The Hausa Language An Encyclopedic Reference Grammar PrdThe Hausa Language An Encyclopedic Reference Grammar Paul Newman Yale University Press New Haven & LondonCopyright ©2000 by Yale University Press All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publishers. Printed in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Newman, Paul, 1937- The Hausa language : an encyclopedic reference grammar / Paul Newman. p. cm.-- (Yale language series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-300-08 189-8 (alk. paper) 1. Hausa language--Grammar. I.Title. II. Series. PL8232 .N43 2000 493°.725--de21 99-054069 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources. 10987654321Contents List of Tables and Figure: Preface Symbols and Abbreviations a Glossary of Hausa Words Untranslated in Examples XXXIX Maps .. Introduction 1. History of Hausa Linguistics 2. Recent Pedagogical Works on Hausa 3. Data Sources for the Grammar. 4. Transcription System ...... 5. Organization of the Grammar 1. Abstract Nouns (Derived)..... 1. Segmental Shape of the Abstract Suffixe: 1.1. With disyllabic stems... 1.2. With polysyllabic stems . 2. Tone... 2.1. The suffix -entt 2.2. The suffix -taka)LHL 2.3. The suffix -ta ....... 3. Abutting Consonant Adjustments . 4. Special Forms of the Bas 5. Alternative Forms 2. Abstract Nouns of Sensory Quality and Their Derivatives. 1, ANSQs.... 1.1. Attenuation om 2. Derived Adjectives of Sensory Quality (DASQ) 3. Derived Verbs of Sensory Quality (DVSQ) 3. Adjectival Past Participles 1. Form... 2. Use 3. Expansion 4. Adjectives 1. Introduction .. 2. Morphological Classes of Adjectives 2.1. Simple adjectives 2.2. Derived adjective: 2.2.1. Agential adjective: 2.2.2. Ethnonymic adjectives 2.2.3. Adjectival past participle:Vii 5. Adverbs...... 6. Afterthought (Right Dislocation) 7. Agent, Location, and Instrument (ma- Forms Contents 2.2.4. Derived adjectives of sensory quality 2.2.5. Augmentative adjectives . 2.2.6. Diminutive adjectives . 2.2.7. H-L reduplicated ideophonic adjectives 2.2.8. LL-HL reduplicated adjectives ... 2.2.9. Reduplicated adjectives (‘X-like’) 2.3. Attenuated reduplicated adjectives (‘-ish” 2.3.1. ANSQs.. 2.4. Compound adjectives. 3. Syntax ...... 3.1. Predicate adjectives. 3.2. Attributive adjectives 3.2.1. Alternative word orders 3.2.2. Strictly post-nominal adjectives... 3.2.3. Gender/number agreement with conjoined NP: 3.2.4. Headless adjectives 3.3. The “quality-with-pronoun” construction 4. Comparative/Superlative 1. Introduction . 2. Basic/Simple Adverbs 2.1. Spatial... 2.2. Temporal.......... 2.3. Deictics: Both spatial and temporal 2.3.1. Form... 2.3.2. Meaning. 2.4. Manner, intensity, and other miscellaneous adverbs 3. Derived Adverbs .... 3.1. Denominal adverbs . 3.2. Deverbal statives .. 4. Reduplication ...... 4.1. Strengthening 4.2. Attenuation... 4.3. Distributives .... 5. Prepositional Phrases . 5.1. Spatial 5.2. Tempor: 5.3. Manner . 5.4. Instrumental 6. Nonprepositional Phrasal Adverbs 7. Compounds .. 8. Even..... 9. A Little / A Lot / Entirely. 10. Exactly ... 11. Especial: 1. Agent (ma-...-1) 0.00.0...Contents ix 1.2, Verb stems with -TA. 1.3. Meaning .. 1.4. Gender restrictions .... 1.5. Productivity and alternatives 1.6. Agent nouns with objects ..... 1.6.1. Full-form agentives with objects 1.6.2. Plural agentives with objects... 1.6.3. Short-form agentives with objects . 1.7. Adjectival usage... 2. Location (ma-...-4 / ma. 3. Instrument (ma-...-1) 4, Frozen ma- Forms.. 8. Apposition... 1, Introduction .. 2. Weak Pronouns ... 3. Emphatic Reflexives . 4, Prenominal Possessives 5. ‘Kind of? Phrases....... 6. Unit Measures .... 7. Pronouns with Numeral: 9. Aspectual Verbs 1. Introduction .. 2. Indirect Objects 3. TAM 4. The Embedded Complement and yi Deletion . 5. Deletion of Full Verbs in the Embedded Clause. 6. Stacking of AVs..... 7. Subjunctive Complements 10. Associated Characteristics (Suffix -au) 1. Group 1 2. Group 2 3. Group 3 4. Group 4 5. Group 5 6. Group 6 7. Group 7 .... 11. Augmentatives and Diminutives 1. Augmentative Adjectives .... 1.1. Augmentative-1 (A & B forms’ 1.1.1. Augmentative-1b: The B-form -eCa HL 1.1.2. Plurals -4 x 2)1-L.,,, 1.1.3. Augmentative-la: The A-form -1) 1.2. Augmentative-2: The C-form -1)-HLH 2. Related Derivations 2.1. Exclamations.. 2.2. Ideophonic qualifiers. 3. Diminutive Adjectives .x Contents 12. Causatives (and Related Formations) 1, Causatives .... 1.1. Causatives with finite clause complements .. 1.1.1. Negation 1.1.2, Adverbs . 1.1.3. Q-word questions .. 1.1.4. Relativization, focus, and topicalization 1.2. Causatives with NP complements. 2. Permissives and Prohibitives 2.1. Permissives 2.2. Prohibitives ... 1.1. Cognate accusative with modifier. 1.1.1. Focus and relativizatio 1.2. Cognate accusative with numeral 2. Cognate Accusative Type 2 (Direct Object) 2.1. Cognate accusative-2 plus cognate accusative-1 3. Cognate Accusative Type 3 (na + VN) 14, Comparison .... 1. Comparison at a Higher Degree. 1.1. Adverbial comparison... 1.2. Agentive and stative phrases. 1.3. Other ‘exceed’ verbs ....... 2. Comparison at an Equal Degree 3. Comparison at a Lower Degree 4. Clausal Comparison 15. Complementation .. 1. VP Complements ... 1.1. ‘That’ complements 1.2. ‘To’ complements 2. Propositional Complement 2.1. Kinds of complement-taking expressions (CTEs: 2.2. Negation....... 2.3. Question words, focus, topicalizatio: 2.3.1. Constituents in the CP. 2.3.2. The CP .. 2.3.3. The CTE 2.4. Yes/No questions 16. Compounds. 1. External: Part of Speech 2. Internal Structure of CompounOe Contents xi 2.1. Noun-linked compounds (N.L + N)..... 2.2. Adjective-Noun compounds (Adj.L + N) 2.3. V + X compounds ...... 23.1. Special L-tone compound form. 2.3.2. Imperative verb form 2.3.3. Infinitives 2.4. Phrasal compounds . 2.5. Juxtaposed compound: 2.6. Agentive compounds... 2.7. Sentential compounds 1. Regular Conditionals 1.1. Formation 1.2. Meaning ... 2. Counterfactual Conditionals 2.1, Formation 2.2, Meaning .. 3. Concessive Conditionals 3.1. Formation 3.2. Meaning 4. Hypothetical Concessive Conditionals 5. Universal (Indefinite) Concessive Conditionals 6. Concessives 18. Conjunctions . 1. Basic Coordinating Conjunctions 2. The Words haf and sai 3. Subordinating Conjunctions .. 19. Coordination ..... 1, NP Coordination 1.1. And... 1.1.1. Ellipsis in coordinate phrases. 1.1.2. Asymmetric coordination .. 1.1.3. Concord phenomena .. 1.2. Or 1.3. But 2. Coordination of Sentences 2.1.1. TAM deletion...xii Contents 2.1.2. Reduction of repeated NPs. 20. Definite Article. 1. Form... 2. Double Definite Articles 21. Demonstratives and Determiners 1. The wa- Words... 1.1. Definite (deictic) demonstratives 1.1.1. Short-form definite demonstratives 1.1.2. Short-form and long-form definite demonstratives contrasted .. 1.2. Interrogative demonstratives . 1.3. Relative pronouns. 1.4. Specific indefinite demonstratives 1.5. Unspecified pronouns ... 2. Pronouns as Determiners/Specifiers 3. Isolator.... 22. Deverbal Nouns 1. DVNs with Verbal Noun Morphology, 1.1. Weak VNs.... 1.2. Stem-derived VN: 1.3. Base-derived VN: 13.1.4 . -& (variable gender) 2. DVNs without Regular Verbal Noun Morphology 2.1. DVNs with -iya and -uwé.... 2.2. DVNs with -@)HL 2.3. DVNs with -k6... 23, Equational Sentences 1. Basic Structure ... 2. Identificational Sentences .... 3. Alternative Have Expressions .. 4, Pleonastic Independent Pronouns 5. Resumptive Independent Pronouns .. 6. Concord 7. Negation 8. Omission of the Stabilizer. 8.1. Names, times, places, occupations, numbers .. 8.2, Exclamatory expressions 8,3, Reduction of multiple stabilizers 9. Position of the Stabilizer 9.1. Focus .. 9.1.1. Focusing of the 9.1.2. Question words .Contents — xiii 9.2. Heavy predicate shift 24. Ethnonyms 1. Basic Form and Meaning (ba-) 2. Alternative Constructions 3. The -awa Suffix 3.1. Plural ethnonyms 3.2. Singular/plural asymmetry .. 3.3. Followers of .. 3.4. Toponyms . 4. Adjectives........ 4.1. Plural of adjectival ethnonym: 4.2. Common nouns from adjectival ethnonyms 25. Exclamations / Interjections...... 1. Nonderived Lexical Exclamations 2. Derived Exclamations -)HL@) ,, 26. Existential and Other Nonverbal Sentences . 1. Existential Sentences 1.1. Existentials expressing attribute: 1.2. Negative 1.2.1. Times and numbers .. 1.2.2. Negative-HAVE ........ 1.2.3. The ba X ba Y construction 2. Presentational Sentences 3. Qualitative Sentences. 4. Rather Sentences... 27. Expressives of Contempt 1. Introduction ............ 2. Form..... 2.1. Basic formation 2.2. Compounds and phrases 2.3. Consonant-final words 2.4. Nasal-final words 2.5. Monosyllabic words 2.6. Palatal(ized) consonants. 2.7. Prepausal glottal stop .. 28. Focus .... 1. Introduction...... 2. Form and Structure 2.1. Focus with sai 2.2. Equational sentence: 3. Focus from Lower Clause . 4. Role of the Focused Element 5. Negation and Focus 6. Pseudo-Cleft Sentence: 29. Frequentatives....... 1. Form. 2. Function 2.1. Plurals of common nouns..xiv Contents 2.2. Repeated action verbal nouns ...... 30. Games and Activities (Nominal Derivation) . 31. Gender... 1. Intrinsic Gender 1.1. Lexically specific . 1.1.1. Variation 1.2. Set gender classes..... 1.2.1. Geographical locations 1.2.2. Months and days of the week. 1.2.3. Prayer times ....... 1.2.4. Temporal and other adverbial nouns 1.2.5. Adverbs and prepositional phrases . 1.2.6. Numerals 1.2.7. Letters of the alphabet 1.2.8. Abbreviations and acronyms 1.2.9. Infinitives, verbal noun phrases, and whole sentences 2. Phonological Marking . oe 3. Gender Marking: Derivation and Inflection.. 3.1. The feminine suffix {-a} 3.2. The feminine suffix {-iya} 3.3. The feminine suffix {-nya} 4, Overt Characterization (Historical) 32. Grammatical Agreement 1. Stabilizer 2. Linker... 3. Definite Article 4. Personal Pronouns... 5. Demonstratives and Nonpersonal Pronouns 6. Adjectiv 7. Diminutive 8. Dependent Heads. 9. MAI and Related Items ....... 10. Absence of Gender Concord 33. HAVE Sentences... 1. Formation (Affirmative) 2. Negative-HAVE 3. Meaning and Function. 3.1. Possession ..... 3.2. Predicative qualities .... 3.3. “Tough” and “quick” constructions 3.3.1. “Tough construction” 3.3.2. “Quick construction”. 4, Other Means of Expressing Have 34. Historical Sound Laws ........ 1. Changes Affecting Consonant: 11. *r > y/i.... 1,2. Initial *O > ° andh 1.3. The sequence diy > ’y ..... 197 200Contents xv 1.4. Word-final *N > @.. 1.5. Klingenheben’s Law . 1.5.1. Syllable-final velars 1.5.2. Syllable-final labials .. 1.5.3. Syllable-final coronal: 1.6. Law of Codas in Reduplication 1.6.1. Gemination...... 1.6.2. Rhotacism ....... 2. Changes Affecting Vowels .. 2.1. Medial *1 > @ and *@ > 6 2.1.1. Synchronic alternations 2.2. Lowering of final *a > 6 2.3. Monophthongization of *iu and *ui 3. Changes Affecting Tone . 3.1. Monosyllabic H > F by tone bending 3.2. Low-tone raising (LTR). ..........-+. 35. Ideophones ... 1. Phonology . 1.1. Distinctiveness .. 1.1.1. Consonant-final . 1.1.2. Diphthongs . 1.1.3. L-L long .. 1.1.4, Vowel peculiarities 1.1.5. Tone in reduplication 1.2. Canonical shapes....... 1.2.1. CVC 1.2.2. CVjiCV 1.2.3. CVjCCV iC 1.2.4. CVVCVC 1.2.5. CVjCj VjCj 1.2.6. CVViC] VViCjVV; 1.2.7. CVjCCjViCKCiViCk 1.2.8. CVCCVC x 2)FL 1.2.9. CVjCV; x 2... 1.2.10. Base x 2)L-H 1.2.11. CVCVV x 2)? ,, 1.2.12. Polysyllabic all L.. 1.2.13. Miscellaneous . 2. Function and Use...... 2.1. Adverbials 2.1.1. VP modifiers . 2.1.2. Specifiers / Intensifiers 2.2. Adjectivals 2.3. Nominals 2.3.1. Pseudonominals.. 2.3.2, Ideophones in other nominal slots. 3. Fixed Collocations .... 4. Synchronic Cognates 230 230 230 231 233 . 250 253 253xvi Contents 5. Intonation (Key Raising, Register Shift) 6. Ideophonic Nouns (Sounds and Movements’ 6.1. Related reduplicated ideophones with the shape Base x ait 36. Idiomatic Phrasal Verbs 37. Imperative..... 1. Introduction ....... 2. The Form of the Imperative 2.1. Basic L-H pattern . 2.2. Grade 2 verbs... 2.2.1. A-form with final - 2.2.2. B-form with pronoun object: 2.3. Monosyllabic and H-H gr0 verbs 2.3.1. A-form. 23.2. C-form 2.3.3. B-form 2.3.4. D-form: 2.4, Grade 1 and grade 4 verbs. 2.4.1. A-form and B-form 2.4.2. D-form... 2.4.3. C-form.... I. 2.5. Short-form grade 5 verbs 2.6. Polysyllabic grade 3 verbs 2.7. Verbs go and come........ 38. Impersonal 1. Form... 2. Function 2.1. Normal uses of the impersonal 2.2. Oblique Impersonal Construction 2.2.1. Anomalous plurality 2.2.2. Persons 2.2.3. Animacy ............ 2.2.4. Tense/aspect, negation, questions 2.2.5. Sequence of clauses . 2.2.6. Topic, focus, and relativization 2.2.7. Reflexives . 2,2.8. Semantics and pragmatics of the OIC. 39. Indirect Objects ... sesane 1. Form: Nonpronominal Indirect Objects. 1.1. Usual SH forms... 1.2. Dialectal forms .. 1.3. The verb give. 2. Form: Personal Pronoun Indirect Objects. 3. Close Bonding of Verb and IOM 4. The Strict Verb Requirement..... 4.1. yi deletion... 5. Pre-I.O. Verb Forms (The D-form) 5.1. The D-form: Most verbs ..... 5.2. The D-form: Grade 0 Ci verbsContents — xvii 5.3. Clipped forms... 5.4. The pre-dative suffix (pds), 6. Grade Shift 282 283 284 40. Infinitives and Gerundives 1. Infinitive Phrases 1.1, Object requirement for infinitives 1.2. The continuous TAMs 2. Gerundives . 3. Gender .. 41. Languages and Attributes . 1. Form... 2. Meaning . 2.1. Languages 2.2. Attributes «0... 2.3. Adjectival disectionals 42. Linguistic Play .. 1. Play on Words 2. Language Games 2.1. Suffixatio 2.2. Prefixation 2.3. Syllable permutation . 43. Linker... seseseseiee 1. Free Linker. 1.1. Form 1.1.1. Free linker with short vowel 1.1.2. Prefixal linker with long vowel (independent possessive pronouns) 1.2. Use 1.2.1. Non-adjacent possessor .. 1.2.2. Headless possessor... 1.2.3. Ordinal numerals... 1.2.4. Alternative to the clitic . 1.2.5. Loanwords....... 2. Bound Linker with Zero Vowel 2.1. Allomorphs (-n / -F 2.1.1, Gender conflict in the form of the linker with compound: 2.1.2. Enclitic short vowel linkers 2.1.3. Form of the noun to which the linker is attached . 2.1.4. Consonant-final words before the linker: Insertion of an epenthetic vowel 2.1.5. The connector di 2.1.6. Word-final /n/ .... 2.2.1. Possessives .. 2.2.2. Miscellaneous N of N 2.2.3, Part of..... 2.2.4. Quantity of .xviii Contents 2.2.5. Genitive prepositions . 2.2.6. Diminutives, persons of . 2.2.7. Compounds ...... 2.2.8. Prenominal adjectives 2.2.9. Object genitives 2.2.10. Subject genitives 44, Loanwords.........41 1. Source of Loanwords 1.1. English 1.2. French 1,3, Arabi 1.4. Fulani 2. Incorporation of Loanwords........... 2.1. Phonological adjustment of loanwords 2.1.1. Segmental replacement of consonant phonemes 2.1.2. Avoidance of word-final consonants 2.1.3. Elimination of consonant clusters .... 2.1.4. Tone assignment .... 2.2. Phonological impact of loanword: 2.3. Gender of loanwords .. 2.3.1. Natural gender. 2.3.2. Analogy 2.3.3. Phonological patterning 45, MAI and MARAS . 1. MAT ..... 1.1. Modifiers .. 1.2. Derivative noun phrases 1.3. Continuity in past....... 2. MARAS... 46. Modal Particles... 1. Introduction 2. Inventory - Multiple Modal Particle: . Syntactic Position of Occurrence 4.1. Verbal sentences 4.2. Indirect objects .. 4.3. Question words......... 4.4. Existential and presentational sentences 4.5. Topicalization ........Contents xix 4.6. Complementation 4.7. Within an NP... 4.8. Adverbials and exclamations 333 2.1. Variant with gemination .. 3. Comparison of Mutuality-1 and Mutuality-2. 48. Names (Proper Nouns)..............-. 1. Personal Names 1.1. Birth names (stinan yanka). 1.2. Gender.. 1.3. Short forms. 1.4, Plurals of names 1.5. Everyday names: Morphophonological shape 1.5.1. Vowel shortening of common nouns 15.2. Suffix -au 1.5.3. The genitive na/ta + N 1.5.4. The formative mai+N . 1.5.5. Compounds with dan 15.6. Verb-based compounds 1.6. Everyday names: Semantic/pragmatic characteristics .. 1.6.1. Day names... 1.6.2. Names relating to other times 1.6.3. Names relating to birth sequence and related events 1.6.4. Names relating to physical features 1.6.5. Names derived from titles, occupations, and kin terms 1.6.6. Names indicating ethnicity or place of origin 1.6.7, Names with fixed associations. 1.7. Nicknames... 1.8. Hypocoristics 1.8.1. Suffixal reduplication 1.8.2. Suffix -:tyLHH 1.8.3. Suffix -alo)H = ala 1.8.4. Suffix (-e)H 1.8.5. Suffix -()le 1.8.6. Suffix -ndi 1.8.7. Suffix (-awa)-H 1.8.8. Double hypocoristics . 1.9. Sumames 1.10. Titles 1.10.1. Tone change H-L > L-L 1.10.2. Vowel shortening ..... 1.10.3. Lack of final vowel 1.10.4. No change ........ 1.10.5. Titles vs. compound: 2. Place Names..... 2.1. Unanalyzable names ..xx Contents 2.2. Analyzable names 2.2.1, Common noun name: 2.2.2. Derivatives with the suffix -awa 2.2.3. Derivatives with locational m: 2.2.4. Compounds with dan /’yan.. 2.2.5. Adjective + noun compounds. 2.2.6. Noun of noun compounds 2.3. Foreign names 3. Temporal Names 49. Negation ...... 1. Negative with TAMs other than the Continuous and Subjunctive (ba@. 2. Negative in the Continuous (ba) ... 3. Negative of Existential and HAVE Sentences (baba / ba) 4. Negative of Equational Sentences, NPs, Adverbs (ba...ba) . 4.1. Predicate negation 4.2. Adverbs, prepositional phrases, NPs 4.3. Sentence negation. 4.4. Negation and focus .. 5. Prohibitive Marker used in nthe Subjunctive ‘(kada/kat) 50. Noun Derivation by Affixation: An Overview 1, Abstract Nouns.... 2. Languages/Attributes .. 3. Agent/Location/Instrument 3.1. Agent: ma-... 3.2. Location: ma- 3.3. Instrumer 4. Ethnonyms ... 5. Abstract Nouns of Sensory Quality (ANSQ’ 6. Mutuality ..... 6.1. Subtype mutuality-1: -ayya)LHL sees 6.2. Subtype mutuality-2: -éCeniya)/-HHLH 7. Sounds and Movement.. 7.1. Related ideophones . 8. Systems/Eras....... 9. Associated Characteristics 10. Games and Activities 51. Noun Phrase: Structure and Word Orde 1. The Head 2. Prenominal Elements . 2.1. Specifiers ..... 2.2. Adjectives... 3. Postnominal Elements 3.1. Postnominal specifiers 3.1.1. Definite article .... 3.1.2. Demonstrative determiners 3.1.3. Possessives .. 3.1.4. Numerals and ‘other quantifiers . 3.2. Postnominal modifiers .......Contents — xxi 3.2.1. Adjectives sees 3.2.2. The words indicating ‘different (kinds)’ 3.2.3. Genitival nouns .... oe 3.2.4. The MAI construction (and its negative counterparts). 3.2.5. The comparative modifier construction 3.2.6. Prepositional phrases 3.2.7. Stative phrases .. 3.2.8. Relative clauses 3.2.9. The wai construction §2, Noun Subcategorization....... 1. Nondynamic 1.1. Concrete nouns... 1,2. Abstract nouns .. sees 374 374 374 374 375 375 375 376 376 .377 377 377 53. Numerals and Other Quantifiers 1, Numerals ....... 1.1. Cardinal numbers . 1.2. Enumerators . 1.3. Distributives . 1.4, Nouns with numerals (and other quantifiers) 1.5. Numerals with pronouns ........ 1.6. Word order with attributive quantifiers 1.7. Unit measures with noncount nouns . 1.8. Numerals as equational predicates .. 1.9. Coordination and numerals . 1.10. Ordinals... 1.11. Times/multiples ..... 1.12. Modifying/emphasizing numerals 1.13. Numerals as nouns 1.14. Numerals as pro-form: 2. All... 2.1. Determiner 2.2. Pronoun . 2.3. Adverbial . 3. Other Quantifiers. 54. Phonology... 1. Phonological Inventory 1.1. Consonants 1.1.1. The two R’s 1.1.2. Glides/semivowels 1.1.3. Geminates . 1.2. Vowels 1.2.1. Vowel length .... 1.2.2. Half-long vowels with glottal stop. 1.2.3. Diphthongs 1.3. Tone .......... 2. Syllable Structure and Phonotactic Constraints 2.1. Coda consonants ww eMContents 2.1.1. Nasal diphthongs. 3. Syllable Weight 3.1. Falling tone 3.2. Canonical shape. 3.3. Rhythmic weight polarit 3.4. Syliable weight and tone 4, Word Structure 4.1. Number of syllables 4.2. Final vowel lengt! 5. Phonotactic Co-occurrence Restrictions 5.1. SOMOTANtS ....eeeeeceeesee 5.2. Glottalized consonants 5.3. High vowels .... 6. (Morpho)Phonological Processes and Alternations 6.1. Syllable-final nasals .. 6.1.1. Assimilation to position 6.1.2. Full assimilation of /n/ to liquids .. 6.2. Rhotacism........ 6.3. Gemination.. 6.4, Palatalization 6.4.1. Palatalization as an active process 6.4.2, Sporadic anticipatory palatalization 6.4.3, Depalatalization 6.5. Labialization 6.6. Alternation of /f/ and /h/ 6.6.1.f3h 6.6.2. Recovered /f; 6.7. Vowel assimilation 6.8. Metathesis ...... 6.9. Clipping, apocopation, contraction .. 6.9.1. Clipping... 6.9.2. Apocopation 6.9.3. Contractio: 55. Pluractional Verbs 1. Active Pluractional. 1.1. Basic form: Prefixal reduplication 1.1.1. C)VG-. 1.1.2. CyVCp- 1.1.3. Tone ......... se 1.2. Alternative archaic form: Antepenultimate reduplication 1.3. Difference in meaning between the two formations . 2. Frozen Pluractional: 56. Plurals .... 1. Class 1: -OXD} ... 1.1. Plural type -6CrH 1.2. Plural type -o-1)H / anil 2. Class 2: -ai)LH , 2.1. Plural type -ai)HHwe eNO no Contents — xxiii 435 435 436 437 437 437 438 439 2.1.2. Nasal insertion .. 2.2. Plural type -a...-ai)LH 2.3. Plural type -aiCai)#LH 3. Class 3: -aXe)HLH 3.1. Plural type -aC@)HLH 3.2, Plural type -aye)HLH 3.3. Plural type -a-6)HU! 4. Class 4: -(a)Xa)HLH 4.1, Plural type -Ga)HLH 4.2. Plural type -&Ca)HLH 4.3. Plural type -a-a)HL 4.4, Plural type -a)HLH |. 5. Class 5: -aXu)HLH 5.1. Plural type -a-a)#! 5.2. Plural type -aCa)HLH | 6. Class 6: -uXa)HL 6.1, Plural type -una)HL 6.2. Plural type -uka)HL 6.3. Plural type -uwa)HL 6.4, Plural type -u-a)HL 6.5. Plural type -uCCa)HL 6.6. Plural type -a)HL 7. Class 7: -aXI-H .., 7.1. Plural type -annt)-H 7.2. Plural type -aCc1.)HH 7.3. Plural type -a(i)kU)LH 7.4, Plural type -a-)LH 8. Class 8: (...)-aXi)HLHH 8.1. Plural type -8C3ant)HLHH 8.2. Plural type -8CzaCgyHlH! 8.2.1. Dual type -4C3VC 4)HLHH 8.3. Plural type -CVC-...-ak1)HLHH 8.4, Plural type -CVC-...-at)HLHH 9. Class 9: -U/-NLH 9.1, Plural type -a)LH 9.2. Plural type -1)LH 10. Class 10: -Vo, = -Vp 10.1. Plural type -V => (-@ 10.2. Plural type -V => (4) 10.3. Plural type -V => (-aiH, 10.4. Plural type -V => -a)4 11. Class 11: -awa)LH ~ HH 12. Class 12: x 2 (redup)...... 13. Class 13: -e)LH x2 (redup 14. Class 14: x 2)H-L (redup 14.1. Plural type -@ x 2)H-L (redup). 14.2. Plural type x 2)H-L (redup)xxiv Contents 15. Class 15: CiCT x 2)HA.... 16. Miscellaneous... 17. Associative Plural su. 18. Homophonous Plurals 19. Alternative Plurals 21. Erstwhile Plurals 22. Singular Forms with Plural Meaning and Concord 22.1. Words without morphological plural: 22.2. Singulars with numerals... 22.3. Collectives .. 22.4, Generic noun: 57. Prepositions 1. Basic Prepositions 1.1. Complex prepositions 2. Genitive Prepositions 3. Preposition Stranding 58. Pro-Verb yi 1. Main Verl 2. Pro-Verb..... 2.1. Dummy verb do 2.2. Anaphoric replacement verb 3. yi deletion 59. Pronouns .... 1. Personal Pronouns. 1.1, Non-subject pronouns 1.1.1. Independent pronouns 1.1.2. Strong object pronouns . 1.1.3. Weak object pronouns 1.1.4. Indirect objects 1.1.5. Free possessives . 1.1.6. Bound genitive pronoun: 1.1.7. Reflexives ... 1.1.8. Reciprocals.. 1.2, Weak subject pronouns . 1.2.1. Introduction . 1.2.2. The impersonal. 1.2.3. Heavy and light wsp paradigms 2. Non-Personal Pronouns 60. Questions 1, Q-Word Questions 1.1. Inventory... 1.1.1. Who? 1.1.2. What? 1.1.3, Which? / Which one? 1.1.6. How?Contents xxv 1.1.7. How many? How much?.. 1.1.8. Why? ..... 1.2 The q-morphem 1.3. Word order... 2. Yes/No Questions 2.1. The q-morpheme.. 2.2. Question intonatio 2.2.1. The “classic” pattern .... 2.2.2. The final raising pattem 2.3. Sentence-final interrogative tags 2.4. Sentence-initial interrogative words . 2.4.1. Ko... 2.4.2. anya 2.43. shin 3. Indirect Questions 61. Reason and Purpose 1. Reason (‘because” 2. Reason (‘since’)... 2.1. Basic formation 2.2. Reduction of tun da yak 2.3, Subject fronting (topicalization) 3. Purpose (‘in order to’) 62. Reduplication 1. Function and Degree of Productivity 1.1. Active reduplication .... 1.2. Frozen (vestigial) reduplication 2. Nature of the (Morpho)Phonological Process .. 2.1. Pseudoreduplication ... 3. Reduplicated Nouns (Lexically Frozen) .. 3.1. Two-sylable reduplication to the right 3.1.1. Segmental adjustments 3.1.2. Tone classes ..... 3.2. One-syllable reduplication to the right. 3.2.1. $1-S9-Sg)-HL 3.2.2, S1-S4-S,)HLH 3.2.3. One-syllable reduplication to the right plus feminative suffix -ya /-wa 3.3. CVC plus suffix -€ 3.4. Full reduplication 3.4.1. x 2 with short final vowels 3.4.2. x 2 (consonant final).. a 3.5. Full (disyllabic) reduplication with LL-HL tone melod: 4. Reduplicated Verbs (Lexically Frozen) 4.1, Frozen pluractionals 4.1.1, Basic formation 4.1.2. Anomalous nasal. 4.1.3. Short vowel 4.1.4. Geminate /II/.... 4.2. Frozen reduplicates: Cy-Cg-C- and C-CB-Cp-xxvi Contents 4.2.1 Pattern 1: CgaCg VCV(V) 4.2.2. Pattern 2: CVCpaCgV(V) 63. Reflexives and Reciprocals .. 1. Reflexives....... 1.1. Basic reflexives . 1.1.1. Inclusive reflexives 1.1.2. Nonreflexive coreferential pronoun: 1.1.3. “Pseudo-emphatic” reflexive: 1.2. Emphatic reflexives 2. Reciprocals..... 64. Relative Clauses . 1. Basic Formation 2. Definite Article 3. The Relativizer and Relative Pronouns/Adverbs .. 4. Generic Relatives sees 5. Rel TAMs (Tense-Aspect-Mood Markers) 6. Coreferential NPs: Deletion or Resumptive Pronoun . 7. Deeply Embedded NPs ........ 8. Conjoined Relative Clauses 9. Relative Clause Extraposition 10. Extended Relative Clauses 11. Restrictive vs. Nonrestrictive 65. Sentence Types 1. Tensed Sentences .. 1.1. Verbal sentences 1,2. Tensed nonverbal sentences 2. Nontensed Sentences ....... 2.1. Imperative sentences 2.2. Nonverbal sentences. 66. Stabilizer né / cé 1, Form.. 2. Function 2.1. Equational sentences 2.2. Focus marker........ 2.3. Reinforcement marker 3.ké nan 67. Statives 1. Form 2. Function 2.1. Predicates in “stative sentences 2.1.1. Sociatives 2.1.2. Focu: 2.2. Modifiers 68. Systems and Eras (Suffix -iyya) 69. Temporal Clauses 1. When. 1.1. Clause with da ‘when / (time) that 1.2. Clause with idan ‘if/when’ .Contents — xxvii 2. Close Temporal Succession 2.1. Clause formed with da (2arai 2.2. Clause formed with ké da. 2.3. Clause plus ké nan...... 2.4. Clause plus ké da wiya 2.5. Phrase formed with da plus verbal noun or infinitive 3. While, As.... 3.1. Conjoined clauses 3.2. Clause formed with tun 4. Until / Not Until / Up Until 5. After 6. Befors 6.1. The conjunction kafin ‘before’ 6.2. Construction with tun ‘since’ ... 7. Since (Temporal) 70. Tense/Aspect/Mood (TAM) . 1. The Person-Aspect Complex (PAC) 1.1. Optional omission of the wsp .. 2. The General / Relative / Negative Trichotom: 3. The Continuous / Noncontinuous Dichotomy 4. Completive 5. Preterite (Rel-Completive) 6. Negative-completive 7. Continuous . 7A. Verbal... 7.2. Nonverbal 8. Relative-continuous1 9. Relative-continuous2 9.1. The WH aG form 10. Negative-continuous 11. Negative-HAVE 12. Future... 13. Allative, 14, Potential 15. Rhetorical .. 16. Habitual 17. Subjunctive 18. Neutral (Unmarked Form 71. Tone and Intonation... 1. Tonal Inventory . 1.1, Falling tone .. 1.1.1. Falling tone simplification 1.2. Absence of rising tone 2. Function of Tone 3. Tone Domain, Tone Melodies, Tone Assignment 3.1. Tone-bearing unit 3.2. Tone melodies 3.3. Tone-integrating suffixes .xxviii Contents 3.4. Tonal polarity........ 3.5. Toneless morphemes 4. Tone Preservation / Floating Tone: 4.1, Creation and attachment of floating tones 4.2. Underlying floating tones 4.3. Clipping vs. apocopation. . 5. Canonical Patterns ......... 5.1. Monosyllabic words... 5.2. Disytlabic and polysyllabic words 5.2.1. L-L tone.. 5.2.2. Falling tone 6. Dialect Features of Western Hausa 6.1. Replacement of final L-L ... 6.1.1. Final L-L (short) corresponds to L-H /___# 6.1.2. Final L-L (heavy) > L-F/___# 6.2. Falling tone simplification ...... 6.2.1. F-H simplification ..... 6.2.2 Monosyllabic F > L rule 7. The Rule of Low-Tone Raising (LTR) 8. Tone / Segment Interaction 9, Intonation ..... 9.1. Neutral/declarative 9.2. Interrogative ..... 9.3. Sympathetic address 9.4. Vocative 72. Topicalization . 1. Introduction .. 2. Form and Structure 3. Multiple Topics 4. Role of the Topi 4.1. Deletion or pronominalization of underlying topic 5. Part of Speech eee 6. Special Topic Constructions 6.1. The construction abinka da NP 6.2. The construction NP (possessive) da pronoun 7. Topic and Focus 73, Universals and Generic Relatives (k0- forms). 2. Meaning/Function 2.1. Universal pro-forms 2.1.1. Negation ....... 2.2. Generic relatives 3. Phrasal Nature of k0- form: 74. Verb Grades 1. General Discussion 1.1. Primary grades 1.2. Secondary grades 1.3. Irregular verbs .Contents xxix 2. Grade 0: Basic Monotonal Verbs. 2.1, Form... 2.2. Meaning and function 3. Grade 1: Basic Verbs, Applicatives, Actor-Intransitive: 3.1. Form ..... 3.2. Meaning and function 3.2.1. Basic verbs ... 3.2.2. Applicatives 3.2.3. Intransitives . 3.2.4. Sociatives . 4. Grade 2: Basic Transitive Verbs and Partitives . 4.1. Form... . 4.2. Meaning and function 4.2.1. Basic verbs ....... 4.2.2. Partitive/displacive . 4.2.3. Figurative/metaphorical 5. Grade 3: Basic Intransitives . 5.1. Form... 5.2. Meaning and function 6. Grade 3a : Basic Intransitives (H-H) 6.1. FOP o.sesssecoees 6.2. Meaning and function .... 7. Grade 3b: Basic Intransitives (H-L) 7.1. Form 7.2. Meaning and function 8. Grade 4: Totality/Finality. 8.1. Form wo... 8.2. Meaning and function 8.2.1. Totality/finality .. 8.2.2. Deprivative/separative 8.2.3. Intransitive a 8.2.4. Neutral/unmarked (semantic devaluation 9. Grade 5: Efferential 9.1. Form .... 9.1.1. The short-form grade 5 . 652 9.1.2. The -shé form. 653 9.1.3. Dialect variants 654 9.2. Meaning and function ... 9.2.1. Action away in a directional sens 9.2.2. Action away in a conceptual sense . 9.2.3. Semantically empty, stylistic preference 9.2.4. Transitivizer ........ 9.3. Syntactic structure..... 9,3.1. Grade 5 with indirect objects 9.3.2. Grade 5 and double objects 10. Grade 5d: Decausative 10.1. Form 655 655 656 656 657 659 660 660 660 661 11. Grade 6: Ventive .Contents 11.1. Form ees 11.2. Meaning and function 11.3. Ventive plus efferenti 12, Grade 7: Sustentative ..... 12.1. Form 12.2. Meaning and function 12.2.1. Patient-oriented grade 7 (“‘passive” 12.2.2. Actor/experiencer-oriented grade 7... 13. The -K- Extension (Dialectal)....... 13.1. Form: -K- extension plus totalit 13.2. Meaning and function 13.3. Form: -K- extension plus efferential 13.4. Meaning and function ....... 14. Irregular Verbs 15. Clipped Verbs 16. The Origin of the Grade System: A Historical Perspective 16.1. The grade system and its flaws... 16.2. Historical vowel-class / extension (VCE) model 16.2.1. Basic verb classes 16.2.2. Extensions......... 16.2.3. Grade system and VCE system contrasted .. 75. Verb Subcategorization .... . Transitive Verbs... 1.1. Neutral/unmarked . 1.2. Phrasal VPs with yi ‘do’ + a dynamic noun 1.3. Applicatives 1.4. Three-place verbs with i. 1.5. Double object verbs .. . Intransitive Verbs... 2.1. Intransitives with actor/undergoer subject .... 2.2. Intransitives with patient subject (‘“unaccusatives”) 2.3. Intransitives with affected subject (“passives”) and lexical reflexives . Dative Verbs . Sociative Verbs 5. Efferential Verbs (Grade 5) 5.1. Differences between sociatives and efferential: 5.2. Grade 5/6 ventive/efferential verbs 76. Verb Suffixes: Historical Remnants .-ya 8. 77. Verbal Nouns 1. Verbal NounsContents xxxi 1.1. Finite vs. nonfinite VP environments ...... 1.1.1. Finite verb phrase environment... 1.1.2. Nonfinite verb phrase environment 1.2. Weak vs. strong VNs ... 1.3. Stem-derived vs. base-derived verbal nouns 1.3.1. Stem-derived verbal nouns (SDVN) .. 1.3.2. Base-derived verbal nouns (BDVN).. 2. Deverbal Nouns 3. The Form of Verbal Nouns and Deverbal Nouns 3.1, Weak verbal nouns with -wa 3.1.1. Verbal nouns of grade 7... 3.1.2. Simplification of the falling tone (dialect variants) . 3.2. Non wa stem-derived verbal nouns . 3.2.1. D (grade 2) ... 3.2.2. Grade switching (grade 2 3.2.3. :) (grade 3)..... 3.2.4. Grade switching (grade 3, 3.2.5. -& (grade 3b). 3.2.6. -:)/ (grade 0 3.3. Base-derived verbal nouns (BDVN) .. 3.3.1. Class 1: 4 3.3.2. Class 2: 3.3.3. Class 3: 3.3.4. Class 4: 3.3.5, Class 5: - essssssees 3.3.6. Class 6: Ablaut)HE a. 3.3.7. Class 7: -iya and -uwa 3.4. Multiple BDVNs 78. Verbal Sentences: Simple Syntax 1. Subject 2. Person-Aspec Complex (PAC). 3. Verb Phrase (VP) 3.1. Objects 3.2. Locative goals 3.3. VP modifiers 3.3.1. Post-VERB modifiers 3.3.2. Pre-VERB modifiers 79. Verbalizer -TA 1.2.2. -a(a)ta 2. Verbalization of Verbal Nouns and Deverbal Nouns 3. Alternative Forms ...... 80. Writing System 1. Introduction . 2. Roman Script (b6k6) ..xxxii_ Contents 2.1. Inventory 2.2. Spelling rule: 2.3. Word divisions 2.4. Capitalization and punctuation .. 3. Arabic Script (ajami) 3.1. Alphabet....... 3.2. Sample texts ....... 3.2.1. Ajami text from Robinson 3.2.2. Ajami text from Rattray Bibliography . Index.......List of Tables and Figures |. Tables 1 Diminutives 80 2 Demonstratives 147 3. HAVE 222 4: Negative-HAVE 223 5: Negative markers 357 6: Hausa consonants 392 7; Examples of consonants 392 8: Hausa vowels 398 9: Examples of vowels 398 10: Plurals 431 11: Non-subject pronouns 476 12: Reflexive pronouns 522 13: Sentence types 543 14: TAM overview 568 15: Completive 569 16: Preterite 571 17: Negative-completive 574 18: Continuous 575 19: Rel-continuous1 578 20: Rel-continuous2 579 21: Negative-continuous 581 22: Negative-HAVE 583 23: Future 584 24: Allative 585 25: Potential 587 26: Rhetorical 589 27: Habitual 590 28: Subjunctive 591 29: Universals 622 30: Verb grade system 628 31: Basic verb classes: VCE model 679 32: Classification of verbal nouns 703 33: Ajami alphabet 730 Il. Figures 1 Focus structure 187 2: Focus movement 189 3: Focus in equational sentences 191 4: Glides and their corresponding vowels 396 5: Nasal diphthongs 406 6: Topicalization and focus 615 7: Grade system and VCE system contrasted 682 XXxiiiPreface HIS grammar has been a long time in the making. How many years depends on from whence one commences counting. One could say that the grammar dates from 1992, when I officially began working on it in earnest; but one could push it back a few years when Russell Schuh and I came up with the idea of doing this as a joint project. (He subsequently was forced to withdraw due to other professional obligations.) In another sense, one could say that the seed was planted twenty years earlier (in 1972), when I assumed the directorship of the Centre for the Study of Nigerian Languages, Bayero University, Kano (then part of Ahmadu Bello University), which resulted in my intellectual shift from a Chadicist, with a focus on comparative/historical work, to a Hausaist and Chadicist, and then gradually to a Hausaist. If I had not gone to Kano and inherited an ongoing dictionary project, eventually published as Newman and Newman (1977), I never would have delved into Hausa to the extent that I did and certainly would not have had the chance to be introduced to the richness and complexity of the language by the native Hausa-speaking researchers at the Centre. I cannot acknowledge individually all of my Nigerian colleagues and coworkers, but 1 must pay tribute to Dr. Ishaya Audu, then vice-chancellor of ABU, who brought me to Kano, and to Professor Ibrahim Yaro Yahaya, the creative and prolific Hausa scholar whose untimely death in an automobile accident was such a loss to Hausa studies. In searching for significant moments in the chain of events that led to the preparation of this grammar, one might consider the period at UCLA in the mid 1960s when Roxana Newman and I had the temerity to undertake an ambitious study of comparative Chadic (Newman and Ma 1966); or one could go back a few years earlier when I, then an untrained linguist teaching secondary school in Maiduguri, met Professor Johannes Lukas, who encouraged and inspired me to undertake the study of Tera, the Chadic language on which I later wrote my Ph.D. dissertation. Or perhaps the real starting point was in 1961 when I joined the first Peace Corps group to go to Nigeria, an event that changed the course of my professional and personal life. The grammar project per se was carried out at Indiana University (Department of Linguistics and Institute for the Study of Nigerian Languages and Cultures) over a six-year period. Financial support was provided by generous grants from the U.S. Department of Education (P0-17A10037), the National Endowment for the Humanities (RT-21236), and the National Science Foundation (DBS-9107103), for which I am deeply grateful. Throughout the project, I depended on the assistance of a large number of people who carried out a myriad of tasks. William Anderson, Nancy Caplow, Robert Shull, and Ezra Simon helped with library research and data-entry matters. Wayne Martin and Michael Newman set up the database and provided the essential computer support without which a project of this scope would not have been possible. John Hollingsworth drew the maps; Carol Rhodes was responsible for preparing the figures and overseeing the formatting of the camera-ready manuscript; and Joyce Ippolito did the painstaking job of copy editing the work as a whole. Dr. Mustapha Ahmad Isa served as the primary research assistant on the project while he was pursuing his Ph.D. in linguistics at Indiana University. He was ably succeeded by Dr. Lawan Danladi Yalwa. Alhaji Daiyabu Abdullahi, Alhaji Maina Gimba, and Ibro Chekaraou also assisted in verifying Hausa examples and suggesting analytical modifications. XXXVxxxvi Preface I was extremely fortunate in being able to benefit from the input of Dr. Mahamane L. Abdoulaye and Dr. Ismail Junaidu, excellent Hausa scholars who came to Bloomington for a summer each to work on the project. They were able to provide both their intuition as native speakers and their expertise as sophisticated linguists. Dr. Malami Buba served as the major research associate during the later stages of the project, collaborating in the work both in Bloomington and after returning to England. He worked closely with me in the preparation and checking of the first full draft of the grammar. Finally, I cannot begin to express the extent of my obligation to Dr. Philip Jaggar of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. During his sabbatical year in Bloomington, we spent endless hours discussing the intricacies of Hausa phonology, morphology, and syntax, discussions that often forced me to rethink analyses that I had been comfortable with or to consider facts that I had been unaware of. Although Phil was always good-natured about the amount of time he devoted to my project, it is clear that he unselfishly sacrificed progress on his own academic objectives for the year in order to help me with the grammar. And later when I had completed what I thought was the final draft, Phil provided a meticulous page by page reading of the entire grammar, catching typos, redundancies, contradictions in analysis, infelicities in translations, and downright mistakes. It is undoubtedly true that this grammar would have been finished sooner if Phil had not taken such an interest in it; but it would have been a much inferior product. It is standard in academic books to acknowledge the many colleagues, friends, and coworkers who helped out in some important way or other, and this acknowledgement is invariably well deserved. In Phil’s case, however, the assistance that he provided truly went beyond the ordinary. Phil’s deep involvement in the preparation of this grammar is a testimony to his friendship and his love of the Hausa language. What can I say but Phil (Malam Bala), I thank you and I indeed owe you one. Allah ya saka da alheri!Symbols and Abbreviations |. Symbols °AN: analytical note OHN: historical note ADN: dialect note () (1) optional; (2) English gloss not present in corresponding Hausa example <> dialect variant «>» topicalized constituent {} (1) focused constituent; (2) morphemic representation Wadd underlying (base) representation hal phonemic representation [J] phonetic representation polar tone = equals # not equals * historical/hypothetical “ ungrammatical ” of questional grammaticality/acceptability 6 syllable $ syllable boundary . (1) indicator of syllable break, e.g., han.ta ‘liver’; (2) indicator in glosses of separate morphemes within a word, e.g., masa ‘to.him’ < comes from (synchronically or historically) > changes to (historically) 4 (1) changes to (phonologically); (2) rewrites as (phrase structure) > becomes (morphologically or syntactically) § section (Note: A reference to §5:2.3, for example, with the first numeral in bold, indicates section 2.3 in chapter 5. An indication like §2.3 denotes section 2.3 in the chapter where the reference is found.) \l. Abbreviations adj adjective AV aspectual verb adj.pp adjectival past participle BDVN base-derived verbal noun adv adverb Cc consonant allat allative (TAM) ef. compare Ar. Arabic comp completive (TAM) Aug-1 augmentative-1 COMP complementizer Aug-2 augmentative-2 cont continuous (TAM) XXXVii