKARYOTIC CELL L STRUCTURE

STRUCT
Plant and animal cells
ls have common feature
features which include a plasma membrane
(cell membrane), a nucleus
us and cytoplasm.
cytoplasm Not all th
the ultrastructures
u of a cell are seen with
BE
a light microscope.
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diverse in internal oorganization and function. One theme that occurs
n terms of shape, size, intern
repeatedly
edly form follows function. In other words, a cell’s function
dly throughout biology is that ffo
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functions
unctions of cells.
2.2.2 Cell Components

one
D
Most plant and animal cells contain certain parts such as the nucleus, cytoplasm and
celll membrane.
embrane. Bu But other cell components may be present or absent in plant and animal
cells (Table
Tablee 2.2).
20
rized
d account of the cco
Table 2.2 Summarized components found in plant and animal cells
Names
mes of com
components Locations Structures Functions Plant cell Animal cell
TEXTBOOK
Cell wall Outside

-O - A structural layer - Give the cell Present Absent
D the ccell
membra
membrane
surrounding some
types of cells, just
outside the cell
strength and
structure, and to
filter molecules
membrane that pass in and out
of the cell
Cell membrane (Plasma membrane) - Aroun Phospholipid

Around the - Ph
Phospho - Surround the cell Present Present
BE
21
cytoplasm
plas
plasm bilayer with
bilaye - Act as partially
pproteins attached
pro achedd permeable
pe
BIOLOGY
to or embedded
bedded
ed membrane
mem
in it
Cytoplasm - Outside of - Jelly like

ke structure, - Act as a site for Present Present
the nucleus in which organelles
rganelles chemical reactions
r
and within are embedded d to take place
the cell
- Hold
H the
membrane
organelles
Bo
x
GRADE 10
Table 2.2 Summarized
d account
count of th
the components found in plant and animal cells (continued)
Names of compo
GRADE 10
Nucleus - Inside the - A circular (or) oval - Control the cell’s Present Present
cy
cytoplasm structure activities
D
Mitochondrion - Inside the - Rod (or) spherical - Aerobic respiration Present Present
cytoplasm
plasm shape
- Acts as a site for
synthesis of lipids
22
BE
- Generate ATP as
BIOLOGY
eenergy molecules
Bo
TEXTBOOK
x
rized account of the cco
components found in plant and animal cells (continued)
Names components
mes of com Locations Structures Functions Plant cell Animal cell
TEXTBOOK
Endoplasmic reticulum
eticulum (ER)
eticu - Inside
In the - A network of - Continuous with Present Present
D
(Smooth ER, Roughgh ER)
ER cytoplasm
cytop tubules and
flattened sacs
the outer membrane
of the nuclear
envelope
Smooth ER; its
-S - Smooth ER:
outer surface lacks
out synthesis of lipids,
ribosomes
riboso metabolism of
carbohydrates,
calcium storage,
detoxification of
drugs and poisons
BE
23
- Rough
R
Rou ER is - Rough
R ER:
BIOLOGY
studded
s with
ith aids in synthesis of
ribosomes
mes onn the secretory
secreto
cre and other
outer surface
face of its
it proteins
protei ono bound
membrane
mbrane ribosomes;
ribos adds
a
carbohydrates tto
proteins tto make
glycoproteins;
glycoprotein
produces new
membrane
Bo
x
GRADE 10
d account
count of th
the components found in plant and animal cells (continued)
Names of compo
GRADE 10
atus
Golgi apparatus - Located $VWDFNRIÀDWWHQHG - Collect, process Present Present
very near
ve sacs and sorts
D the rough
ro
endoplasmic
endoplas
reticulum
lum
molecules
- Convert sugars
into cell wall
and henc
hence components
near the - Make lysosomes
nuc
nucleus
Lysosome - Inside the sacs

- Spherical sa - Breakdown Present Present
cytoplasm (digestion) the
- Surrounded
Surrounde by a
Surr unwanted
24
si
single mmembrane structures
BE
BIOLOGY
and having
h no such as old
iinternal
in structure
ucture
re organelles or even
org
whol cells
whole
Ribosome - Some are - Tiny

ny organe
organelle - Protein
Prote synthesis
synt Present Present
attached - Has two
wo ssubunits
to rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
- Some are
Bo
free in
cytoplasm
TEXTBOOK
x
rized account of the cco
Names
mes of com
TEXTBOOK
Vacuole - In
Inside a - A fluid-filled space - Control exchange Present Present
D cell enclosed by a
membrane
between the vacuole
and the cytoplasm,
regulate the
osmotic
properties of cells
Chloroplast - Present in - Large organelle

organe
org - Photosynthesis Present Absent
the
he lea
leaves
- Generate chemical
BE
25
energy as glucose
BIOLOGY
molecules
m
Plasmodesmata - Only in - Fine strands

nds
ds of - Connects the Present Absent
plant and cytoplasm chemical
internal chem
algal cells - Pass through pore-
re- environment of
like structures adjacent cells
cell
Bo
- Allows water
w
and small
mall solutes
to pass freely from
cell to celll
x
GRADE 10
GRADE 10

mmarized account of the co
compo
Names
es of components Locations
L Structures Functions Plant cell Animal cell
D
Centrosome and centrioles
ntrioles - Near the
t
nucleus
- Within the
centrosome is a
pair of centrioles
- Grow spindle
microtubules for
nuclear division
Absent Present
Each composed of
-E
nine sets of triplet
microtubules
microt
micro
arranged in a ring
26
Microvilli - Located Finger-like
ocated on - F
ocat Finger- - Absorption (in the Absent Present
BE
BIOLOGY
cell surface
urfa
urface extensions
exten gut), reabsorption
(in the kidney)
Bo
TEXTBOOK
x
2.2.3 Cell Organization

Atoms are organized into molecules, molecules into organelles and organelles into
cells. Cells are divided into several compartments called organelles, each with a characteristic
structure, biochemical composition and function. The cell must possess enough information
to specify which molecules are to be associated in a specific compartment. It is ensured
to route the appropriate groups of molecules to their compartments. According rding to th
the cell
theory, all living things are composed of one or more cells as unicellular multicellular
ar and multicellu
ltic
organisms.
In unicellular organisms, the single cell performs all life functions independe
independently.
In multicellular organisms, various levels of organization are present. They hey are made up
x
of more than one type of cells and have specialized cells that at are grouped
uped together to carry
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together for the survival of the entire organism. The cellslls become dependent on one ano another.
Bo
There are five levels of organization in multicellular organs,
organ organ
ar organisms: cells, tissues, org
systems and organisms.
Cells are the simplest level of organization.
anization. Specialized cells show
sho division of
labour by being grouped into tissues; the tissues
sues may be further group
grouped ininto organs and the
organs into systems. Each tissue, organ or system stem has a particular function
fu
func and a structure
appropriate to that function.
Tissues
A tissue is a group similar structures, working together to perform
up of cells with simila
a particular function. In each tissue, the cells ar are aalike, with the same characteristics of
BE
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physiologically to functions.
o perform some particular funct
(A) Plant tissues

Plant tissues study of internal structure of various parts of the plant
issues deal with the stud
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common origin. In the higher plants, tissues show a division of
of a tissue generally have a com
labour and form three basic tissue
ti systems in plants (Figure 2.4).
D
27
Figure 2.4 Types of tissue sy

system in plant
syste
x
BE
Level of organization on in plan
plants
The plantnt body of most vascular plants is constructed from millions of tiny cells.
They have characteristic functions and are grouped together to form tissues.
haracteristic shapes and functio
Various types together into a structural and functional unit called an
pess of tissues are grouped to
togeth
organ. The organs that perform major aactivity together are formed as a system.
Organs
rgans
1. Plant organs include roots, sstems, leaves and flowers which consist of tissues.
D
organ in plants as compared to animals.

2. There are less organs
Organ n syste
systems
1. Thee plant
ant body consists of two main systems:
(a) The root system
he ro - is composed of main roots and branches. These organs
(underground part) are formed as the absorptive system; absorb water and
mineral salts from the soil.
28
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DERYHJURXQGSDUW 7KHVWHPDFWVDVDVXSSRUWV\VWHPDQGWKHÀRZHU
performs as a reproductive system.
Root system and shoot system work together as a plant.
(B) Animal tissues

helial or co
$QLPDOWLVVXHVFDQEHFODVVL¿HGLQWRIRXUEDVLFJURXSV epithelial cover
covering
(2) connective or supporting (3) muscle or contractile and (4) nervous. Each tissu tissue
type is assembled from individual cells that determine the structuree and the function of the
ture and organization
tissue. The structure and integrity of a tissue depend on the structure rganization of the
ox
cytoskeleton within the cells, the type and organization of the he extracellular
ellular matrix (ECM)
her (Figure
surrounding the cell and the junctions holding cells together re 2.5).
B
Figure 2.5 Types of tissue system in animal
Organs
Or
D
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a structural
tructural and ffunctional
fu unit. One example is the heart which contains cardiac muscle,
connective
onnective tissue and epithelial tissue and is laced with nerve tissue that helps to regulate
ctive tiss
the heartbeat.
eartbea
bea
29
Organ systems
An organ system is a group of organs that function together to carry out the major
activities of the body. For example the seven main systems in the human body are given
below.
(1) Digestive system - the digestive system is composed of the digestive stive tract,
liver, gall bladder and pancreas. These organs ans cooper
cooperate
in the digestion of food and the absorption tion of digested
ige
products into the body
(2) Gas exchange system - including the lungs which exchange ge oxygen n and carb
carbon
dioxide
x
(3) Circulatory system - including the heart and blood od vessels ls which transport
transp
materials around the body y
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from the blood
(5) Nervous system - consisting of thee brain, spinal cord and nervesnerve which
coordinate thee body’s actions
(6) Endocrine system eting hormones which act as chemical
- glands secreting
messengers
(7) Reproductive system - producing ucin male and female gamet gamete
gametes, respectively and
lowing the development
allowing mentt of the eem
embryo
Review questions
1. Define the basic sic principles of cell theory.
BE
2. What are the hee features that are common to ccells in all living things?
3. State thee differences
differences of DNA between pprokaryote and eukaryote.
dif
4. Compare pare and contrast the structures of cells with and without a nuclear
embran
embrane.
membrane.
5.. What are the functions of pplant cell wall?
6. Energy is essential in cellscells. Which organelles of a cell generate energy to
support cell activities?
7. Mention
ention the levels of cell organization in multicellular organism such as
human n bein
being.
8. Which com compone
components of the cell control the cell activities?
D
99. De ffine the te

Define terms tissue, organ and system.
'L൵HUHQWL
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11.
1. Identify
Identif the basic tissue groups found in animals.
12. WhWhich organ systems are responsible for
((a) gaseous exchange
(b) filtering toxic waste materials
(c) coordination of the body’s actions
30
Concept map
x
D
31
CHAPTER 3
SUPPORT AND LOCOMOTION
Learning Outcomes
LGHQWLI\WKHGL൵HUHQWW\SHVRIVXSSRUWDQGORFRPRWLRQV\VWHPVLQOLYLQJRUJDQLVPV
J RUJDQLVPV
PV
and can describe each function
investigate the importance of maintaining a healthy musculoskeletal
letal system
m
x
3.1 SUPPORT SYSTEMS
The support system is very important to all living things
ings such as plants, animals and
humans.
Bo
Plants do not have skeletons like animals but they use their turgidity of cells within
w
packing tissue and the strongly constructed conducting
cting tissue for support.
In humans and other animals, the mainn body support is provided
provid by the internal
skeletal system of bones in association with cartilage and the muscular
muscula system.
sy In some
animals, the skeleton is external as in insects and awns. In all animals
d prawns. anima and humans, the
skeleton supports body weight, maintains
ains bbody shape,
ain e, protects organs
rotects soft org
or inside the body,
provides place for muscle attachment enables movement.
ent and eenab ement.
nt
3.1.1 Support Systems in Aquatic Plants

Aquatic plants cannot
nnot because of their stems which are soft and
ot stay upright on land bec
becau
BE
non-woody. But aquatic water because their weights are supported
icc plants can stay upright in wate
by the buoyancy off water. Some aquatic plants have many air sacs in their leaves and stems
WKDW PDNHWKHPOLJKWVRWKDWWKH\FDQÀRDWRQZDWHU6RPHDTXDWLFSODQWVKDYHWLQ\OHDYHVWR
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plants.
(1)
1) Submerged plants
They are rooted in the bottom of a water course and
D
the leaves remain su subme

submerged below the surface of the
water.
ter. Numerous air ssa
sacs inside the leaves and stems keep
thee plant close to the surface to obtain maximum
ant floating cl
sunlight.
ght. e.g., Vallisneria
Va (Nga-shint-myet) (Figure 3.1)
Figure 3.1 Vallisneria
32
(2) Floating plants

(a) Free floating plants
These plants float freely on the water surface. In
free floating plants, the petioles are swollen and spongy,
consisting of numerous air spaces. The presence of these
air spaces makes the plants lighter and enables them to
float on water. e.g., water hyacinth (Beda) (Figure 3.2)
Figure 3.2 Water hyacinth
x
(b) Submerged floating plants
These plants anchor to the bottom of thee ppond
Bo
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surface. The aerenchyma tissues (spongy and nd air spaces)
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surface of the water. e.g., water lily (Kya)
a) (Figure 3.3)
Figure
F 3.3 Water lily
(c) Trailing floating plants

ants
These plantstss have long and horizo
horizont
horizontal stems
(stolon). These stems
ems are hollow and can float eeas
easily. e.g.,
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(3) Emergent plants

The plant
ant consist
consists of tufts of basal leaves which
D
spreading rhizomes. The leaves are erect,

rise from the spre
spreadin
VZRUGVKDSHGÀDWDQGKDYHSDUDOOHOYHLQVHJVZHHWÀDJ
VZRUG
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(Linn-nay) (Figure 3.5)
nn-nay) (Figu
Figure 3.5 Sweet f lag
33
3.1.2 Support Systems in Terrestrial Plants

The plant has various methods and systems for support to maintain its shape and
for its protection. The types of support are physiological and structural. The physiological
support is a temporary support because it depends on the presence of water in the plant cells.
There is no support if the water in the plant cells is lost.
(a) The physiological support
3K\VLRORJLFDO VXSSRUW D൵HFWV WKH FHOO
itself as a whole. The water enters the vacuole
of the cell by osmosis. An internal pressure is
x
built up inside the cell vacuole, called turgor
pressure. The pressure pushes the plasma
membrane against the cell wall, causing the
cell to swell. The cell becomes turgid to get
the support (Figure 3.6).
(b) The structural support
and climbers.
Support in woody plants

Support in
nts
n woody plants
Bo
plant has
Figure 3.6 The physiological support
The structural support is a ppermanentt support.

systems include woody plants: trees and
pport. Various
a sshrubs, non-woody
on-woody
Variou structural support
plants: herbaceous plants
woody ppl
specialized tissue
ue to give them suppo
support.
as cellulose cell wall, having
The tissue has
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with such
uch tissues,
h walls are sclerenchyma tissu
e.g., xylems, vessels
essels and tracheids ((Figure
3.7).
.7).
7).
).
Figure 3.7 Woody stem
Support in non-woody
on-woody pl plants
non-woody plants (her-
Support in non
baceous and climbers)
clim depends on the
gidity of their cells such as parenchyma,
turgidity
collenchyma
chyma and other supportive tissues to
ollenchyma
JLYHVXSSRUW&OLPEHUVKDYHPRGL¿FDWLRQV
VXSSR
XSSR
for climbing up a support in order to obtain
sunlight (Figure 3.8).
Figure 3.8 Climbing roots of betel
34
(c) Special support structures

Prop roots
Roots which grow down from the stem or
branches into the ground for support. e.g., banyan tree
(Nyaung-pin), maize (Pyaung) (Figure 3.9)
Figure
ure 3.9 Propp roots
ro
Tendrils
&XUO\VWULQJOLNHVWUXFWXUHVPRGL¿HGIURPWKH
x
stems and leaves curl and twine around the parts of
other plants or objects to help the plant to climb. e.g.,
cucumber (Tha-khwar), bittergourd (Kyet-hin-khar)n-khar)
Bo
(Figure 3.10)
Figure 3.10 Tendrils
Ten
Te
Thorns
Sharp modified branches that cannot bbe
easily removed. Thorns act as hookss to hold onto
o
the support. e.g., bougainvillea
villea (Setku-pan),
pan),, rattan
(Kyein) (Figure 3.11)
Figure 3.11 Thorns
Prickles
An outgrowth
utgrowth of the epidermis can be
b easily
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removed from the stem. e.g., rose (Hnin-
(Hnin-si) (Figure
3.12)
Figure 3.12 Prickles

Buttress roots
The thick suppo
support roots grow from the stem
These roots hold the tree firmly to
abovee the ground. Th
und, giving it extra support. e.g., durian (Du-
the ground,
D
yin), casuarina
uar (Pinle-kavee) (Figure 3.13)
Figure 3.13 Buttress roots

Clasping
Clas roots
Roots grip onto other plants or structures to get
support. e.g., betel (Kun), pepper (Nga-yoke-kaung)
(Figure 3.14)
Figure 3.14 Clasping roots
35
3.1.3 Support Systems in Animals

Skeletons serve as main support systems for animals. Zoologists commonly
recognize three types of skeletal systems in animals: hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton
and endoskeleton.
erte
(a) Hydrostatic skeletons are found primarily in soft-bodied terrestrial invertebrates,
such as earthworms and slugs and soft-bodied aquatic invertebrates such as jellyfish and
VTXLGV)OXLG¿OOHGERG\FDYLWLHVLQcoelom give support by means of hydrostatic ostatic pressure
ess
on the body wall (Figure 3.15 a).
(b) An exoskeleton is a rigid, hard case that surrounds the body. dy. Arthropods
pods such as
crustaceans and insects have exoskeletons made of the polysaccharide ide chitin (Figure
Figure 3.15 b).
x
A chitinous exoskeleton resists bending and thus acts as the skeletal letal framework
ework of the bo body;
it also provides attachment sites for the muscles which lie inside ide the exoskeletal
xoskeletal casing. But
in order to grow, the animal must periodically molt, shedding edding the exoskeleton.
xoskeleton. A slight
slightl
slightly
Bo
larger new exoskeleton will be formed.
(c) Endoskeletons found in vertebrates, spongesonges and echinoderms are rigid internal
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including humans have internal bones forming g an endoskeleton.
endos Echinoderms such as
Ech
Echin
sea urchins and sand dollars have endoskeletons
osk of ossicles
ssicles made of calcium carbonate.
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phosphate (Figure 3.15 c).
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D
Figure 3.15 Skeletal systems of animals (a) Hydrostatic skeleton of earthworm

(b) Exoskeleton of grasshopper (c) Endoskeleton of cat
36
3.1.4 Support System in Humans

The human skeleton has about 206 bones which can be categorized as part of either
the axial or appendicular skeleton. The bones of the skeleton provide sites for muscle
attachment, making movement possible particularly with jointed appendages.
The human endoskeletal system has many functions that contribute to homhomeostasis.
The rigid endoskeleton supports the body. (1) The skeleton protects vital internal organs
leton provide
such as the brain, spinal cord, heart and lungs. (2) The bones of the skeleton vid ssites
for muscle attachment, making movement possible particularly with h jointed appendages
ppen
appendages.
(3) The skeleton serves as an important storage reservoir for ions ns such as calciu
calcium and
phosphorus. (4) The skeleton produces blood cells within the redd bone marrow
rrow of the skull,
x
ribs, sternum, pelvis and long bones.
Axial skeleton
Bo
The axial skeleton is made up of the bones found in the trunk and head oof the th body.
The bones of the axial skeleton support the weight of the body and protect the tth internal
ones in the skull
tissues. The axial skeleton includes the 27 bones kull,, the 33 bones that form the
skull,
bone VWHUQXP WKHÀDWERQHLQWKHIURQWRIWKH
spine, the 12 pairs of ribs and the breast–bone WKH ÀDW ERQH
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eton cover most
The bones of the axial skeleton ost of the body’s vvital organs. Vertebrae
he spin
are serially arranged bones of the spine th und the spina
that surround spinal cord; there are cartilage
discs between the vertebrae. Ligaments
Ligaments, hold ertebrae
brae together, permit a degree of
holding the vertebrae
movement in the spine. Thee bones of the skull
s ar
are rigid andd protect the brain but the lower
jaw can move strongly in eating and speaking. Th The ribs and sternum protect the heart
and lungs. Flexible tissues andd muscles connecting the ribs allow the chest to expand and
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reathing. Flexible tissues in the spine connecting vertebrae allow people
contract during breathing.
nd look behind.
to bend, turn and behin
icular
cular skeleton
Appendicular
The appendicular
endicular skeleton is the part of endoskeleton that is adapted to allow the
ody to move. It includes the bone
body bones in the limbs that extend from the trunk of the body such
as legs, feet, arms and hands.
The appendicular
ppendicular skeleton
s also includes two sets of bones, called girdles that
connect limbs to the axia
axial skeleton of the body. The girdles attach the bones of the arms and
D
legs to the body loo

loose
loosely enough that these limbs have a wide range of motion (Figure 3.16).
37
x
B
Figure 3.16 The human skeletal system

Bone
D
Bone tissue con

consists of a dense and hard organic matrix
consis
deposits
sits of minerals (mainly calcium phosphate and some
calcium
ciumm carbonate) in between the bone cells. These cells
remain n alive
ve and secrete the matrix throughout life. Most bones
have a large
rge
ge cavity called marrow cavity in the centre. The
marrow cavity may contain yellow marrow which is mainly
fat or red marrow where blood cells are produced. Haversian
canals running through the matrix of the bone consist of blood
vessels and nerves for oxygen supply and control of the bone Figure 3.17 Microscopic
structure of bone
cells (Figure 3.17).
38
Cartilage
If the two bones were in contact with one another, they would rub together every
time they moved and eventually, the ends of the bones would wear down. But the ends
of the bones are protected from wear by cartilage.
,
Cartilage LVDÀH[LEOHFRQQHFWLYHWLVVXHWKDWLVIRXQGEHWZHHQWKHERQHV,WFXVKLRQV
the bones and allows for smooth movements. The cartilage found in the he chest holds
QHLJKERULQJULEVWRJHWKHULQWRRQHVWURQJEXWIOH[LEOHULEFDJH
Joints
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amounts of bone movement. Fibrous joints are made of the same dense material that
hat bone
is made of and they act like a tough glue that connects thee bones and holds them in pla place
place.
Cartilaginous joints allow partial movement. In these se joints, cartilage
artilage physically hhoholds
bone together.
Joint types
Hinge joint
M
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Movements
ements
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hioned with cartilage and held tto
Other joints called synovial joints are cushioned
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b
together by
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llow great degree of movement
two bones across a joint. Synovial joints allow between
7DEOH
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bones.
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Ball and
d socket joi
joint )OH[LRQH[WHQVLR
)OH[LRQH[WHQVLRQ - Shoulder joint
adduction, VKRZQ KLSMRLQW
circumduc
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Pivot joint
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radioulnar joint
VKRZQ
39
Table 3.1 List of types of synovial joint in humans (continued)

Joint types Movements Examples Illustrations
Saddle joint - Flexion, extension, - Base of thumb and
adduction, carpals (shown)
circumduction
Gliding joint - One surface moves - Between tarsal
x
over another bones of ankle,
surface between carpal
al
wn) of
bones (shown)
Bo
wrist
The importance of maintaining a healthy musculoskeletal

sculoskeletal
oskeletal system
The healthy musculoskeletal system
ystem allows for normal physic
physica
physical activities such as
walking, running, jumping and other
her act
activit
activities. Abnormal
ormal
al joints and muscles result in
osteoarthritis in which damaged ends of bbones rub against
nst each other, causing joint pain
DQGVWL൵QHVVRUWKHERQHVPD\EHFRPHEULWWOHDQGDUHPRUHSURQHWRIUDFWXUH
\EHFRPHEULWWOH
\EHFRPHEULWWOHDQGDU
To maintain the musculoskeletal followings could be done.
sculoskeletal system the fo
foll
BE
(a) Stay active
Physical activities and exercises are nece
necessary to maintain healthy joints between
bones. These canan also strengthen muscles that hold the joints.
(b) Do nott overextend
verextend the jo
joints
Some
ome movements ccan cause injuries. Rapid direction changes and twisting can lead
se in
inj
to joint cartilages and ligaments.
oint damage involving cartilage
(c) Eat healthy food
Health of bones,
one jo joints and muscles can be supported by healthy food. Dark green
D
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development.
evelopment.
opment Vitamin
Vitamins
ami C, K and A, iron, calcium, phosphorus and magnesium are good for
joints.
s. Proteins play a critical role in muscle and cartilage repair.
oteins pla
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FHZ
HZ
Reducing body weight by exercising regularly reduces joint pain, improve joint
health and keeps muscle strong.
40
3.2 MOVEMENT IN PLANTS

The plants are fixed at a place with their roots in the ground. Although they cannot
move from one place to another by their bodies but they can move with their parts. These
movements are caused due to response of plants to external stimuli such as light, water,
gravity, chemicals, etc. Plants show two types of movements.
1. Growth-dependent movements called the tropic movements (towards ards or away
aw
from a stimulus) and
2. Non-growth dependent movements called the nastic movements ments (nott depe
dependent
on the direction of stimulus)
x
3.2.1 Tropic Movements
ulus is known
The movement of a plant in the direction of stimulus own as tropic movem
movemen
movement.
Plant may either show a positive or negative movement ment as a response
esponse to a stimulus.
stimulu If
Bo
the movement is towards the direction of stimuli,, it is known as positive tropism
trop
tropism. If the
movement is away from the stimuli, it is known n as negative tropism. Tropic movements
mov
mo in
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SODQWVFDQEHFODVVL¿HGLQWRVL[W\SHV7KHVHDUH
(a) Phototropism hemotropism
hemotropi
(d) Chemotropism m
(b) Geotropism gmotropism
ropism and
(e) Thigmotropism
(c) Hydrotropism (f otropism
ism
(f) Thermotropism
(a) Phototropism
Plants are very sensitive
sitive to light. The
movement of plants in response to light is
known as phototropism. m. The shoot syste
system of a
BE
plant shows positively
vely
ely phototropic wher
whereas the
root is negatively
ly phototropic (Figure 3.18).
Figure 3.18 Phototropism

(b) Geotropism
The movement of a plant part
towards the soil in response to earth’s gravity
is known as geotropism. In geotropism, the
D
shoot is negatively geotropic and the root is

positively geotropic (Figure 3.19).
Figure 3.19 Geotropism

Fig
(c) Hydrotropism
The movement of the plant towards the
water is known as hydrotropism. The stimulus
here is water. Roots are positively hydrotropic
(Figure 3.20). Figure 3.20 Hydrotropism
41
(d) Chemotropism
The movement of plants in response to a
chemical stimulus is known as chemotropism. An
example of this type of movement is the growth
rtil
of pollen tube towards ovule during fertilization
due to secretion of a sugary chemical in the ov
ovary
(Figure 3.21).
Figure 3.21 Chemotropism
(e) Thigmotropism
x
The directional movement in plants in response
to touch is known as thigmotropism. e.g., the plant
tendrils climb around any support which they touch
(Figure 3.22).
Figure 3.23 Thermotropism

otropism
Bo
(f) Thermotropism
the
rmotrop
rmotropism
Thermotropism
ermotropism
Thigmotro
Figure 3.22 Thigmotropism
otropism is the movement

their parts in response
movem
mo
sponse to changes
stimulus of temperature
sti
stimu
of plant or
chang in the external
chan
ature (Figure
mperature (Figu
(Fig 3.23).
BE
3.2.2 Nastic Movements
vements
Nastic movements in plants are not dir
directional movements. They are not dependent
on the direction
ction example, the leaves of ‘touch me not’ (Mimosa, Hti-ka-
ion of the stimulus. For exampl
yone), fold
old up immediately touched. These kinds of changes occur due to the changes
mediately when touch
touche
in thee amount of water in the leaves. Depending on the quantity of water, they either swell
up or shrink (Figure 3.24). In oth other example, pitcher plant (Nepenthes, Ye - ta-gaung),
insectivorous plant occurs due to the catchment of the insects
the closing of the lid of insect
(Figure 3.25).
(Figu
D
Figure 3.24 Mimosa Figure 3.25 Nepenthes
42
3.3 MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS AND HUMANS

The ability to move in animals is made possible by the combination of a semi rigid
skeletal system with joints that act as hinges and a muscular system attached that can pull
on this skeleton. Muscular action produces a change in body shape, which places a force on
IH
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ar way, w
the ground, the force they exert moves its body forward rapidly. In a similar when a
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ms allows mo
push against the water. The nature of the muscular and skeletal systems movemen
movement
in animals.
x
3.3.1 nimals
Movement and Locomotion in Various Simple Animals
Locomotion in earthworm
In these animals a fluid-filled central body cavity
avity
vity or coelom is encompassed
encompas by
b two
followed by waves of longitudinal

Steps in earthworm locomotion
1. In the anterior end,
lose contact with
Bo
sets of muscles in the body wall: circular muscless that are repeated in segments and
length of the body and longitudinal muscles that
Short and bristle like structures called setae are on the underside of a worm’s
0XVFOHVDFWRQWKHÀXLGLQWKHERG\¶Vcentral
skeleton.
This locomotion process proceeds
roc
roceed
nal mus
tion are:
central
tral space which represen
as waves
d, circular muscles contr

th ground.
nd.
represents
epre
es off circular-muscle
muscle ccontraction
circular-mu
n which
hich pa
aan run the
circular muscles.
hat oppose the action of the circu
worm body.
the hydrostatic
contraction that are

pass backward.
contract and longitudinal muscles relax. Setae

contrac
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2. The front end
ndd of the body extends forward.
3. Next, thee circular muscles contract; the longitudinal muscles relax. Anterior of the
body swells and setae anchor the ground.
grou
4. Body
dy region behind the anterior end is pulled forward. Setae prevent slipping backward
of the front
ont end (Figure 3.26).
3.26)
D
Figure 3.26 Locomotion in earthworm
43
Locomotion in grasshopper
Jumping
The ÀH[RUand extensor (antagonistic) muscles are attached to the internal surface
of the exoskeleton. Flexor muscles bend a joint. Extensor muscles straighten it. The rear
jum
legs of a grasshopper are long and muscular and are adapted for hopping or jumping.
ERG\ 7KH KL
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leg is folded in a Z shape and ready for a jump. When the extensor muscle contracts, the leg
jerks backwards, propelling the grasshopper forward and up (Figure 3.2727 a).
Flight
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elevators) and flexor muscles
achieved by the alternate contraction of extensor muscles (elevators)
(depressors) located inside the exoskeleton of the thorax (Figure 3.277 b).
b
(a) Jumping
umping
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3.3.2 Movementent and Locomotion in Various

Variou Complex Animals and Humans
Antagonist
agonist muscles often occur in pairs, called antagonistic
gonist and agonist skeletal mu
pairs. Ass one muscle other relaxes causing movement or locomotion at
uscle contracts, the ot
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Locomotion in fish
Fish have a streastreamlined body shape for
D
wimmin in water
swimming er to reduce friction. Fish moves
forward
ard as a result of the contraction and relaxation of
orward
(antagonistic)
agonistic) muscles called myotomes on either side
nistic) musc
of the bodyy and the tail or caudal¿QSURSHOVWKH¿VK
The functionon of ¿QVLQ¿VKLVWRbalance the body in
ion
an upright position in water. Pectoral fins are used to
VWHHUWKH¿VKPelvic¿QVDUHXVHGWREDODQFHWKH¿VKDQG
prevent the body from diving or rolling (Figure 3.28).
Figure 3.28 Swimming in fish
44
Locomotion in frog
The frog’s powerful hind legs are adapted for both swimming and leaping. The
strong extensor muscles of the thigh contract, extending the limb and thrusting the foot
against the ground or against the water. The thrust is transmitted through the body of the
war Flexor
frog by the pelvic girdle and the spine so that the whole animal is pushed forward.
)LJXUH
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x
(a) Flexion
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Figure 3.29 Rear legs propel a frog
Locomotion in bird
oximatel 17
oximately 175 differentent musc
muscl
(b) Extension
og in swimming and lleap
leaping
muscles, mainly controlling the

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muscles contractct to cause downstroke of the humerus bone of the wings while the
supracoracoideus
deus causes the upstroke of the w wings, providing lift.
In addition,
addition circular
cular movement oof the wings, forward and then backward, during
each downstroke,
oke, provides
provi thrust
rust that
th moves the bird forward through the air (Figure
3.30).
0).
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45
Locomotion in humans
There are about 650 skeletal muscles in the human body. Most of these muscles
function in “antagonistic pairs” for locomotion and movement in humans.
The antagonistic muscle pairs carry out many types of movements. Some of which
are as follows:
Flexion and extension

One prominent example pair of muscles is biceps brachii and tricepsceps brachii
hii in the
owards thee upper arm.
upper arm. Contraction of biceps brachii flexes or pulls the forearm towards a
oint at the elbow.
When the triceps brachii is relaxed, flexion happens at the hinge joint
x
But when the biceps relaxes and the triceps contracts, the forearm m is pulled aw
away
from upper arm. The locomotion is termed extension (Figuree 3.31 a).
Another example pair of muscles is the hamstring ng and quadriceps
dri uscles in th
muscles the
xing of the quadriceps
thigh of the legs. Contraction of the hamstring and relaxing quadric th leg
flex the le at
of the hamstring muscles (Figure 3.31 b).
Bo ntraction of the quadriceps and rre

the knee. Next, the leg is extended at the knee by contraction
The working muscle is termed agonist and the resting muscle is the an
relaxing
antagonist.
BE
(a)
D
(b)
Figure 3.31
.31 The arrangement and functions of skeletal muscles in an antagonistic pair
(a) in the arm (b) in the leg of humans
46
Review questions
1. Distinguish the types of aquatic plants and describe the characteristics of one
which grows below the surface of the water.
:K\FDQÀRDWLQJSODQWVH[LVWDERYHWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHZDWHU"
3. Describe the physiological support in plants.
6WDWHWKHVWUXFWXUDOVXSSRUWRISODQWVDQGLWVH൵HFW
estrial plants
5. Clarify the types of special support structures found in terrestrial nts aand
state their functions.
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8. How do human endoskeletal system support thee body?
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9. 'L൵HUHQWPRYHPHQWVRFFXUDWMRLQWVEHWZHHQERQHV([SODLQWKHPZLWKWKHP
HP ZLWK
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examples.
Bo
10. Why is it important to maintain a healthy
12. Define the term tropism and mention
14. How do Mimosa and Nepenthes response

15. What is the significancee of tro
of tropic movementss with fu
16. How are movement
fully la
ent and suppo
support ma
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63
CHAPTER 5
CONTINUATION OF LIFE
Learning Outcomes
explain the types of reproduction in plants and animals
describe the formation and role of gametes
explain how chromosomes behave during reproduction
identify the steps in the processes of mitosis and meiosis and
d compare thehe two
x
processes
explain the role of chromosomes and genes in the inheritance
ritance off characteristics and
on the continuation of life
5.1 REPRODUCTION
5.1.1 Reproduction in Fungi andnd Plants

Plant
Two main types of reproduction
reproductions.
Bo
The production of new organisms from the existing organisms of the sa
called reproduction. Reproduction is essential for
of reproduction ensures continuation off li
life on earth.
h.
found in fungi and

production foun
same species is
urvival of species on earth.
or survival ear The process
pplants are asexual and sexual

d pl
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Asexual reproduction n in cyanobacteria, fungi and pplants
A new individual
dividual produced from a single parent without involving the sex cell
(gamete) is called Asexual reproduction may occur through binary or
ed asexual reproduction. Asexua
multiple fission,
ion, budding, fragmentation, spore
spo formation and vegetative propagation.
Fission
When the parent organism
organism rreaches its maximum growth, it splits to form two new
organisms. e.g., Cyanobacteria, eetc. (Figure 5.1)
D
Figure 5.1 Asexual reproduction in Cyanobacteria by binary fission

Figu
Budding
In budding, a small part of a body of the parent organism grows out as a bud which
then detaches and becomes a new organism. e.g., Yeast (Figure 5.2)
64
Figure 5.2 Asexual reproduction in yeast by budding

udding
x
Fragmentation
The breaking up of the body of simple multicellular anism into two or more
llular organism m
mor
fragments, each fragment subsequently grows to formm a new complete
plete organism.
organism
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e.g., Spirogyra DJUHHQ¿ODPHQWRXVDOJD )LJXUH

Figure 5.3 Asexual

xuall reproduction
reprodu in Spirogyra
ra by
gyra b fragmentation
Spore formation
The parent plant
ant produces
uces many microscop
microscopic reproductive units called spores inside
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the spore sac. When bursts, then the spores spread into air. When
n the spore sac (sporangium) bur
these spores stand
and on food or soil, under favorable
favor condition they germinate and produce
the new plants.
ts. e.g., Fern (Figure 5.4)
D
Figure 5.4 Asexual reproduction in Fern by spores

Vegetative propagation
In vegetative propagation, new plants are obtained from the parts of old plants such
as stems, leaves or roots without the help of any reproductive organ. The green grass grows
LQWKH¿HOGDIWHUUDLQIURPWKHGU\ROGVWHPRIWKHJUDVVSODQWE\WKHPHWKRGRIYHJHWDWLYH
propagation.
65
Similarly, Bryophyllum plants can be reproduced by vegetative propagation by its

leaves; gingers grow from the nodes of rhizomes, potato grows from the bud or eye of the
tuber (Figure 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7).
x
Figure 5.5 Vegetative propagation of Bryophyllum
um by leaves
ves
Figure 5.6 Vegetative propagation

ginger by rhizomee
Artificial methods of vegetative

ion of Bo
etative propagation
Figure
re 5.7
7 Vegetati
Vegetative
Vegetativ propagation of
potat
pota
potato by tuber
The process of growing many plants from one pplant by man-made method is called
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DUWL¿FLDOPHWKRGRIYHJHWDWLYHSURSDJDWLRQ
YHJHWDWLYH SURSDJDWLRQ
DJDWLRQ
1. Cutting: g: A small part of root, stem, or leaves
le from a plant which is cut with a sharp
knifee is called cutting. A cut piece of the plant necessary to have some buds on it.
e.g.,
g.,., rose, sugarcane, cactus (Figure
(Figu 5.8).
2.. Layering:
Layering g: It is a type of vegetative
vegeta
vege multiplication in which shoot of parent plant is
allowed to develop roots wh while it is intact with the plant. After the development of
enough roots, the shoot is detached from the parent plant to plant in the medium to
lead an n independent llife. In layering, rooted branch is called a layer. e.g., rubber,
croton (Figure
Figure 5.9).
5.9)
D
3.
3 Grafting7KHFXWVWHPVRIWZRGL൵HUHQWSODQWV
Grafting 7KH RQHZLWKURRWVDQGWKHRWKHU
without roots)
root are joined together to grow as single plant is called grafting. The
roo
new plantplan has the characteristics of both plants. The cut stem having roots is
called
alled stock and the cut stem of another plant without roots is called scion.
e.g.,
.g. apple, mango, avocado (Figure 5.10).
e.g.
4. Budding: Budding is a form of grafting most often used commercially. In this
procedure, just the axillary buds are grafted onto the stem of another plant.
e.g., rose, avocado, plum, citrus (Figure 5.11).
66
x
Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9
Vegetative propagation by cutting Vegetative
ve propagation
gation by layering
Figure 5.10
Vegetative propagation
Bo
pagation by grafting
Figure 5.11
Vegetative propagation by budding
V
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Micropropagation
tion (Tissue Culture)
The new plants are produced from a small piece of the plant tissue (e.g., branch tip,
root tip, leaf
eaf portion) in growing medium (agar medium).
Sexual
ual reproduction in plants
xual
The production of new pplant from two parent plants by the use of sex cells (gametes)
LVFDOOHGVH[XDOUHSURGXFWLRQ,QSODQWVWKHVH[RUJDQVDUHFDUULHGZLWKLQWKHÀRZHUV
L FDOOHG VH[XDO
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Female
Fem gamete
Fertilization
Fertilizatio takes place inside the ovary inside which is the female gamete. One or
many y ovules are found attached to the inner wall of the ovary by means of funicles.
The bbody of the ovule is termed as the nucellus and one or two layers of integuments
cover it.. A pore, left uncovered, at the tip of the ovule, is the micropyle. Embedded in the
nucellus is a large oval-shaped embryo sac, containing eight nuclei. Three of these are
situated at the micropylar end. The biggest is called the egg cell or the female gamete. The
other two are the synergids. At the opposite end are three nuclei, known as the antipodal
cells. At the centre of the embryo sac are two polar nuclei (Figure 5.12).
67
x
Figure 5.12 L.S. of ovule
Male gamete
Bo
The formation of male gamete takes place inside
structure. It is uninucleate and possesses a two-layered
soft and thin. The outer wall or the exine is tough
Some weak spots called germ pores may be present
At the time of pollination, the stigma
sugar and other compounds. This substance
g
nside the pollen, a more or less rounded
sent in the ex
is viscous
exine.
scouss with a sticky sub
bstan stimulatess thee pollen grains
bstance
Just before pollination, thee nucleus of th
and the generative nucleus. On
protrudes through the germ pore of the exine and el
nucleus, carried along with
the pollen divides
pollen begins
n pollination, the po
grai to germinate.
gra
rro
ayered wall. The inner wall or the intine is
spinous outgrowth.
h and often provided with spinou
substance containing
su
into two, the tube nucleus

des in
ns to germinate and the intine
ins
elongates to form a pollen tube. The tube
elon
ith the generative nucleus at th the tip of the pollen tube controls the
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growth of the pollen tube.
ube.
be.
The pollen tube penetrates the stigma and grows down the style until it finally
reaches the ovule.le. By that time, the generative nucleus has already divided into two male
gametes (Figureure 5.13
5.13).
D
Figure 5.13 Germinating pollen grain
68
Fertilization
The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle and it passes through the
nucellus to approach the embryo sac. Then the tip of the pollen tube dissolves and the two
male gametes are set free into the embryo sac. The tube nucleus disintegrates eventually.
One of the two male gametes fuses with the female gamete or egg cell,, re resulting in
the fertilized egg or oospore. This process is termed as “fertilization”. The two wo polar nuclei
K WKH VHFRQG
IXVHWRIRUPWKHGH¿QLWLYHRUVHFRQGDU\QXFOHXV7KLVLQWXUQIXVHVZLWKWKHVHFRQGPDOH Q P
gamete to form the primary endosperm nucleus.
The fusion of three nuclei, i.e. the two polar nuclei and the male gamete ete is th
therefore
termed as “triple fusion”. One male gamete fuses with the egg cell and the he other with the
x
two polar nuclei and that is why this process of fertilization n and triplee fusion are together
known as “double fertilization”.
ds direct the male gamete towards
During the process of fertilization, the synergids toward the
egg cell and the polar nuclei. They then disintegrate. te.
e. The antipodal cells disappear
disapp before
fertilization (Figure 5.14).
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Figure 5.14 L.S. of the ovule showing the process of fertilization
Changes after fertilization

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develop into seeds and the ovary as a whole changes to form a fruit. The embryo
Thee ovules develo
sacc enlarges and the fertilized egg grows and gives rise to an embryo. At the same time, the
larges an
primary endosperm nucleus divides repeatedly to form the endosperm which stores food
ary end
material for the growing embryo. The integuments become the seed coats.
69
5.1.2 Reproduction in Animals

Two types of reproduction, asexual and sexual, are found among the animals.
Asexual means ‘without sex’ and this method of reproduction does not involve gametes (sex
cells). In sexual reproduction, gametes from male and female combine to form an embryo
which then grows into a young organism.
Asexual reproduction in animals

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6RPH VSHFLHV RI LQYHUWHEUDWH DQLPDOV DUH DEOH WR UHSURGXFH DVH[XDOO\ E\ ¿VVLRQ
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fragmentation, budding or parthenogenesis. Some protists such as Amoeba eproduce by
moeba reproduce
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insects such as bees reproduce by parthenogenesis. Hydra is a small mall animal,
al, 5-10 mm lolong,
which lives in ponds attached to pondweed. Hydra has an asexual sexual method
ethod of reproduction
called budding. But Hydra can also reproduce sexually by y gametes (Figure
Figure 5.15).
Figure 5.15 Asexual reproduction

starts dividing rapidly and
the daughter Hydra pulls
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ction by budding in Hydra
Hy
d produces a bulge (b) the bul
(a) a group of cells on the column
bbulge grows and develops tentacles (c)
lls itself offf the parent and (d) tth
the daughter becomes an independent
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animal
Sexual reproduction
uction in animals
Sexual
xual
al reproduction involves the prproduction of sex cells. These sex cells are called
gametes and they are made in reprod
reproductive organs called testes (in male) and ovaries (in
reproduc
female).
le). The process of cell division that produces the gametes is called meiosis. In sexual
reproduction,
production, the male and female gametes come together and fuse (fertilization), i.e. their
cytoplasm and nuclei join togtogether to form a single cell called a zygote. The zygote or
embryo then grows into a nenew individual (Figure 5.16).
D
Figure 5.16 Fertilization and development of embryo and young in sexual reproduction of
an animal
70
Sexual reproduction in humans

In humans, like in other mammals, an ovum from a female (a woman) is fertilized
by a sperm from a male (a man), after sexual intercourse. This produces an embryo in the
woman’s uterus. After 270 days of conception which is about nine months, an embryo
grows into a foetus and then a baby is born.
Female
The female reproductive organs and parts are shown in Figuree 5.17 and Table
Tabl 5.1.
x
Figure 5.17
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7 The female re
reprodu
reproductive system
Table 5.1 Functions off parts of the female reprod
reproduc
tem
em in human (side view)
reproductive system in humans
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Parts Functions
Ovary which ova (eggs) are produced
- Contains follicles in w
Funnel off oviduct
ovidu - Directs an ovum ((egg) from the ovary into the oviduct
- Carries an ovum
ovu to the uterus, with propulsion provided by tiny
Oviduct
duct
cilia in the wall; also the site of fertilization
Uterus - Where the foetus develops
Cervix - A rring of muscle, separating the vagina from the uterus
D
- Receives the male penis during sexual intercourse;

Vagina
Vagin
sperm are deposited here: serves also as a birth canal
Urethra
ethra - Carries urine from the bladder
Vestibule
estibule
ule - Area guarding the urethral and vaginal openings
71
Male
The male reproductive organs and parts are shown in Figure 5.18 and Table 5.2.
x
Testis
Parts
Epididymis
Sperm duct
Bo
Figure 5.18 The male reproductive system in human (side view)
Table 5.2 Functions of parts of the male reproductive
- Male gonad that produces

pprod
ductive
ve system in humans
Functions
- A mass of tubes in which sperm are

- Muscular
passage
nctions
sperm
rm
re stored
stor
store
links the testis to the urethra to allow the
cular tube that lin
sage of semen containing sperm
assage sp
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Scrotum - A sac testes outside the body, keeping them cooler
ac that holds the test
than temperature
han the body tempe
Urethra - Passes semen containing
con sperm through the penis; also carries
urine from the
th bladder
Penis
enis become firm, to insert into the vagina of the female during
- Can becom
sexual
ual iintercourse to transfer sperm
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Fertilization
Fertiliz
Immediately afafter mating or copulation (sexual intercourse), the sperm swim up
the uterus
us through tthe mucus lining to the oviducts (fallopian tubes). If there is an egg, one
of the sperm may fuse with it to form a zygote. The process in which an egg unites with a
m ma
sperm is termed
rm as fertilization.
term
Implantation
The zygote divides continuously into a ball of cells called embryo. The embryo
moves towards the uterus, becomes attached to the wall and is surrounded by the uterus
lining. This process is termed implantation.
72
Gestation period
The period between fertilization and birth is called gestation period and it takes
about nine months in humans. During this period, the following new structures are developed
to keep the embryo alive and healthy.
H DQG S
Placenta KDVQXPHURXV¿QJHUOLNHYLOOLPDGHXSSDUWO\RIHPEU\RQLFWLVVXHDQGSDUWO\RI
uterine wall (maternal tissue). The villi consist of maternal and embryonicc blood capillary
capil
ap
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antibodies to the embryo and metabolic wastes from the embryo. The he placentaa also ssecretes
hormones.
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Umbilical cord - connects the embryo’s body to the placenta. enta. The two umbilical arteries
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deoxygenated blood and excretory wastes from the embryo mbryo
bryo to the placenta. The vein carries
c
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oxygenated blood and dissolved nutrients from thee placenta to the embryo.
embry
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freedom of movement
vement during ggr
growth and cushions it
njury (Fig
against knocks and mechanical injury )
(Figure 5.19).
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Figure 5.
5.19 Developing foetus in human uterus
Birth
B
D
The embryo eventually develops into a foetus, with recognizable human features.
bryo ev
gestation period, the muscular uterine walls begin to contract. This is termed
Att the end of gesta
gest
ass labour
labour7KHDPQLRQEXUVWVDQGWKHDPQLRWLFÀXLGLVGLVFKDUJHG7KHFHUYL[RSHQVDQG
bour 7KH
the foetus now called a baby, passes through the vagina, then out of the mother’s body. This
us no
is termedd birth.
ed
Lactation and maternal care

Lactation is the process of producing milk in the mother’s breasts, for feeding the
baby. Breastfeeding is one of the maternal care activities.
73
Menstrual cycle
Ovulation occurs once in about every 28 days in woman. If the egg is not fertilized
within 36 hours, it dies and the uterus lining breaks down slowly. The dead egg together with
the uterus lining, mucus and some blood are discharged through the vagina. This period of
The
bleeding is termed as menstruation. Ovulation does not occur during pregnancy. Therefore,
menstruation ceases once a woman is pregnant until after the baby is born.
5.2 INHERITANCE
neration to generat
Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from generation generation.
Plants and animals inherited certain characteristics such as plant height, fruit it colour, seed
x
cteristics is called heredity.
shape, skin colour and eye colour. The inheritance of such characteristics heredity
di .
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how heredity works is genetics.
5.2.1 Nature of Chromosomes, Genes and DNA

Chromosome
division. Each chromosome has certain cha

two chromatids, joined at one
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Chromosome is an organized package of DNA found in nucleus of the cell.
Structure of chromosome
Each chromosome is made up of DNA D
character
nee point called a cent
on’s
eins.. It can be seen at the time of cell
and proteins.
en itt is ready
characteristics when
centromere. E
n’s characteristics. The ooth
genes, coding for the person’s
in the same order. Geness are segments
ments of DNA (Figure
r to divide. It becomes
Each chromatid is a string of
other chromatid carries the same genes
(Figur 5.20).
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A human bodydy (somatic) cell nucleus contains
contain 23 pairs of chromosomes. These are
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appearances. This arrangement is calcalled a kary
karyotype (Figure 5.21).
D
Figure 5.20 Nature of chromosomes, genes and DNA
74
Figure 5.21 Human karyotype
x
Number of chromosomes
There is a fixed number of chromosomes in each ach cell of the same species
species. In
human body cells, each contains 46 chromosomes, mouse use cell contains contains
ntains 40, wheat cont
conta
42 and garden pea contains 14. The number of chromosomes
romosomes in a species is ththe ssame in
another 23 from the father.
Genes
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all of its body cells. There are 46 chromosomes in each of liver cells, in every nerve
skin cell and so on in humans. The chromosomes
The gene is the basic physical and func

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omes are always in pairs, called homologous
chromosomes such as two long ones, two short ones and two medium ones because one of
each pair comes from the male gamete and one
46 chromosomes in each cell which ar
ne from
are inherited
cell,
gamet In humans, there are

om the female gamete.
functional unit of heredity. It is a length of

funct
chromosomes from the mother and
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Allele
le
forms of a gene. In a diploid cell, there are usually two alleles
One of the alternative for
occupying the sam ne locus
same gene locu of a pair of homologous chromosomes.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

D
DNA is the cchemical substance found in the chromosomes of the nucleus of a cell.
DNAA is the basis of inheritance in all organisms.
Structure
re of
cture o DNA
A molecule of DNA is made from two strands of nucleotides. Each nucleotide
contains a nitrogenous base which is either adenine (A) or thymine (T) or cytosine (C) or
guanine (G), a sugar molecule and a phosphate group (Figure 5.22).
75
In the two strands of DNA, nucleotides with adenine are always paired to opposite
nucleotides with thymine and nucleotides with guanine to that of cytosine. Adenine and
thymine are complementary bases, as are also cytosine and guanine. Complementary bases
DOZD\V ELQG ZLWK HDFK RWKHU 7KH\ DUH DOZD\V ¿[HG SDLU 7KLV LV NQRZQ DV EDVHSDLULQJ
rule. DNA can replicate itself, so replication is able to pass genetic information from one
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Figure. 5.22 A nucleotide
ucleotide of DNA Figure
Figu 5.23 The structure of DNA
Figur
5.2.2 Cellular Reproduction

Cellular
lar reproduction is a process by which cells duplicate their contents and then
divides to produce
oduce two similar cells. It is eessential to growth and development of cells.
Cell division
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Cell division consists of four stages,
s prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The
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are wo distinct types of cell division; a vegetative cell division where each daughter cell is
re two
genetically
tically identical to the parent cell i.e., same number of chromosomes (mitosis) and a
lly identic
reproductive cell division where the number of chromosomes in the daughter cell is reduced
uctivee ce
by half to pr
produce haploid gametes (meiosis).
Types of cell division

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76
Mitosis
Mitosis is a process that creates a nearly exact copy of the parental cells. The mitotic
cell division involves mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis is the division of the nucleus and
results into two identical daughter nuclei. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm into
two cells. After mitosis and cytokinesis, two diploid daughter cells which aree ggenetically
identical to the diploid parent cells (Figure 5.24).
Meiosis
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is I is the first cell division,
cells. It consists of two stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Meiosis
x
results into two haploid cells and meiosis II is the second cell division, ion, results into four
on division
haploid cells. This type of cell division is called reduction on because they cont contain
half the number of chromosomes of the diploid parent cells (Figure re 5.25).
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B
Figure 5.24 M
Mitosis Figure 5.25 Meiosis
D
Importance of mitosis
mitosi
mit
Mitosis pr
produces two daughter cells with the same identical genetic components
pro
(chromosomes)
mosomes) as the parent cell. Mitosis is important to regulate the cell growth, development
chromosomes)
and repair
air in multicellular organisms.
Importance of meiosis
Meiotic cell division produces four haploid sex cells from existing diploid cell and
therefore it creates genetic variation. Meiosis is nature’s way of keeping the chromosome
number constant from generation to generation.
77
Table 5.3 Mitosis versus meiosis

Facts Mitosis Meiosis
Type of reproduction - Asexual - Sexual
Occurs in - All eukaryotes - Humans, animals, plants,
fungi
Genetically - Identical to parent cell SDUHQW FHOO
'L൵HUHQWIURPSDUHQWFHOO
Function - Cellular reproduction, general ersity through
- Genetic diversity ugh
growth, repair of the body and production
sexual reproductionn
clone production
x
Chromosome number - Remain the same as in parent - Reduce
duce by half of parent cell
cell
Creates - New cells other than sex cells ls only: female egg
- Sex cells
cells or male sperm cells
ce
5.2.3
the following purposes.
number by mitotic cell division.
is an occasional event
ent
divis
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The Role of Cellular Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms
In multicellular organisms, the cellular reproduction (cell divisio
1. Growth – The cells in meristematic

matic tissues off multicellular
life for growth in length and girth,
gir while growth
2. Healing of wounds – In both plants an

nt by mitosis.
rowth
division) is important
ulticellular plants
i
animal cells increases in

h in anim
animals, cells divide to heal the wounds. It

and anim
3. Reproduction – Sex cells of both plants and aan animals divide meiotically during the
for
plant divide throughout

plan
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reproductive age.
4. Stem cellss – In animals, after mitotic cell division, some cells become specialized
but some
me become stem cells which are able to divide for continuous growth of the
animals.
als. But specialized cells cease to divide.
mals.
5.2.4 The Role of Chromosomes

Chromosomes aan and Genes in Inheritance
Heredity is the transfer or passing of characteristics genetically from the parents to
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information is carried within chromosomes. The chromosomes are found
The geneticc informati
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n the nucleus of a cel Long coiled molecules of DNA make up chromosomes. The genes
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are contained
ontained in the DDNA. They are the units of heredity and are responsible for inheritance.
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e.g., the heigh
height
igh of a person or the facial features such as nose or jawline are all controlled
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The inheritance of characteristics in an organism is contributed equally by the
mother and father. The mother and father provide equal amounts of genetic material to their
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other that comes from the father.
78
Most of the genes have more than two variations, they are called alleles. e.g., there
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and a recessive trait.
The dominant trait comes from an allele of the gene that decides the trait trai in the
presence of the other recessive allele of the identical gene. The trait thatat does not
ot gget to
express itself is called the recessive trait.
Genetics
x
herited characteristics, and the
Genetics is the study of heredity and variations of inherited
he next.
way that characters are passed on from one generation to the
Character
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Variation
Dominant trait
pressed
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ssed in an organism, suppressing

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hee trait stays suppressed or cannot bbe expressed in the presence of the dominant trait. The
The
ve trait is denoted using sma
recessive small le
letters.
ominant alle
Dominant allele
An allele
allele carries the do
dominant trait and is expressed in the phenotype of the organism.
For example, the dominant trait tall is represented by T.
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Reces
Recessive allele
An allele carries the recessive trait and is only expressed as the phenotype of the
rganism
ism in th
organism the absence of the dominant allele. For example, the recessive trait short or
dwarfrf is rep
represented by t.
Genotype
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present in a gene. That is TT or Tt for tall genotypes, tt for short or dwarf genotype.
79
Phenotype
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Homozygote
hat form the
An individual contains only one allele of the allelic pair. Alleles that
nly one kind
homozygous allelic pair are the same (e.g., TT). A homozygote produces only in of
o
gamete.
Heterozygote
x
An individual contains one of each member of the allelic ic pair. Alleles
eles that form the
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gamete.
Pure breeding plants

generation.
Pure line animals

Mating sexually between thee hom
Patterns of inheritance
The breeding experiments
periments
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homozygous individuals
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uals (male and female) produces

ividuals
identity for many generations.
any gene
gener
study the inheritance of characteristics

ts are carried out to st
stud
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in sexually reproducing
ng plants and animals. There is a general pattern for describing the
ing
results of experiments. gamete fuses with female gamete to produce
ents. At fertilization, male game
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by using symbols
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80
For example: Monohybrid crosses

Let T = tall allele and t = dwarf or short allele for height
The capital letter is used for dominant allele and small letter is used for recessive
allele. Tall T and dwarf t are alleles for pea plant height.
x A cross between a homozygous tall (TT) and a homozygous dwarf (tt) parents arents
x
x A cross between a heterozygous
ous tal Bo
tall ((Tt)
T and a heterozygous
rozygous ttall (Tt) parents from F1
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D
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U FKDQFHV ,QWKHVHFRQGFURVVWKHR൵VSULQJPD\EH
in thee 3:1
1 ra
ratio but each fertilization is random so that the ratio may vary. In theory, a cross
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UHFHVVLYH 7KLVUHVXOWFDQEHUHVWDWHGDVWKHSUREDELOLW\RIDQ\R൵VSULQJVKRZLQJGRPLQDQW
height (tall) is 3/4 or 75% and recessive (dwarf) is 1/4 or 25%.
81
Review questions
1. Enumerate the types of asexual reproduction in plants and explain any two
with appropriate diagrams.
2. Define the term vegetative propagation with examples.
iagra
3. Explain how the bud grafting is carried out in plants with a suitable diagram.
4. What happens to the pollen grain before and after pollination?
5. Describe the process after pollination in plants.
1DPHWKHGL൵HUHQWW\SHVRIUHSURGXFWLRQLQDQLPDOV
7. State the parts and functions of female reproductive system m in human.an.
ductive system
8. Describe the parts with related functions in male reproductive tem of
x
human.
9. How many chromosomes would be in the nucleus us of
(a) human muscle cell
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(b) a mouse kidney cell
(c) human skin cell
(d) human sperm cell?
10. How many chromosomes would bee present in
(a) a mouse sperm cell
(b) a mouse ovum?
11. What is the basic unit off heredity?
heredi
12. What are the components ents of a nnucleo
nucleotide?
nous bases in DN
13. Name the nitrogenous DNA.
14. DNA exists as a double helix. Name the base bba pairs that hold the double helix
together.
BE
15. How many ny stages are involved in mitosis?
mitosis
16. Compareare the meiotic and mitotic cell ddivisions with diagrams.
mpare the significance
17. Compare signif icance of mitosi
signif mitosis versus meiosis.
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൵H
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is controlled
rolled by one pair of gegenes. Tall is dominant over dwarf. Choose the
suitable letters for the gen
gene pair.
D
82
Concept map
x
D
83
GLOSSARY
A in the cytoplasm near the nucleus in cells of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) A nucleotide most animals. It is involved in the process of
consisting of adenine, ribose sugar, and three nuclear division.
phosphate groups; ATP is the energy currency centromere A visible point of constriction on a
of cellular metabolism in all organisms. chromosome that contains repeated DNA
aerobic respiration Glucose and oxygen are
converted to carbon dioxide and water, centrosome Material present in the cytoplasm asm oof all
producing on average 38 ATP molecules per eukaryotic cells and important during cell
oxidized glucose molecule. division; also calleded microtubule-organizing
bule-organi
alimentary canal Pertaining to food or the digestive center.
x
tract. chaetae Bristles of chitin on each body segment that
anaphase The third stage of cell division, between help anchoror annelid worms
orms during locomotion.
locomoti
metaphase and telophase during which the chalaza The region of an ovule that is opposite
chromosomes move away from one another to the micropyle, where here the integuments an and
opposite poles of the spindle. nucellus
ucellus are jjoined.
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anus The terminal opening of the gut; the solid chemical
ical digestion Enzymatic breakdown oof ffood
residues of digestion are eliminated through chitin
itin A tough, resistant, nitrogen-c nitrogen-containing
the anus. polysaccharide that forms the ccell walls of
atom The smallest unit of an element that contains all exoskeleton of arthropods,
certain fungi, the exosk
the characteristics of that element. Atoms are and the epidermal cuticle
cut of other surface
the building blocks of matter. other invertebrates.
structures of certain oth
othe
B chlorophyll A green photosynthetic
photosy pigment found in
ELQDU\ ¿VVLRQ Asexual reproduction by y division of
o plants,, algae and ccyanobacteria.
one cell or body into two equall or nearly equa
equal chloroplast A cell-like
cell-lik organelle present in algae and
parts. plants that ccontains chlorophyll (and usually
C other pigments)
pigm and carries out photosynthesis.
caecum In vertebrates, a blind nd pouch at the beginnin
beginning lorosi An abnormal condition of plants in which
chlorosis
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of the large intestine.
ine. th green parts lose their color or turn yellow
the
calories Calories are a measurement of energy. One as a result of a lack of chlorophyll production
calorie is equivalent
uivalent to 4.18 kJ.
kJ due to disease, lack of light, etc.
carbohydrate Any ny of various neutral compounds of cholesterol A sterol which is made by the body and
ch
carbon, n, hydrogen, and oxygen (such as sugars, is found naturally in animal products such as
starches,
es, and celluloses) most of which
rches, whi arear meat, eggs, poultry and dairy foods.
formed by green en plants and which constitute
constit a
cons chromatid One of the two daughter strands of a
major class of animal foods. duplicated chromosome that is joined by a
cardiac
ardiac muscle The specialized striated striate muscle
striat single centromere.
tissue of the heart. chromatin A complex of DNA and protein found in
carti
cartilage A connective
nective tissue in i skeletons of eukaryotic cells.
D
v
vertebrates. chromosome A threadlike structure of nucleic acids
ell cycle The repeating
cell peatin sequence of growth and protein found in the nucleus of most living
through which cells pass each
and division throu
throug cells, carrying genetic information in the form
generation
generation. of genes.
cell wall The rigid, outermost layer of the cells of class A taxonomic category between phyla and
plants,
ts, some
lants, som protists, and most bacteria; the orders. A class contains one or more orders,
cell wall
wal surrounds the plasma membrane. and belongs to a particular phylum.
cellulose The chief constituent of the cell wall in coelom
all green plants, some algae, and a few other develops entirely within the mesoderm.
organisms. complementary Describes genetic information
centriole in which each nucleotide base has a
cylindrical-shaped organelle, typically located complementary partner with which it forms a
base-pair.
84
constipation A condition of prolonged gastrointestinal organisms including protists, fungi, plants,

transit time, making the stool hard, dry and and animals.
double fertilization The fusion of the egg and sperm
cotyledon The leaf of the embryo of a seed-bearing (resulting in a 2n fertilized egg, the zygote)
and the simultaneous fusion of the second
leaves of the seedling. male gamete with the polar nucleinucle (resulting
cuboidal epithelial Cuboidal epithelia are epithelial in a primary endosperm nucleus, which w is
cells having a cube-like shape; that is, their often triploid, 3n); a unique
nique characteristic
characteris of
width is approximately equal to their height. all angiosperms.
cuticle The noncellular, hardened or membranous duodenum In vertebrates, es, the upper portion
portio of the
protective covering of many invertebrates, small intestine.
such as the transparent membrane that covers E
x
annelids. embryo Stage of a multicellular organism anism that
cytokinesis Division of the cytoplasm of a cell after develops
ops from a zygote before it becomes
nuclear division. free-living;
e-living; in seed plants, the embryo is papart
p
cytoplasm The material within a cell, excluding the of the seed.
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nucleus; the protoplasm. endoplasmic
oplasmic reticulum (E (ER) Internal
ternal membrane
me
cytoskeleton !" system that forms a netlike array oof channels
and microtubules within the cytoplasm of a and interconnections within the cytoplasm of
eukaryotic cell that maintains the shape of the eukaryotic divided into rough
aryotic cells. The ER is di
cell, anchors its organelles, and is involvedvedd in (RER) and smooth (S (SER) compartments.
animal cell motility. energy
nergy level A discrete lev or quantum, of energy
ete level,
D that an electron iin an atom possesses. To
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) The genetic change
hange energy le levels, an electron must absorb
material of all organisms; composed of two or release energy.
elease ene
ener
complementary chains off nucleotides wound wo rotein molecules
enzymes Protein m which act as catalysts to
in a double helix. speed up chemical reactions. Enzymes in the
GHWR[L¿FDWLRQ The process ss of removing harmful
ess digestive process aid the breakdown of food
diges
chemicals from something. into nutrients which can then be absorbed by
in
BE
diploid Having two sets of chromosomes (2n); (2 in the body.
animals, twice
wice the number characteristic of epidermal tissue A single layer of cells that covers
ep
epi
gametes; s; in plants, the chromosome number !
characteristic
acteristic of the sporophyte generation; in It forms a boundary between the plant and the
contrast ((nn).
ntrast to haploid (n).
ontrast external environment.
domain (1) A distinct modular region of a protein p epithelium In animals, a type of tissue that covers an
that serves a particular function in the t action exposed surface or lines a tube or cavity.
of the protein, such as a regulatory
regulator domain or
regulato eukaryote A cell characterized by membrane
a DNA-binding domain. (2) In taxonomy, the bounded organelles, most notably the nucleus,
level higher
igher than kingdom. The T three domains and one that possesses chromosomes whose
currently recognized ar are Bacteria, Archaea, DNA is associated with proteins; an organism
D
and Eukarya.ya. composed of such cells.

domain archaea In the three-domain system of exoskeleton An external skeleton, as in arthropods.
taxonomy, the group that contains only the F
Archaea, a highly
hhi diverse group of unicellular family A taxonomic grouping of similar species
prokaryotes.
prokaryo
prokaryot above the level of genus.
domain n bacteria
ain bact
bac In the three-domain system of fertilization The fusion of two haploid gamete nuclei
taxonomy, the group that contains only to form a diploid zygote nucleus.
the Bacteria, a vast group of unicellular ¿UVW ¿OLDO )1) generation # $
prokaryotes. from a cross between a parental generation
domain eukarya In the three-domain system of (P).
taxonomy, the group that contains eukaryotic
85
G head groups are exposed to water, while the

gamete A haploid reproductive cell. hydrophobic fatty acid tails are pointed toward
gastrovascular cavity The primary organ of digestion the center of the membrane.
and circulation in two major animal phyla: the locus The position on a chromosome where a gene
Cnidaria % & ' is located.
Platyhelminthes % !' lysosome A membrane-bounded vesicle le containing
co
genetic code The biochemical basic of heredity digestive enzymes that is produced
roduced by the
consisting of codons in DNA and RNA that Golgi apparatus in eukaryotic tic cells.
M
proteins and appear to be uniform for nearly meiosis I #

)
)
all known forms of life. reduction division”
is referred to as a “reduction ivision” because
bec
glycoprotein ( ! hromosomess separate, and the
homologous chromosomes
x
Golgi complex by having a short sugar chain lls have only the haploid number
daughter cells
(polysaccharide) attached. somes.
of chromosomes.
glycosylation (Biochemistry) The process by which meiosis II Thee second round
ound of division in meiosis,
sugars are chemically attached to proteins to ing which thee two haploid cells fro
during from
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form glycoproteins. meiosis I undergo a mitosis-like division divi
Golgi apparatus (Golgi body) A collection of without DNA replication to produce produc four
produ
" cells
haploid daughter cells.
of eukaryotic cells; functions in collection, Process that take
metabolic processes Processes t place in
packaging, and distribution of molecules du
the cells and tissues during which energy is
synthesized in the cell. dioxid is produced and
dio
released and carbon dioxide
H bsorbed by the blood to
absorbed t be transported to the
haemoglobin A globular protein in vertebrate vertebr lungs.
red blood cells and in the plasma sma of many
man metaphase The he stage oof mitosis or meiosis during
invertebrates that carries oxygenygen and carbon microtu
which microtubules become organized into a
dioxide. spindle and the chromosomes come to lie in
haploid Having only one set off chromosomes
chromosom (n),(n), in spind
the spindle’s equatorial plane.
contrast to diploid (2n).). crotu
microtubule In eukaryotic cells, a long, hollow
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histone A small protein inn with high proportion of pr
pro
protein cylinder, composed of the protein
positively charged
rged amino acid that binds to the )
negatively charged DNA and plays a key role chromosomes in cell division, and provide
in its chromatin
romatin structure the functional internal structure of cilia and
hydrolytic enzyme A catalyst that acts like a
hydrolase.
drolase. microvillus Cytoplasmic projection from epithelial
I cells; microvilli greatly increase the surface
integument
egument An integument is a protective cell c layer area of the small intestine.
surrounding the ov ovule. mitochondrion The organelle called the powerhouse
inter
interphase The period between two tw mitotic or of the cell.
sions in which a cell grows and its
meiotic divisions mitosis Somatic cell division; nuclear division in
D
DNA replicates.
DN which the duplicated chromosomes separate
L to form two genetically identical daughter
lesion A lesion is any damage
dam or abnormal change in nuclei.
he tissue of an organism, usually caused by
the murein Any of several polymers containing sugars
disease trauma.
ase or trau
tra and amino acids which help to make up the
lignin A highly
ighly bbranched polymer that makes plant cell walls of certain bacteria.
cell walls more rigid; an important component N
of wood. necrosis The death of a plant cell or group of
lipid bilayer The structure of a cellular membrane, cells while the rest of the plant is still alive,
in which two layers of phospholipids particularly when the dead tissue becomes
spontaneously align so that the hydrophilic dark in colour.
86
nervous tissue Tissue composed of neurons. phenotype The realized expression of the genotype;
notochord In chordates, a dorsal rod of cartilage the physical appearance or functional
that runs the length of the body and forms the expression of a trait.
primitive axial skeleton in the embryos of all phloem In vascular plants, a food-conducting
chordates. tissue basically composed of sieve elements,
nucellus The nucellus is part of the inner structure of "
ovule, forming a layer of diploid (sporophytic) sclereids.
cells immediately inside the integuments. phospholipid Molecules that constitute the inner
nuclear energy The energy released when the bilayer of biological cal membranes,
ranes, having
havi
smallest particles (called atoms) of a substance a polar, hydrophilic ilic head andnd a nonpolar,
n
break apart or fuse together; also known as hydrophobic tail.
atomic energy. lants, a growth
phototropism In plants, wth response to a light
x
nuclear membrane The double-layered membrane stimulus.
enclosing the nucleus of a cell. Also called phylogeny The he evolutionary
onary history of an organism,
nuclear envelope. cluding which
including ch species are closely related and an
nuclear pore Each nuclear pore is a large complex in what orderr related species evolved; often
Bo
of proteins that allows small molecules and eevolu
represented in the form of an evolutionary
$ tre
tree.
the nucleus. phylu A major category, between kingdom and
phylum
nucleic acid A nucleotide polymer; chief types pes +

are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which ich is ab
pigment A molecule that absorbs light.
double stranded, and ribonucleic acid (RNA), placenta !
lacenta

which is typically single-stranded. oov
wall to which the ovules or seeds are attached.
nucleolus The nucleolus is the largest structure
structur in the plankton ,

! "
nucleus of eukaryotic cells. motile
tile aquatic plants and animals.
nucleoplasm The nucleoplasm m is a type of plasma membra
membrane
embr The membrane surrounding
protoplasm, and is enveloped
veloped by the nuclear
nuclea the cyto
cytoplasm of a cell; consists of a single
envelope. phosp
phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
nucleotide A single unit it of nucleic
leic acid, composed
com plum
plumule The epicotyl of a plant with its two young
BE
of a phosphate,
te,, a 5-carbon sugar (either ribose leaves.
or deoxyribose),
bose), and a purine or a pyrimidi
pyrimidine. pollen tube A tube formed after germination of the
po
pol
O pollen grain; carries the male gametes into the
order

ovule.
family
amily
mily and below that of class. pollination The transfer of pollen from an anther to

organ

$ a stigma.
tissues grouped in a structural and functional
f polyp A typically sessile, cylindrical body form
unit. found in cnidarian animals, such as hydras.
orga
organelle Specialized part of a cell; lliliterally, a small prophase The phase of cell division that begins when
cytoplasmic
asmic organ.
org the condensed chromosomes become visible
ova (1) In animals,
ovary nimals, the orgaorgan in which eggs are and ends when the nuclear envelope breaks
D
%*'!
%*'' ! down. The assembly of the spindle takes place
basal portion of o a carpel that contains the during prophase.
ovule(s); the ov ovary matures to become the protein A chain of amino acids joined by peptide
fruit. bonds.
P R
parthenogenesis
enogene
nogen Plants or animals developed from radial symmetry A type of structural symmetry with
seed or ovum without fertilization by pollen or a circular plan, such that dividing the body or
spermatozoan. structure through the midpoint in any direction
pharynx A muscular structure lying posterior to the yields two identical sections.
mouth in many animals; aids in propelling radicle The part of the plant embryo that develops
food into the digestive tract. into the root.
87
rhizome In vascular plants, a more or less horizontal thallus A type of body found among plants and fungi
underground stem; may be enlarged for storage $
or may function in vegetative reproduction. leaves.
S tropism Response to an external stimulus.
VHFRQG¿OLDO )2) generation # $ turgor pressure The internal pressure inside a plant
! cell, resulting from osmotic intake ke oof water,
%-1) generation. that presses its cell membranee tightly against
ag
semipermeable Allowing some substances to pass; the cell wall, making thee cell rigid. Also Al
permeable to smaller molecules but not to known as hydrostatic pressure. sure.
larger ones, as a membrane in osmosis. V
seta In an annelid, bristles of chitin that help anchor vacuole A membrane-bound bound organelle
nelle which is
the worm during locomotion or when it is in lant and fungal
present in all plant gal cells and some
x
its burrow. protist, animal al and bacterial cells.
somatic cell Any of the cells of a multicellular variegated .
$
$

organism except those that are destined to marks.
form gametes (germ-line cells). issue The conducting
vascular tissue nducting tissue in the plaplan
plant
Bo
spore A haploid reproductive cell, usually unicellular, conduct
and consists of xylem (water conduction) and
capable of developing into an adult without phloem (food conduction) tissue.tiss
fusion with another cell. itamin An organic substance that cannot
vitamin c be
stoma In plants, a minute opening bordered by guard par
synthesized by a particular o
organism but
cells in the epidermis of leaves and stems; is required in small amou amounts for normal
water passes out of a plant mainly through h the metaboli function.
metabolic
stomata. X
stroma In chloroplasts, the semiliquid substance
substa xylem In vascular plants, plants
plant a specialized tissue,
that surrounds the thylakoid system stem and that
th composedsed primarily
primar of elongate, thick-walled
contains the enzymes needed ed to assemble ting cells,
conducting cel which transports water and
ce
organic molecules from CO2. thro
solutes through the plant body.
synergids Part of the egg apparatus
aratus and are thought Z
to help the pollen nucleus
ucleus reach
ach the egg cell
c ote The
zygote T diploid
d (2n) cell resulting from the fusion
BE
for fertilization. of male and female gametes (fertilization).
T
telophase The phasease of cell division during which the
spindle breaks down, the nuclear envelope of
each daughter
aughter cell forms, and the chromosomes

$
$
D
88
REFERENCES
Bradfield P. and S. Potter. 2017. Edexcel International GCSE (9-1) Biology. Student
Book.United Kingdom.
Campbell, N. A., L. A. Urry, M. L. Cain, S. A. Wassermans, P. V. Minorsky and J. B. Reece.
2018. Biology A Global Approach (Eleventh Edition). Pearson arson Company,
Co
England.
Damon A., R. Mcgonegal, P. Tosto and W. Ward. 2014. Higher Level evel Biology
ogy (Second
(Secon
(S
Edition). Supporting Every Learner Across the IB Continum. tinum. Pearson
arson Edu
Education
Limited.
x
Jones, M. and G. Jones. 2010. Cambridge IGCSE Biology Coursebook (Second Edition). Edition).
Cambridge University, United Kingdom.
Jones M., R. Fosbery, J. Gregory and D. Taylor. 2014. Cambridge idge International AS and
aan
ALevel Biology Coursebook (Fourth Edition). dition). United
dition) ited Kingdom.
Bo
Leong, W., 2008. 2¶/HYHO&ODVVL¿HG6FLHQFH%LRORJ\.LRORJ\.. Singapore Asian Public
LRORJ\ Publicati
Publications (S)
Pte Ltd.
Raven P. H. and G. B. Johnson. 2002. Biologylogy (Sixth Edition).
Edition). New York.
Reece J. B., L., A. Urry, M. L. Cain, S.. A.. Wassermans, P. V. Minorsky
Minors and a R. B. Jakson.
2011. Campbell Biology (Ninth Edition) tion).. United States of
Edition). o America.
A
Richard, Y.K., 2015. STPM Text, t, Biology.
Biology. Term 1.. Kuan Press Sdn.
Bio Sdn Bhd.
Richard, Y.K., 2015. STPM Text,ext, Biology.
Biology. Term 2. Herald
Biolo erald Printers
Print
Printe Sdn. Bhd.
White, P.J. and P.H. Brown. n. 2010.
201 Plant nutrition for sustainable
sus
su development and
global health.. Annals of botany, 105(7),
105(7 1073-1080.doi:10.1093/aob/mcq
1073-10 085
rriculum,
iculum, Syllabus and Textbook
Basic Education Curriculum, Textbo Committee.
Co 2018-2019. BIOLOGY
BE
Grade 9.. The Government
vernment of the Republic
Republi of the Union of Myanmar, Ministry
Repub
ducation.
of Education.
ation Curriculum, Syllabus and Textbook
Basic Education Tex
Te Committee. 2018-2019. BIOLOGY
10. The Government of the
Grade 10. th Republic of the Union of Myanmar, Ministry
of Education.
D
89

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TEXTBOOK BIOLOGY GRADE 10

1.1.1 The Importance of Biology in Everyday eryday Life

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1.1.3 Characteristics of Living Things

All living things consist of the llivin

protoplasm which forms

favourable. A plant may grow very

1.2.1 versity of Organisms

1.2.2 T Taxonomy my in the Study of Biology

1.2.3 The Importance of Taxonomy

by other taxonomic ranks of division

phylum, class,, order,

1.3.1 Kingdoms of Living Things

Table 1.1 Characteristics

Table 1.1 Characteristics of six kingdoms (continued)

Figure 1.2 An influenza virus

4. They are parasites and causing diseases in plants and animals.

1.3.2 Kingdom Protista

Table 1.2 Divisions/Phyla of pprotists

Table 1.2 Divisions/Phyla of protists (continued)

1.3.3 Kingdom Fungi

Table 1.3 Divisions oof fun

Table 1.3 Divisions of fungi (continued)

Table 1.4 Divisions of plantae

Table 1.4 Divisions of plantae (continued)

1.3.5 Kingdom Animalia

up more than 95 percent of all animalBo

Table 1.5 Major phyla of invertebrates

- Two cell layers only; ectoderm and

Table 1.5 Major phyla of invertebrates (continued)

Platyhelminthes - Bilateral symmetry

Table 1.5 Major phyla of invertebrates (continued)

Arthropoda - Bilateral symmetry with jointed

Echinodermata - Bilateral symmetry in embryo o and rad

- Tube feet present

Phylum Chordata (Vertebrata)

- Water vascular system present

shes, sea urchins, sea

with three cell layers (ectoderm, mesoderm

Table 1.6 Major

Table 1.6 Major groups of vertebrates (continued)

Birds - Vertebrates with feathers and beak

2.1.1 The Cell Theory

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nciples of the cell theory are:

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Figure 2.1 Prokaryotic

Figure 2.2 Eukaryotic cell: a plant cell

2.2 EUKARYOTIC CELL L STRUCTURE

2.2.2 Cell Components

Cell wall Outside

Cell membrane (Plasma membrane) - Aroun Phospholipid

Cytoplasm - Outside of - Jelly like

Lysosome - Inside the sacs

Ribosome - Some are - Tiny

Chloroplast - Present in - Large organelle

Plasmodesmata - Only in - Fine strands

Table 2.2 Summarized

2.2.3 Cell Organization

(A) Plant tissues

Figure 2.4 Types of tissue sy

organ in plants as compared to animals.

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