Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry (2024) 149:145–171

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-023-12696-y

Thermal and economic investigations of parabolic trough collector

arrays with application in Brazil
José C. da Costa Filho1 · Humberto D. de Moraes1 · Jurandir I. Yanagihara2 · Pedro H. S. Morais1 · Wallace G. Ferreira1 ·
Marcelo M. da Silva1 · Daniel J. Dezan1 · Ali Allahyarzadeh‑Bidgoli2

Received: 10 April 2023 / Accepted: 12 October 2023 / Published online: 18 November 2023
© Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary 2023

Abstract
The parabolic trough collector (PTC) is one of the most well-established concentrating technologies, and it has been used as
a heat source in a wide range of thermal applications which demand relatively higher operating temperatures (about 400 ºC).
In the present research, a two-dimensional numerical methodology implemented on EES software (Engineering Equation
Solver) is proposed to predict energetic and exergetic performances of commercial PTC modules of EuroTrough ET-150
by considering the discretization of the receiver along with the main flow direction. Different mass flow rates of Therminol
VP-1 and Molten Salt ­(NaNO3 (60%)–KNO3 (40%)) heat transfer fluids, receiver diameters and solar beam radiation levels
are considered. According to the sensitivity analyses, for turbulent and laminar/transition flow conditions the number of
divisions/segments of the PTC module to stabilize the values of useful gain, heat loss and irreversibility of the PTC receiver
is 20 and 100 divisions, respectively. The validated model is used to perform detailed energetic and exergetic analyses of a
PTC array with eight modules in series, in which the PTC modules are firstly analysed individually and after at an overall
thermal performance way. In the second part of this research is presented a case study for the application of ET-150 modules
using Therminol VP-1 as heat source for a 3.9 MW Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) operating under environmental condi-
tions of the Northeast region of Brazil, taking into account its thermo-economic viability. According to thermo-economic
assessment, the highest values of Net Present Value (NPV) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) are achieved for Gb = 700 W
­m−2 and mass flow rate of 1 kg ­s−1. Moreover, for the ORC coupled with fifty rows of PTC and eight modules in a row, the
NPV could reach 40 million dollars with about 25% of IRR if exemption from taxes is applied.

Keywords Parabolic trough solar collector · Numerical model · Energetic analysis · Exergetic analysis · Thermo-economic
analysis · Organic Rankine Cycle
List of symbols Gb Solar beam radiation (W ­m−2)
A Surface area ­(m2) h Heat transfer coefficient (W ­m−2 ­K−1)
Cp Specific heat capacity under constant pressure k Thermal conductivity (W ­m−1 ­K−1)
(J ­kg−1 ­K−1) L Absorber tube length (m)
D Diameter (m) ṁ Mass flow rate, (kg ­s−1)
Exd Irreversibility (W) Nu Nusselt number
Exu Useful exergy (W) Pr Prandtl number
Exs Exergy available (W) QL Heat loss (W)
f Friction factor Qs Available solar energy (W ­m−2)
Qu Useful gain (W)
Re Reynolds number
* José C. da Costa Filho s Specific entropy (J ­K−1 ­kg−1)
costa.filho@aluno.ufabc.edu.br T Temperature (K)
1
The Engineering, Modeling and Applied Social Sciences Subscripts
Center (CECS), Federal University of ABC (UFABC), a Aperture
Santo André, SP, Brazil
air Ambient air
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Polytechnic School, am Ambient
University of São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
146 J. C. da Costa Filho et al.

avg Average value with a significant potential. Two main types of solar conver-
c Glass cover sion systems are used worldwide, that is: photovoltaic cells
ci Inner surface of the glass cover and concentrated solar systems ([1, 2]). On the other hand,
co Outer surface of the glass cover different technologies and enhancements are still focus of
div Length of each division along with the receiver research as for instance ([3–6]). Most of the applications
HTF Heat Transfer Fluid that require medium to high temperature levels (up to 400
in Inlet ºC) generally uses parabolic trough collector (PTC) as con-
out Outlet centrating solar technologies for power generation [7–11],
r Absorber tube mainly due to its mature technology and competitive cost
ri Inner surface of the absorber tube (about 200 $ ­m−2) with reasonable thermal efficiency [12].
ro Outer surface of the absorber tubesky, Equiva- The main components of a conventional PTC receiver are
lent sky illustrated in Fig. 1. The incoming sunlight is concentrated
sun Sun outer layer on the receiver (normally presenting small surface area) by
the mirrors. The receiver consists of a concentric transpar-
Abbreviations
ent cover (glass cover in the majority of the cases) and an
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
absorber tube that transfers the absorbed heat to the working
COFINS Social security financing contribution
fluid. The absorber tube is typically built of stainless steel
CSP Concentrated Solar Plant
with a selective coating to enhance the optical and thermal
CSLL Social contribution on net income
performances (higher absorptivity and lower emissivity).
DSG Direct steam generation
The concentric transparent cover is responsible to mitigate
EES Engineering Equation Solver
the heat losses to ambient, protect the absorber from degra-
HRSG Heat Recovery Steam Generator
dation and maintain the vacuum pressure between cover and
HTF Heat transfer fluid
absorber tube. The vacuum enclosure is mainly used to miti-
ICMS Brazilian state excise tax
gate the convection heat transfer losses and to preserve the
IR Corporate tax on net profit
selective surface of the oxidation caused when the absorber
IRR Internal Rate of Return
is operating at high temperature levels. Seals and metal bel-
NPV Net Present Value
lows are mounted at either end of the receiver in order to
ORC Organic Rankine Cycle
keep the vacuum pressure at required design levels and to
PEC Purchase Equipment Cost
avoid thermal expansion between tube and cover. Finally,
PIS Profit participation program contribution
chemical getters are used in the vacuum region to absorb the
PTC Parabolic Trough Collector
hydrogen which comes from the heat transfer fluid (HTF),
TFSEE Annual inspection fee on annual revenue
increasing the thermal performance of the PTC module and
Greek symbols guaranteeing the required safety levels.
𝜂opt Mirror optical efficiency (%) A significant number of researches has been aimed to the
𝜂ex Exergetic efficiency (%) development of mathematical models and numerical meth-
𝜂th Thermal efficiency (%) ods able to predict the most important output parameters of
𝜀 Emissivity the PTC module under several operating conditions, owing
𝜎 Stefan-Boltzmann constant to the fact that of the overall performance of a PTC module
𝜌 Density (kg ­m−3) is highly dependent of the fluid type and flow conditions,
𝜇 Dynamic viscosity (Pa s) environmental conditions, optical efficiency, concentration
ratio (ratio of the aperture area to the receiver surface area),
material of the collector and quality of the manufacturing
Introduction process, as depicted in Fig. 2.

At the last years, a lot of renewable energy research have
been directed towards to finding efficient ways for mitiga-
tion of global warming, greenhouse gases emission, climate
changes, fossil fuel consumption, nature pollution, and
depletion of the ozone layer. It is well agreed that renew-
able energy is considered the best alternative for facing
these issues, and to promote the life of the society in a more
sustainable environment. In this sense, the technologies for
conversion of solar energy to thermal energy are considered
Numerical simulation tools applied to PTC thermal
performance predictions
With regard to thermal performance prediction of the PTC
receiver, the majority of the researchers have used one-
dimensional [16–25], two-dimensional [26–29], and three-
dimensional models [30–37]. One-dimensional methods
are based on first and second laws of the thermodynamics
in combination with energy balance considering the three

13
Thermal and economic investigations of parabolic trough collector arrays with application… 147

Glass tube Annulus space Catalyst bed

Rceciver/reactor tube

Parabolic trough concentrator

Evacuation
Chemical getter Absorber tube Vaccum enclosure
nozzle Seal

Heat transfer fluid

Transparent cover Bellows

Selective coating

Fig. 1  Main components of a PTC module and receiver details. Adapted based on Wu et al. [13] and Wang et al. [14]

Fig. 2  General overview of the

important parameters affecting Thermo-hydraulic performance
the PTC performance. Adapted of the PTC
from Conrado et al. [15]

Heat losses Optical performance Geometrical and

Heat transfer fluid
manufacturing

– Flow conditions – Flow conditions – Materials – Dimensions

– Operating conditions – Thermo–phusical properties – Tracking system – Material

– Environment conditions – Type of HTF – Size – Manufacturing deffects
– Tracking system – Nanofluids – Manufacturing deffects
– Orientation

heat transfer modes at the outer and inner surfaces of the
receiver (convection, radiation, and conduction). The two-
dimensional methods are equivalent to the one-dimensional
but with energy balances along the flow direction and the
three-dimensional methods generally use computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) different discretization methods.
Although 3-D models provide high fidelity simulations, on
the other hand they must run with detailed information of
flow pattern and heat transfer characteristics of the PTC and,
in addition, the computational demand is very large in most
of the cases.
There is consensus that simple 1-D models can provide
important information about the overall performance of
the PTC modules with negligible computational efforts
when compared to three-dimensional numerical tools.
The prediction of the thermal performance of the receiver
by using 1-D modelling tools is based on environmen-
tal conditions (solar radiation, wind speed, ambient, and
sky temperatures), thermo-physical properties of the
HTF, receiver surface properties, optical and geometric
parameters, and mass flow rates. Furthermore, the one-
dimensional studies revealed that this simple modelling
approach normally presents good accuracy for the receiver
performance calculation. However, according to the stud-
ies from Forristall [28], the one-dimensional mathematical
models are not able to predict the temperature changes

13
148
in the HTF along the flow direction for collector length
higher than 80 m.
In order to close this gap, Forristall [28] proposed a
two-dimensional model which is very similar to the one-
dimensional model except by updating the thermo-phys-
ical fluid properties along the axial direction. The results
enlighten that some improvements were achieved on 2-D
numerical model when compared to 1-D model, especially
those related to heat loss predictions of the collector. Padilla
et al. [29] presented a detailed 2-D heat transfer model for
parabolic trough solar collectors. The authors proposed a
radiative heat transfer analysis and suggested a set of heat
transfer models to improve the reliability of the collector
performance results. Xu et al. [27] examined the impact of
both thermal and optical factors on transient performance
for a 600 m long loop of parabolic trough solar collectors.
According to their 2-D numerical results and experimental
data, the transient process duration is shorter when the HTF
enters at a temperature closer to the equilibrium temperature.
The PTC collector generations (LS-1, LS-2, and LS-3) are
the predecessors of EuroTrough design [38, 39]. LS-2 and
LS-3 collectors are widely used as reference for research
and different applications can be found in the literature until
nowadays as for example [40–42]. A numerical model for
thermal prediction of PTC (LS-2) for direct steam generation
(DSG) was developed by Odeh et al. [26] and the authors
concluded that the results from thermal model presented
good agreement with experimental data.
Heat Transfer Fluids (HTF) used in PTC technology
As already shown in Fig. 2, the heating fluid severally
impact the thermal performance of the PTC module since it
is an important element that transfers the concentrated solar
energy on the tube receiver to the power block/steam genera-
tor. Named as heat transfer fluid (HTF) for renewable energy
thermal systems, the most commonly HTF are: (i) Water
(steam and liquid phases); (ii). Organics (Therminol VP-1,
Dowtherm, etc.); (ii) Thermal oils (Xceltherm, Dow-corning
550, Syltherm, Therminol D-12, etc.); (iii). Liquified salts
(Sodium salt, Sodium–potassium salt, Potassium salt, Salt
Hitec XL, Salt Hitec Solar salt, etc.) and; (iv). Gases (Air,
Helium, Hydrogen and Carbon Dioxide, etc.). Also, over
the last years, the use of HTF-based nanofluids has attracted
attention of the scientific community [15, 43–46].
The desired thermo-physical properties of the HTF
include low vapour pressure, low melting point, high heat
capacity, high boiling point and thermal stability, as well
as reduced HTF operating costs. Every HTF is adequate to
work at specific range of temperatures in order to achieve
the highest thermal performance as possible for the receiver
with high safety operation levels. In this sense, Therminol
VP-1 and Solar Salt ­(NaNO3 (60%)–KNO3 (40%)) are two of
13
J. C. da Costa Filho et al.
the most used HTF for concentrated solar plants (CSP) [47,
48], since they have proved to be important HTF alternatives
on PTC technology because of their high heat transfer rates.
Bellos et al. [16] compared different HTFs to investigate
their impact on energetic and exergetic efficiencies of the
PTC receiver by using one-dimensional analysis. They con-
cluded that liquid sodium presented the highest exergetic
performance for inlet temperature of 800 K and for tempera-
ture levels up to 550 K, whereas pressurized water performs
better than other liquid fluids in terms of energetic efficiency.
A detailed exergetic analysis of a commercial PTC module
is well described on Bellos and Tzivanidis [17], where the
authors found that Therminol VP-1 presented the highest
energetic and exergetic performances for mass flow rate and
inlet temperature of 100 L m ­ in−1 and 500 K, respectively.
Bellos et al. [18] carried out investigations of the thermal
and optical efficiencies of a PTC. Their numerical predic-
tions show that efficiencies about 75% can be achievable
for a PTC module operating with pressurized water at high
temperature levels and very low loss coefficient (ranging
from 0.6 to 1.3 W ­m−2 ­K−1). Kumar and Kumar [19] experi-
mentally and numerically investigated the performance of a
mini-solar PTC under climatic condition of Bhiwani (India).
The authors reported that the maximum rise in water tem-
perature of 12.2 ºC was achieved when the PTC was operat-
ing with a mass flow rate of 0.010 kg ­s−1 and aperture area
of about 1.34 ­m2.
Wang et al. [49] numerically studied the thermal perfor-
mance of PTC modules with Dowtherm A synthetic oil and
molten salt as working fluids and found that the collector
efficiency operating with molten salt (at 773 K) is about 8%
lower than that with Dowtherm A (at 573 K) for equivalent
environmental conditions. Wu et al. [50] carried out experi-
mental investigation of the PTC thermal performance with
a low melting point salt (melting point of 86 ºC and upper
operation limit temperature of 550 ºC). The authors showed
that thermal losses of PTC modules with low melting point
salt was reduced, especially on the joints, when compared
to Syltherm 800 oil. Moreover, it was reported that the use
of low melting point salt can reduce both investments and
costs of a solar power plant. A numerical study for LS-2
collector performance prediction operating with Syltherm
800 oil was carried out by Cheng et al. [32]. They found
that the thermal efficiency was about 73% and the thermal
radiation loss drastically increases as the direct solar radia-
tion is augmented, and the thermal efficiency remains con-
stant with the increasing of Reynolds number. Odeh et al.
[26] experimentally investigated the effect of for two types
of HTF (Therminol VP-1 and water) on a LS-2 parabolic
trough solar collector. They observed that the thermal loss
of the collector operating with water is lower than Therminol
VP-1. Malviya et al. [51] provided a broad study of the PTC
thermal performance with water, Therminol VP-1, and air as
Thermal and economic investigations of parabolic trough collector arrays with application…
HTF. Their main conclusions were that the water is suitable
for low operating temperatures, air is appropriate for small
temperature ranges, and Therminol VP-1 performs better for
higher working temperatures.
Objectives and main contributions of the current
research
As outlined in the previous sections, there is consensus that
the PTC can be considered a mature technology to convert
solar energy in heat for CSP applications. Furthermore, the
majority of the research is focused on numerical modelling
of thermal performance of PTC that uses one-dimensional
methodology, which could present less accurate results than
two and three-dimensional numerical models.
In this direction, the objective of this current research is
to provide a two-dimensional methodology implemented on
EES (Engineering Equation Solver) software to predict the
thermal performance of standard PTC modules operating
under different environmental conditions and using Thermi-
nol VP-1 and Molten Salt (­ NaNO3 (60%)–KNO3 (40%)) as
HTFs. It is examined the performance of commercial mod-
ules of EuroTrough ET-150 PTC, in which all optical and
geometrical information are available in the open literature.
EuroTrough collector type was developed in the beginning
of 2000 [38] and the motivation was to introduce a novel
collector with optimized performance at low cost [2], as a
combination and improvement of design characteristics of
LS-2 and LS-3 collectors [39]. Nowadays EuroTrough col-
lectors are one of the main choices for application world-
wide, representing more than one third of applications, as
remarked in [52].
Fig. 3  Sketch of a typical
receiver, containing absorber
tube and glass cover, and the
scheme for total resistance to
heat transfer (thermal circuit)
Rƒ – ri,con υ
f ri
149
To our knowledge, it was not found in the open literature
a detailed sensitivity analysis quantifying the effect of the
number of segments on the receiver along the main flow
direction on: useful gain, heat losses, irreversibility, and
thermal and exergetic efficiencies for laminar, transition,
and turbulent flow conditions. Moreover, this work aims
towards providing performance analysis (useful gain, heat
loss, irreversibility, and thermal and exergetic efficiencies)
for each module along the PTC array. Lastly, a case study in
the Northeast region of Brazil is conducted in a configura-
tion of fifty rows of eight PTC modules coupled to a 3.9 MW
regenerative organic Rankine cycle (ORC) operating with
n-Pentane organic fluid. The economic feasibility analysis
considering the net present value (NPV) and internal rate of
return (IRR) are used in the investigation of different mass
flow rates, irradiances, and tax scenarios.
PTC mathematical model
The thermal circuit in Fig. 3 represents more clearly the heat
exchange mechanisms in a standard PTC module: the con-
centrated solar energy raises the receiver tube temperature,
and then heat is transferred to both fluid and environment.
Each heat transfer mechanism indicated in Fig. 3 and the
correlations used in the current work are discussed in the
next paragraphs. Moreover, to evaluate the useful gain and
the heat losses to the environment, a two-dimensional analy-
sis is conducted, following the assumptions:
(1) Steady state condition;
(2) Thermo-physical properties of the HTF are not assumed
homogeneous along the PTC array;
Absorber tube
Glass cover
Dro Dri HTF Dci Dco
Rco – sky, rad
sky
Rri – ro,cond Rro – ci,rad Rci – co,cond
ro ci co
Rco – am, conυ
am
13
150 J. C. da Costa Filho et al.

(3) Negligible heat conduction through support brackets; 4ṁ

(4) Shading effect of the receiver on the reflector is
ignored;
(5) Annulus between absorber tube and glass cover is evac-
uated;
(6) Dust and dirt accumulation effects on the glass cover is
negligible;
(7) Thermo-physical properties of the HTF are calculated
at the average bulk temperature in a specific collector
segment: Tavg = in 2 out
T +T
In summary, the mathematical model for the heat transfer
balance on a PTC receiver can be divided in five main ways:
(i). Heat transferred to HTF, (ii). Heat losses from absorber tub
to glass cover, (iii). Conduction through absorber tube, (iv).
Conduction through glass cover, (v). Heat losses from glass
cover to environment. Table 1 summarizes the heat transfer
formulation adopted in the current research.
The flow condition is determined by the calculation of the
Reynolds number, given by
ReHTF =
𝜋Dri 𝜇HTF (1)
in which ṁ is the HTF mass flow rate inside the tube, Dri is
the inner diameter of the absorber tube, and 𝜇HTF is the HTF
dynamic viscosity.
With the above-mentioned variables, it is possible to
obtain the collector thermal efficiency
Qu
(19)
𝜂th =
Qs
Exergetic efficiency and irreversibility generation
Exergetic analysis is a powerful way to quantify the quality
(or the available energy) of a given solar energy conversion
thermal process. Exergy and irreversibility generation are
deeply linked, in which high exergetic efficiency indicates
low irreversibility on the system. The exergetic efficiency
of a PTC module can be defined as the exergetic output
divided by the solar exergy input by knowing that the term

Table 1  Mathematical formulation for heat transfer prediction on PTC receiver

Mechanisms Energy balance Eq. number Heat transfer formulation Eq. number

Concentrated solar Q s = Aa G b (2) Not applicable

radiation, useful 𝜂opt .Qs = Qu + Qloss (3)
gain and heat losses
Heat transferred to Qu = hHTF Ari (Tri − THTF,avg ) (4) Nu = 3.66 +
0.0668∙ReHTF ∙PrHTF ∙Dri ∕L
2∕3
(5)
HTF [53, 54] h=
NukHTF 1+0.04∙(ReHTF ∙PrHTF ∙Dri ∕L)
Dri (Laminar)
Qu = mc
̇ p HTF (Tout − Tin )
(10) f = 64
(Laminar) (6)
ReHTF
(11) f
8
(ReHTF −1000)∙PrHTF (7)
Nu = ( )0.5 (
f 2∕3
)
1+12.7∙ 8 (Transition)
∙ PrHTF −1

f is extrapolated from Moody diagram

(Transition)
Nu = 0.023Re0.8 0.4
HTF Pr HTF
(Turbulent) (8)
(
f = 0.79 ∙ lnReHTF − 1.64
)−2
(Turbulent) (9)
Heat loss from QL = 𝜋Dro Ldiv 𝜎
4 −T 4
Tro ci (12) Not applicable
absorber tube to (13)
1 1−𝜀c Dro
𝜀r
+ 𝜀c Dci
glass cover [28] 𝜀r = 0, 05599 + 1, 039.10−4 Tro + 2, 249.10−7 Tro
2

Conduction through (14) Not applicable

( )(
D )
QL = 2𝜋kr Ldiv ln Dro Tri − Tro
absorber tube ri

Conduction through (15) Not applicable

( )(
D )
QL = 2𝜋kc Ldiv ln Dco Tci − Tco
glass cover ci

Heat loss from glass ) (16) (18)

( ) 4 4 1∕4
QL = Aco hext Tco − Tam + Aco 𝜎𝜀c (Tco − Tsky hair Dco
Nu = = CRem Prn ( PrPr )
cover to environment 1.5
(17) kair co

[55] Tsky = 0.0553Tam ( )m ( )1∕4

𝜌air Vair Dco Prair
=C 𝜇air
Prnair Prco
See Tables 2 and 3 for estimated values of
C, m, n

13
Thermal and economic investigations of parabolic trough collector arrays with application… 151

Table 2  Constants C and m as function of Reynolds number [54] Heat Transfer Fluids (HTFs)—Therminol VP‑1
Reynolds number C m and Molten Salt
1000 ≤ Re ≤ 200000 0.260 0.600 Therminol VP-1 is an organic pair Biphenyl ­(C12H10)/Diphe-
200000 < Re ≤ 1000000 0.076 0.700 nyl oxide (­ C12H10O) recommended for operations with tem-
perature levels up to 400 ºC due to its boiling point and
thermal stability. With respect to the thermal stability, as
Table 3  Constant n as function Reynolds number n the temperature becomes higher than 400 ºC it is observed
of Prandtl number [54] a degradation of the Therminol VP-1, especially caused by
Pr ≤ 10 0.37 hydrogen generation. In this case, the hydrogen spreads to
Pr > 10 0.36 the annulus between absorber tube and glass cover, then
significant heat losses on receiver device are observed [51]
(Tables 2 and 3).
of exergetic output takes into account the useful gain and Molten salts, such as Solar Salt, can operate at high tem-
the irreversibility (thermal losses mechanism to environ- perature levels (up to 600 ºC) and they have good thermo-
ment and the pressure losses of the HTF along the absorber physical properties, heat resilience and low corrosive prop-
tube). The term of solar exergy input is estimated by using erties at elevated temperatures. The main drawback of the
Petela’s model described on research of Enteria and Akbar- use of molten salts is the solidification danger due to their
zadeh [56], which considers the sun as reservoir at 5770 K high melting point temperature, which normally requires
and that the beam radiation can be assumed as undiluted: high maintenance costs [51]. On the other hand, the price
T dP
of the Solar Salt is much lower than the Therminol VP-1.
Exu,div Qu − mċ p Tam ln Tout,div − mT
̇ am 𝜌 T div Table 4 shows information about operating ranges and costs
in,div HTF HTF,avg
𝜂ex = = ( ( )4 ) for both Molten Salt and Therminol VP-1 HTFs.
Exs,div Qs
( )
T T
div
1 − 34 T am + 13 T am
sun sun

(20)
Details of the numerical method
The pressure drop (dPdiv) is given by the Darcy–Weisbach
equation: The detailed discretization scheme in a side view of the
fL𝜌HTF u2HTF domain used in the computational tool is shown in Fig. 4.
dPdiv = (21) and the procedure to update the thermophysical properties
2divDri of the HTF along the divisions in the numerical method is
And the irreversibility (or destroyed exergy Exd) is given shown in Fig. 5.
by: The control volume is composed of an inlet and an outlet
for the HTF, and the model is built such that mass conserva-
Qs 𝜂opt tion is ensured. Given the inlet boundary conditions (mass
( ) ( )
Tam T
Exd = 1− + QL 1 − am
div Tsun Tco,div flow rate and HTF temperature), the ambient conditions
(ambient temperature, solar beam radiation, and wind speed)
[ ( ) ( )]
+ ṁ cp, HTF,div Tin,div − Tout.div − Tam sin,div − sout,div (22)
and the geometric parameters of the PTC array, the energy
where sin,div and sout,div are the HTF specific entropy at the balance (previously shown in Eq. (3)) is achieved by itera-
inlet and outlet of each division, respectively. tively guessing the outer glass cover temperature (Tco,div)
until the convergence criterion of ­10–4 is met. First the heat
loss (QL) in the glass cover is evaluated in order to determine
the useful gain (Qu), which in turn is used to calculate the

Table 4  Thermo-physical properties and costs information for Molten Salt and Therminol VP-1 HTFs
HTF Melting point Stability limit Estimated Cost ­ −1 ­K−1
k /W m Cp /J ­kg−1 ­K−1 μ /Pa s
−1
Therminol VP-1 12 ºC 400 ºC 4.00 $ ­kg 0.091 (at 600 K) 2395 (at 600 K) 0.0002 (at 600 K)
Biphenyl ­(C12H10)/Diphenyl
oxide ­(C12H10O)
Molten Salt 220 ºC 600 ºC 0.49 $ ­kg−1 0.506 (at 600 K) 1505 (at 600 K) 0.0027 (at 600 K)
NaNO3 (60%) – ­KNO3 (40%)

13
152 J. C. da Costa Filho et al.

Fig. 4  Side view of the receiver L

showing the divisions (seg- Glass cover
ments) along the flow direction

Absorber tube
Control volume

i–1 i i+1
Tco, i – 1 Tco, i Tco, i + 1
Tci, i – 1 Tci, i Tci, i + 1
Tro, i – 1 Tro, i Tro, i + 1
Tri, i – 1 Tri, i Tri, i + 1

T in, i – 1 T ƒ ,avg, i – 1 T out, i – 1 T T ƒ ,avg, i T out, i T in, i + 1 T ƒ ,avg, i + 1 T out, i + 1

in, i

Set glass cover outer Set new inlet temperature

Input:
temperature to as outer temperature from
– HTF previous division i=i+1
Tco = Tam + 0.01
– Mass flow rate (kg s–1) (initial guess value) (Tin,i = Tout,i –1)
– Solar beam radiation (W m–2)
– Ambient temperature (K)
– Wind velocity (m s–1) Evaluate available
– Collector geometry Tco = Tco,new
solar heat(Q ) No
S

No
Evaluate heat losses
between glass cover
and environment (Q )
L

Tco – Tco,new
Qu = Qu + Qu,i
Last
Set i = 1 QL = QL + QL,i division?
(initial division number) T Yes
Evaluate useful heat co Exu = Exu + Exu,i (i = di υ)
absorption (Qu) < 10
–4
Exd = Exd + Exd,i

Evaluate outlet fluid Yes

temperature (Tout) Evaluate new glass cover
outer surface temperature
(T ) Qu
co,new
η th
Update thermophusical Qs
properties (Cp, k, µ ) at
average HTF temperature
Evaluate glass cover Exu
inner surface ηex Exs
between inlet and outlet (Tavg)
temperature(T )
ci

END
Evaluate receiver tube Evaluate receiver tube outer
inner surface
surface temperature(T )
temperature (T ) ro
ri

Fig. 5  Flowchart indicating in detail the steps of the numerical procedure

13
Thermal and economic investigations of parabolic trough collector arrays with application… 153

Table 5  Environmental and geometrical parameters used in sensitiv- effects of assuming thermophysical properties evaluation
ity of the numerical model regarding the number of divisions along at Tavg.
the PTC module

Parameter Value

PTC length 12 m
Sensitivity of the numerical model
Mirror width 5.8 m
and numerical validation
Optical efficiency 0.741
In order to investigate the effect of divisions on a sin-
Aperture area 68.1 ­m2
gle PTC module along the main flow direction on heat
Absorber tube inner diameter 0.066 m
gain and heat loss, a sensitivity analysis is carried out by
Absorber tube outer diameter 0.07 m
considering different mass flow rates and solar radiation
Glass cover inner diameter 0.12 m
levels. The simulations are conducted assuming one Euro-
Glass cover outer diameter 0.125 m
Trough ET-150 module operating with Therminol VP-1
Glass cover emissivity 0.88
as HTF. All parameters used during the simulations are
Glass cover thermal conductivity 1.15 W ­m−1 ­K−1
summarized in Table 5. The inlet temperature for the HTF
Absorber tube selective coating Cermet
is set 305 K, and the irradiance levels ranged from 500 to
Absorber tube material Stainless steel
900 W m ­ −2. It is also investigated the effect of the number
Ambient temperature 300 K
of divisions along with the PTC module on heat gain and
Wind speed 1 m ­s−1
heat loss for turbulent regime (mass flow rates from 0.5 to
4 kg ­s−1) and, laminar, and transition flow regimes (mass
flow rates ranged from 0.05 to 0.2 kg ­s−1). The ranges of
Table 6  Variable ranges investigated in the sensitivity analysis the variables analysed are condensed in Table 6.
Variable Range Unit
PTC receiver operating under turbulent flow
Mass flow rate 0.05–4 kg ­s−1 conditions
Solar beam radiation 500–900 W ­m−2
First of all, it is important to point out that the Reynolds
numbers were accessed for all mass flow rates and solar
HTF outlet temperature (Tout), and then finally, by updating beam radiation levels during the simulations, in which the
the thermophysical properties at the average temperature minimum values were always above 3100.
(Tavg) the new glass cover is estimated. Figure 6 shows the sensitivity of the numerical model on
The subsequent sensitivity analysis aims towards inves- useful gain and heat loss in terms of the number of divisions
tigating the number of division (div) needed to mitigate the of the PTC module. From that, it is noticed that the stability

–1
Qloss_m = 0.5 kg s
–1
Qloss_m = 1 kg s
25100 Qloss_m = 2 kg s
–1 650 46000
300 Qloss_m = 4 kg s
–1

Qu_m = 0.5 kg s
–1 600
–1
45800
Qu_m = 1 kg s
Qu_m = 2 kg s
–1 550
–1
Qu_m = 4 kg s 45600
250 500
Heat loss,Qloss/W

Heat loss,Qloss/W
Useful gain,Qu/W

Useful gain,Qu/W

450 45400

400 45200
25000
200
350
45000
300
44800
250
150
200 44600

150
44400
100 24900 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50

(a) (b)

Fig. 6  Influence of the number of divisions on useful gain and heat loss of a single ET-150 collector at turbulent flow conditions– Solar beam
radiation of (a) 500 W ­m−2 and (b) 900 W ­m−2

13
154
23400
23200
23000
Irreversibility/W
22800
22600
22400
22200
22000
0 10 20 30 40 50
(a)
Fig. 7  Influence of the number of divisions on Irreversibility of a single ET-150 collector at turbulent flow conditions– Solar beam radiation of
(a) 500 W ­m−2 and (b) 900 W ­m−2
of the model is achieved for all cases tested at ten divisions
for Gb = 500 W ­m−2 and twenty divisions for Gb = 900 W
­m−2.
The results indicated that the values of useful gain and
heat loss are not dependent of number of divisions for mass
flow rates above 2 kg ­s−1, whereas for 0.5 and 1 kg ­s−1 a dis-
cretization procedure of the PTC receiver becomes impor-
tant to stabilize the values of useful gain and heat loss. The
useful gain is largely affected as the discretization of the
PTC receiver is increased for mass flow rates of 0.5 kg ­s−1
and 1 kg ­s−1, reaching differences of about 25% between the
stabilized and non-stabilized values.
The same sensitivity analysis is performed to predict the
Irreversibility as function of the number of divisions of the
PTC receiver and it is shown in Fig. 7. The Irreversibility
is not sensitive to the increasing of number of divisions for
mass flow rates of 2 kg ­s−1 and 4 kg ­s−1 for both irradi-
ance levels, as occurred on useful gain and heat loss. On the
other hand, for 0.5 kg ­s−1 and 1.0 kg ­s−1 the irreversibility
is slightly dependent of the number of divisions, in which
the stability is achieved for at least five divisions on the PTC
receiver along the main flow direction.
In general way, the variations on useful gain and heat loss
according to number of divisions can be explained by the
abrupt changes on specific heat capacity, density, and viscos-
ity of the fluid as the particles of fluid travel along the main
flow direction for inlet velocities below 1 kg ­s−1. Thus, the
results have shown the necessity to update the thermodynamic
properties of the HTF along the axial direction to mitigate the
errors of the numerical predictions, especially for low mass
flow rates.
13
J. C. da Costa Filho et al.
m = 0.5 kg s–1
m = 1 kg s–1 42000
m = 2 kg s–1
m = 4 kg s–1
41000
Irreversibility/W
40000
39000
38000
0 10 20 30 40 50
(b)
PTC receiver operating under laminar and transition
flow conditions
In the next paragraphs it will be discussed the sensitivity of
the numerical procedure as the number of divisions of a sin-
gle ET-150 collector is increased, for laminar/transition flow
conditions (ranging from 300 to 2800). It is well known that
the most of commercial PTC modules operates at turbulent
flow conditions, but in particular cases where the designed
PTC array requires the use of very low mass flow rates (such
as small PTC modules for building integration), low density/
high viscosity HTFs and/or small absorber tube diameters,
the PTC modules of the array could operate under laminar/
transition flow conditions.
As shown in Figs. 8 and 9 it is possible to verify that
regardless mass flow rates the behaviour of heat loss, useful
gain, and irreversibility are nearly constant for number of
divisions higher than 100.
Numerical validation
To verify the robustness and reliability of the current numer-
ical procedure, thermal efficiencies in function of the aver-
age temperature above ambient are numerically predicted for
the current model for a single LS-2 commercial parabolic
trough solar collector developed by Sandia Laboratories and
the results compared to experimental data and performance
equation proposed by Dudley et al. [56], and numerical
results predicted by Padilla et al. [29]. According to previ-
ous analyses for turbulent flow conditions, twenty divisions
on axial direction of the PTC receiver were used to perform
the numerical simulations. The validation results are sum-
marized in Fig. 10.
Thermal and economic investigations of parabolic trough collector arrays with application… 155

–1
Qloss_m = 0.5 kg s
12000 Qloss_m = 1 kg s–1
Qloss_m = 2 kg s–1 28000 44000
24000
Qloss_m = 4 kg s–1 42000
26000
Qu_m = 0.5 kg s–1
10000 Qu_m = 1 kg s–1 24000 40000
22000
Qu_m = 2 kg s–1 22000 38000
Qu_m = 4 kg s–1
20000 36000
Heat loss,Qloss/W

8000 20000

Useful gain,Qu/W
Heat loss,Qloss/W
34000

Useful gain,Qu/W
18000
16000 32000
18000
6000 14000 30000

12000 28000
16000
26000
4000 10000
24000
14000 8000
22000
6000
2000 20000
12000 4000
18000
2000
16000
0 10000 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500

(a)
(b)

Fig. 8  Influence of the number of divisions on useful gain and heat loss of a single ET-150 collector at laminar/transition flow conditions– Solar
beam radiation of (a) 500 W m­ −2 and (b) 900 W ­m−2

m = 0.05 kg s–1
m = 0.1 kg s–1 48000
m = 0.2 kg s–1
23000
44800

22000
Irreversibility/W

Irreversibility/W
41600

21000
38400
20000

35200
19000

32000
18000

0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500

(a) (b)

Fig. 9  Influence of the number of divisions on Irreversibility of a single ET-150 collector at laminar/transition flow conditions– Solar beam
radiation of (a) 500 W ­m−2 and (b) 900 W ­m−2

As shown in Fig. 10, the current model follows the trends Results and discussion
of the numerical model [29] and, experimental data and per-
formance equation [56], in which predicted thermal efficien- The discussion of results is presented in two parts: (i).
cies from this work present less discrepancies than the model The first part is devoted to energetic and exergetic perfor-
proposed by Padilla et al. [29] when compared to experi- mance study of the ET-150 PTC modules on inline arrays
mental data, especially in the ranges of average temperature (Fig. 11) operating with Therminol VP-1 and Molten salt
above ambient for two distinct intervals: 125 ºC-180 ºC and at different mass flow rates, absorber tube diameters and
275 ºC-360 ºC. Moreover, the current research predictions solar beam radiation levels (in which the PTC modules are
are in the majority of points less than 1% error deviation and firstly analysed individually and after at an overall thermal
all extreme points below 3% error when compared to experi- performance analysis); (ii). The second part is focused on
mental data and performance equation [56]. Henceforth it an economic analysis of the PTC grid as a heat source for
is possible to conclude that the current research model is in an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) under both environmental
good agreement with reference results to perform the analy- conditions of the Northeast region of Brazil and Brazilian
ses in a good confidence level, with negligible computational governmental taxes. The ranges of the variables explored in
efforts. the thermal performance analysis are summarized in Table 7

13
156 J. C. da Costa Filho et al.

0.76 5 Table 7  Variable ranges investigated in the thermal performance

Experimental [56]
0.74
Current research analysis
Performance eq. [56]

0.72
Padilla et. al [29]
4 Variable Range Unit
0.70
Mass flow rate 0.75–4 kg ­s−1
Thermal efficiency

HTF Therminol VP-1

Relative error/%
0.68 3

0.66 Molten salt

0.64 Solar beam radiation 500–900 W ­m−2
2
0.62
Absorber tube inner diameter 0.066–0.080 m

0.60
1
0.58

0.56 Table 8  ORC simulation parameters adopted as constant

0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Parameter Value
Average temperature above ambient/°C
Ambient Temperature/ºC 28
Fig. 10  Comparison of the thermal efficiency among the current Ambient Pressure/kPa 100
numerical model and, test data and other numerical procedures, for Pressure in intermediate circuit/kPa 1000
Sandia LS2 parabolic trough solar collector. Symbols “ + ” and “x” Inlet pressure of steam turbine/kPa 3028
are the relative errors among current numerical prediction and both, Temperature difference between HRSG and steam turbine 20
experimental data and performance equation presented in Dudley entrance/ºC
et al. [56], respectively
Isentropic efficiency of steam turbine 0.9
Outlet quality of hot fluid from the regenerator/% 100
Isentropic efficiency of the pump 0.85
and the PTC parameters used in the thermo-economic analy-
Outlet temperature of hot fluid from the condenser/ºC 35
ses are condensed in Table 8.
Approach point/ºC 10
Pinch point/ºC 10
Energetic performance of individual PTC module
of the array
The heat transfer analysis shows that mass flow rate has
Useful gain, Q
­ u a significant impact on useful gain, in which increasing the
receiver tube diameter results in lower heat gain for any of
Figure 12 presents the useful gain of the studied PTC array the studied scenarios. It is important to emphasize that the
by varying the mass flow rate for Therminol VP-1 and degradation in heat gain is less significant when the col-
molten salt. The useful gain is investigated for solar beam lector operates with higher mass flow rates. Such behav-
radiation of 500 W ­m−2 and 900 W ­m−2 along with eight iour becomes more pronounced as the number of collectors
PTC modules in series. First, the mass flow rate changes on the array increases, especially when Therminol VP-1 is
from 0.75 kg ­s−1 to 4 kg ­s−1 for absorber inner diameters of used as the working fluid. In the case of Therminol VP-1
66 mm and 80 mm. In general, it can be observed that there and Gb = 500 W ­m−2, for the mass flow rate of 4 kg ­s−1 the
is a decrease in useful gain along with evaluated absorber absorber diameter has low effect on Qu. On the other hand,
tubes from the first to eighth PTC module of the array. for mass flow rate of 0.5 and 1 kg ­s−1 the increase in the

Fig. 11  PTC modules at inline PTC 8

array used for discussion of
results of the items 5.1, 5.2,
and 5.3 Hot fluid

PTC 3
PTC 2
PTC 1

Cold fluid

13
Thermal and economic investigations of parabolic trough collector arrays with application… 157

26000 48000
25800
45000
25600
42000
Useful gain,Qu/W

25400

Useful gain,Qu/W
25200 39000

25000 36000
24800
33000
24600
30000
24400

24200 27000

24000 24000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Therminol-VP1-500 Wm–2 Therminol-VP1-900 Wm–2

0.75 kg s–1 - 66 mm
0.75 kg s–1 - 80 mm
(a) Useful gain for each PTC module-therminol VP-1 1 kg s–1 - 66 mm (b) Useful gain for each PTC module-therminol VP-1
1 kg s–1 - 80 mm Gb = 900 W m–2
Gb = 500 W m–2 2 kg s–1 - 66 mm
2 kg s–1 - 80 mm
4 kg s–1 - 66 mm
4 kg s–1 - 80 mm

25000
45000
24000
42000
23000 39000
22000 36000
Useful gain,Qu/W

21000
Useful gain,Qu/W
33000
20000 30000

19000 27000

18000 24000

17000 21000

16000 18000

15000 15000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Molten salt-500 Wm–2 Molten salt-900 Wm–2

(c) Useful gain for each PTC module-molten salt and (d) Useful gain for each PTC module-molten salt and
Gb = 500 W m–2 Gb = 900 W m–2

Fig. 12  Useful gain for each PTC module of the array as function of mass flow rate, solar beam radiation and absorber tube diameter. For each
case (a, b, c, and d) the PTC array contains 8 modules and each module (1 to 8) is to be analysed individually

diameter has a negative impact on ­Qu, especially after the
fifth collector. For Gb = 900 W ­m−2, the mass flow rate has
a similar behaviour as in the previous case (Gb = 500 W
­m−2) but the results show to be more evident for lower mass
flow rate values. For example, as displayed in Fig. 12, when
the collector operates with a mass flow rate of 4 kg ­s−1 the
useful gain of the last collector of the array is only 0.30%
lower than on the first (Therminol VP-1, Gb = 900 W ­m−2),
whereas operating with 0.75 kg ­s−1 of the same fluid the
value becomes about 12% lower at the last collector than at
the first collector.
Using molten salt as HTF, for all mass flow rates the
increase of the absorber diameter has a low effect on Qu,
independently of the solar beam radiation level. In terms
of energetic analysis, smaller absorber tube diameters and
higher mass flow rates tend to keep Qu constant along with
the array, as occurred with Therminol VP-1. Furthermore,
low mass flow rates with higher irradiance are detrimental
in terms of Qu if molten salt is used as HTF.
By comparing both HTFs, molten salt leads to a lower
useful gain than Therminol VP-1, for both solar radiation
conditions. The difference in useful gain for a collector oper-
ating with both HTFs becomes more noticeable as the fluid
travels along with the array. Accordingly, while the useful
gain for a collector using molten salt is 12.5% smaller on the
first collector than one using Therminol VP-1 (0.75 kg ­s−1,
Gb = 500 W ­m−2); on the last PTC module of the array this
value becomes as high as 44% (0.75 kg ­s−1, Gb = 900 W

13
158 J. C. da Costa Filho et al.

­m−2), for the same absorber tube diameter. For molten salt,
this difference is even more considerable, with about 44%
lower useful gain on the last collector when it operates with
0.75 kg ­s−1, against 3% when operating with 4 kg ­s−1, for
the same environmental conditions with Therminol VP-1.
It is also important to note that the heat gains achieved by
increasing the mass flow rate from 0.75 to 1 kg ­s−1 is higher
than from 1 to 2 kg ­s−1, and so on. Moreover, in the case
of Therminol VP-1 the thermal performance tends to be
degraded through the PTC array especially for low mass
flow rates. This behaviour is most evident for molten salt
in which Qu is extremely affected by lower mass flow rates,
especially after the fifth PTC module of the array.
Heat loss, Q
­ L
The predicted results of heat losses along the array of PTC
modules in terms of fluid types, absorber tube diameter,
solar beam radiation levels, and mass flow rates are shown
in Fig. 13.
Regarding the variation of the receiver tube diameter,
it is shown that its impact is more relevant when the col-
lector operates with Therminol VP-1 than molten salt. For
instance, when the absorber tube diameter changes from
66 to 80 mm, heat losses can increase up to 49% (first col-
lector of the array—0.75 kg ­s−1, 900 W ­m−2) when using
Therminol VP-1 as HTF (Fig. 12b). For molten salt, this
value rises 24% (first collector of the array—1 kg ­s−1, 900

1400
4000

1200
3500

1000 3000

Heat loss,QL/W
Heat loss,QL/W

2500
800

2000
600
1500
400
1000

200
500

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Therminol-VP1-500 Wm–2 Therminol-VP1-900 Wm–2
0.75 kg s–1 - 66 mm
(a) Heat loss for each PTC module-therminol VP-1 0.75 kg s–1 - 80 mm
1 kg s–1 - 66 mm
and Gb = 500 W m–2 1 kg s–1 - 80 mm (b) Heat loss for each PTC module-therminol VP-1
2 kg s–1 - 66 mm Gb = 900 W m–2
2 kg s–1 - 80 mm
4 kg s–1 - 66 mm
4 kg s–1 - 80 mm

10000 20000

9000 18000

8000 16000

7000 14000
Heat loss,QL/W
Heat loss,QL/W

6000 12000

5000 10000

4000 8000

3000 6000

2000 4000

1000 2000

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Molten salt-500 Wm–2 Molten salt-900 Wm–2

(c) Heat loss for each PTC module-molten salt and (d) Heat loss for each PTC module-molten salt and
Gb = 500 W m–2 Gb = 900 W m–2

Fig. 13  Heat loss for each PTC module of the array as function of mass flow rate, solar beam radiation level and absorber tube diameter. For
each case (a, b, c, and d) the array contains 8 modules and each module (1 to 8) is to be analysed individually

13
Thermal and economic investigations of parabolic trough collector arrays with application…
W ­m−2). Another important highlight is that even though
the absolute change in the heat loss produced by increas-
ing the receiver diameter is greater on the last collectors of
the array, the relative change is more significant at the first
collectors. Furthermore, for both solar radiation levels,
the combination of small diameters and high mass flow
rate seems to be a good choice to reduce thermal losses.
Finally, the increase of the absorber tube diameter from 66
to 80 mm induces about 40% of augmentation of thermal
losses at the same mass flow rate and Gb = 900 W ­m−2.
With respect to the mass flow rate for Gb = 500 W ­m−2,
the heat losses for each PTC module along with array tend
to be higher when operating with low mass flow rates. In
the worst scenario (0.75 kg ­s−1 and absorber tube diameter
of 80 mm), i.e. the maximum difference between first and
eighth collectors at the same array, the value of heat losses
at the last collector of the array is about 400% higher than on
the first collector of the same array. Otherwise, the increase
of the thermal losses between first and eighth collectors is
about 200% on the best scenario, i.e. the minimum differ-
ence between first and last collectors (4 kg ­s−1 and absorber
tube diameter of 66 mm). For Gb = 900 W ­m−2 and perform-
ing the same analysis, in the worst and best cases the heat
losses between the first and eighth collectors of the array is
about 500% and 250%, respectively.
By performing equivalent analysis for molten salt, the
effect of the absorber tube diameter and mass flow rate on
heat losses along the PTC array is qualitatively similar to
that presented for Therminol VP-1. However, the absolute
values of heat losses are less pronounced in molten salt than
Therminol VP-1. Moreover, for the worst and best cases,
the heat losses at the last collector are about 250% and 20%
higher than the first one, respectively, for Gb = 500 W ­m−2.
On the other hand, the increase in the irradiance level to 900
W ­m−2 shows that the heat losses are augmented by about
400% at the worst scenario and 20% in the best scenario.
Thermal efficiency, th
As observed in Fig. 14, for all simulated conditions the ther-
mal efficiency of each collector decreases along with the
PTC array, this behaviour is even significant as the solar
radiation level increases and/or the mass flow rate is reduced.
Thus, the efficiency losses on the PTC array become more
considerable as the number of modules in the array increases
for small mass flow rates.
Two distinct behaviours can be observed regarding the
effect of augmentation of the absorber tube diameter on ther-
mal efficiency of the PTC array: at first, an increase in the
159
diameter of the absorber tube leads to mitigation in thermal
efficiency for mass flow rates lower than 1 kg ­s−1, while for
mass flow rates higher than 1 kg ­s−1 a very slight decrease
on the thermal efficiency is noted. Secondly, the increase of
the absorber tube diameter negatively impacts the thermal
efficiency when the PTC modules are operating with molten
salt than Therminol VP-1.
Comparing Fig. 14a, b, the PTC modules operating with
Therminol seems to be less sensitive to modifications on
solar radiation level than molten salt. Furthermore, for high
mass flow rates the efficiency of the PTC modules almost
remains constant along with the array. In the case of molten
salt used as working fluid (Fig. 14c, d), the thermal effi-
ciency is slightly higher at Gb = 900 W ­m−2 than 500 W ­m−2
in the PTC array.
By inspection of Fig. 14, it is recommended the use of
Therminol VP-1 used as working fluid since the decrease
in thermal efficiency is less pronounced than molten salt
through the PTC array. However, if the use of molten salt
becomes imperative due to some restrictive environmental
laws, low-cost operations, etc., it is suggested the use of
three or four collectors in the array in order to reduce the
degradation of the thermal performance for mass flow rates
smaller than 1 kg ­s−1.
Irreversibility of individual PTC module of the array
According to the equation of irreversibility, the output tem-
perature of the HTF of the PTC array plays an important role
in the irreversibility generation. Thus, the operating param-
eters such as the mass flow rate and solar radiation affect the
output temperature of HTF, and ultimately the irreversibility
of the process.
As can be seen in Fig. 15, in general, the irreversibil-
ity decreases along with the PTC array. Moreover, it can
be noted that for lower mass flow rates the irreversibility
is higher at Gb = 500 W ­m−2 than 900 W ­m−2, which is
expected since the increase of the difference between outlet
and inlet temperatures of the HTF leads to irreversibility
augmentation. It is also observed that, by analysing Fig. 14c,
d in combination with Fig. 13c, d, the values of heat loss
for molten salt are much higher than Therminol VP-1. In
addition, since the specific heat of the molten salt is smaller
than Therminol VP-1 and, according to the irreversibility
equation, the heat loss is always increasing for the collectors
along the flow direction and at the same time, the useful gain
is decreasing for the next collectors along the flow direction.
Therefore, for smaller mass flow rates, the reduction of Qu
is very pronounced, which results in augmentation of the
irreversibility for smaller mass flow rates as compared to
Therminol VP-1.
13
160 J. C. da Costa Filho et al.

0.75
0.75
0.74
0.74
0.73
0.73
0.72

Energetic efficiency
0.72
Energetic efficiency

0.71
0.71
0.70
0.70
0.69
0.69
0.68
0.68
0.67
0.67
0.66
0.66
0.65
0.65
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Therminol-VP1-500 Wm–2 Therminol-VP1-900 Wm–2
0.75 kg s–1 - 66 mm
0.75 kg s–1 - 80 mm
(a) Thermal efficiency for each PTC module-therminol 1 kg s–1 - 66 mm
VP-1 and Gb = 500 W m–2 1 kg s–1 - 80 mm (b) Thermal efficiency for each PTC module-
2 kg s–1 - 66 mm therminol VP-1 and Gb = 900 W m–2
2 kg s–1 - 80 mm
4 kg s–1 - 66 mm
4 kg s–1 - 80 mm

0.75
0.75
0.70
0.70
0.65
0.65
Energetic efficiency

Energetic efficiency

0.60
0.60
0.55
0.55

0.50
0.50

0.45
0.45

0.40
0.40

0.35
0.35
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Molten salt-500 Wm–2
Molten salt-900 Wm–2
(c) Thermal efficiency for each PTC module-molten salt and (d) Thermal efficiency for each PTC module-molten salt and
Gb = 500 W m–2 Gb = 900 W m–2

Fig. 14  Thermal efficiency for each PTC module of the array as function of mass flow rate, solar beam radiation level and absorber tube diam-
eter. For each case (a, b, c, and d) the array contains 8 modules and each module (1 to 8) is to be analysed individually

Energetic and exergetic efficiencies—Accumulated
values
Figure 16 presents a comparison of overall energetic and
exergetic efficiencies through the array with eight Euro-
Trough ET-150 collectors. Two interesting behaviours are
shown: for mass flow rates of 0.75 and 1 kg ­s−1 the curves
of the energetic and exergetic efficiencies present a quadratic
form for both solar radiation levels and HTFs, except on
the case of energetic efficiency for the pair molten salt and
Gb = 500 W ­m−2; whereas for the other mass flow rates the
curves seem to take a linear form. Furthermore, an inflection
point on exergetic efficiency curve can be observed at the
fourth collector of the array for mass flow rates of 0.75 and
1 kg ­s−1. In this sense, the use of an array with four ET-150
collectors operating with molten salt and at mass flow rates
smaller than 1 kg ­s−1 can be assumed as the most adequate
assembly based on the parameters considered in the current
research.
In all cases investigated, the energetic efficiency
decreases along with the array, and the use of high mass
flow rates can minimize this issue. By using Therminol VP-1

13
Thermal and economic investigations of parabolic trough collector arrays with application… 161

50000 50000
45000 45000
40000 40000
35000 35000
Irreversibility

Irreversibility
30000 30000
25000 25000
20000 20000
15000 15000
10000 10000
5000 5000
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Therminol-VP1-500 Wm–2 Therminol-VP1-900 Wm–2
0.75 kg s–1 - 66 mm
0.75 kg s–1 - 80 mm
(a) Irreversibility for each PTC module-therminol 1 kg s–1 - 66 mm (b) Irreversibility for each PTC module-therminol
1 kg s–1 - 80 mm
VP-1 and Gb = 500 W m–2 2 kg s–1 - 66 mm VP-1 and Gb = 900 W m–2
2 kg s–1 - 80 mm
4 kg s–1 - 66 mm
4 kg s–1 - 80 mm

50000 50000
45000 45000
40000 40000
35000 35000
Irreversibility

Irreversibility
30000 30000
25000 25000
20000 20000
15000 15000
10000 10000
5000
5000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–2
Molten salt-500 Wm
Molten salt-900 Wm–2
(c) Irreversibility for each PTC module-molten salt and (d) Irreversibility for each PTC module-molten salt and
Gb = 500 W m–2 Gb = 900 W m–2

Fig. 15  Irreversibility for each PTC of the array as function of mass flow rate, solar beam radiation level and absorber tube diameter. For each
case (a, b, c, and d) the array contains 8 modules and each module (1 to 8) is to be analysed individually

as working fluid for Gb = 500 W ­m−2, Fig. 16a, the thermal
efficiency decays about 2.5% and 0.2% for mass flow rates
of 0.75 kg ­s−1 and 4.0 kg ­s−1, respectively, as the amount
of PTC modules in the array is increased from 1 to 8. For
Gb = 900 W ­m−2, Fig. 16b, the decaying of the thermal effi-
ciency along the array is very similar to the case of Gb = 500
W ­m−2 at mass flow rates higher than 2 kg ­s−1. However, the
increase of the solar radiation level deteriorates the ener-
getic efficiency for lower mass flow rates (0.75 kg ­s−1 and
1 kg ­s−1).
It is clear that the degradation of the energetic efficiency
along the array is much more pronounced when using
molten salt than Therminol VP-1, especially for lower mass
flow rates (0.75 and 1 kg ­s−1). For example, the energetic
efficiency decays from about 65% to 50% at mass flow rate
of 0.75 kg ­s−1 and Gb = 500 W ­m−2, and from 66 to 46% for
the pair 0.75 kg ­s−1 and Gb = 900 W ­m−2, as observed in
Fig. 15c, d.
It can be observed from Fig. 16 that, overall, for both
energetic and exergetic efficiencies the curves are linear for
higher mass flow rates (2 and 4 kg ­s−1) and nonlinear for the
lower rates. In addition, it is worth noting that the increase
of exergetic efficiency is more pronounced for lower mass
flow rates and higher solar beam radiation especially in the
case of Therminol VP-1 due to the inlet temperature in this
case is much lower than the ones for molten salt. Also, for
Therminol VP-1 the curves behave monotonically but for
molten salt the exergetic curves for lower mass flow rates

13
162 J. C. da Costa Filho et al.

0.35 0.77 0.35 0.77

0.75 kg s–1 - 66 mm 0.75 kg s–1
1 kg s–1 0.76 1 kg s–1 0.76
0.30 0.30
2 kg s–1 2 kg s–1
4 kg s–1 0.75 4 kg s–1 0.75

Energetic efficiency
Energetic efficiency
0.25 0.25

Exergetic efficiency
Exergetic efficiency

0.74 0.74
0.20 0.20
0.73 0.73
0.15 0.15
0.72 0.72
0.10 0.10
0.71 0.71

0.05 0.7 0.05 0.70

0.00 0.69 0.00 0.69

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of PTC Number of PTC

(b) Accumulated energetic and exergetic efficiencies of the

(a) Accumulated energetic and exergetic efficiencies of the
PTC array-therminol VP-1 and Gb = 900 W m–2
PTC array-therminol VP-1 and Gb = 500 W m–2

0.75 kg s–1 0.80

0.75 kg s–1 0.44 1 kg s–1
0.44 0.80
1 kg s–1 2 kg s–1 0.75
2 kg s–1 0.75 0.42 4 kg s–1
0.42 4 kg s–1 0.70

Exergetic efficiency
Energetic efficiency

0.70

Energetic efficiency
Exergetic efficiency

0.40 0.65
0.40 0.65
0.38 0.60
0.38 0.60
0.55
0.55
0.36
0.36 0.50
0.50
0.34 0.34 0.45
0.45
0.40 0.40
0.32 0.32
0.35 0.35
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of PTC Number of PTC

(c) Accumulated energetic and exergetic efficiencies of the (d) Accumulated energetic and exergetic efficiencies of the
PTC array-molten salt and Gb = 900 W m–2
PTC array-molten salt and Gb = 500 W m–2

Fig. 16  Accumulated energetic and exergetic efficiencies as function of the number of PTC module in the array, mass flow rate and solar beam
radiation—Therminol VP-1 and molten salt

present inflection points (between the third and the fourth 9 federal states or 1,554,291.744 k­ m2 (about 18% of total
collector for 500 W m ­ −2 and between the fourth and the Brazil area) with a population of 56,560,081 habitants. It
fifth collectors for 900 W m­ −2). These inflection points are together represents nearly 14% of total Brazil Gross National
related to the previously explained fact that the irreversibility Product, GNP (R$ 8.2 trillion in 2021) [57].
significantly rises along with the array at a rate higher than As for comparing the energy matrix in Brazil nowadays,
useful gain and increases with the augmentation of inlet and 62.5% of the total installed capacity (174 GW) is based on
outlet temperature differences. hydroelectricity and solar energy represents only 2.7% [58].
Due to investments and government incentives, it is expected
that for 2026 hydroelectricity reduces to 56.6% and solar
energy increases to 4.9% with total matrix installed capac-
Economic analyses: Case study in Northeast ity estimated at 193.5 GW. Besides that, it is worth noting
region of Brazil that solar energy potential is still underexplored by consider-
ing the size of solar radiation potential (average 6.25–6.75
The Northeast region of Brazil in conjunction with the Cen- kWh ­m−2 ­day−1) of the hotspot areas [59]. This potential
tral West region form together the most significant solar radiation corresponds to 400–500 W m ­ −2 (average), and it
hotspot at Latin America, Fig. 17. NE region is formed by is observed that in the NE region in most part of the seasons

13
Thermal and economic investigations of parabolic trough collector arrays with application… 163

Legend: Wh m–2 day–1

Solar hotspots 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000 3250 3500 3750 4000 4250 4500 4750 5000 5250 5500 5750 6000 6250 6500 6750
N 0 375 750 1500 2250 3000
km Latin america
1:500,000,000

Fig. 17  Solar energy hotspots in Latin America (left) and direct normal irradiance (annual average) for Brazil (left) with northeast region (NE)
highlighted in the dash-dot rectangle. Adapted from Viviescas et al. [61] and Pereira et al. [57]

the irradiance levels between 10 AM and 3 PM usually reach Nomenclture:

SH: Superheater
700 W ­m−2 or more which represents a very good potential EV: Evaporator
EC: Economizer
for solar energy exploration. SH ST: Steam turbine
G: Generator
In addition, besides the unexplored potential of solar ST G RE: Regenerator
P: Pump
energy in Brazil, the effects of climate changes are CD: Condenser
CT: Cooling tower
decreasing hydroelectricity potential in tropical areas EV
due to severe droughts in recent periods. On the other
hand, solar radiation tends to increase. As remarked in
RE
the study by Jong et al. [60], climate change is predicted EC
to cause significantly reduced rainfall and higher tem-
peratures in most regions of Brazil compared to the end
of the twentieth century. More specifically, the stream- P CT
CD
flow in semiarid locations (NE region) is significantly
vulnerable to climate change. It is reported that by the
2080s, surface solar radiation is projected to increase
across most of Brazil and could increase on average by
Fig. 18  Regenerative ORC layout
3.6% across the NE region compared to the 1970s. In this
sense, the authors advocate a consensus that solar radia-
tion would increase at all solar farm locations analysed Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) operating
in the NE region. with n‑Pentane
In the next sections it will be presented the thermo-
economic analysis for a PTC power plant hypothetically ORC model
installed in the NE region of Brazil by assuming the real
ambient conditions with respect to the solar beam radiation To select the best working fluid, it is necessary to evalu-
in the range 500–700 W m ­ −2 and the Brazilian economic ate thermophysical properties such as critical temperature
scenario. and pressure, specific volume, thermal stability, viscosity,
etc. [62]. Furthermore, it is imperative to choose fluids with

13
164 J. C. da Costa Filho et al.

Table 9  Costs distribution [72] Table 11  Economic assumptions for the power block
Purchase Equipment Cost PEC Lifetime/years 15
Installation 20% PEC Operating time/hours y­ ear−1 8060
Annual Rate/% 5
Pipes 15% PEC
Electricity Cost/$ ­kWh−1 0.3
Instrumentation and Control 6% PEC
Electric Installations 10% PEC PTC Module Cost/$ ­m−2 200
Land and Civil Works 15% PEC
Total Cost of Plant (ready for operation) 166% PEC
Maintenance Cost 5% PEC Table 12  Taxes and charges considering in economic analysis
according to Brazilian legislation
Taxes Percentage Description
Table 10  Parameters ­K1, ­K2, and ­K3 to determine the purchase equip-
ment costs IR 25% Corporate tax on net profit
ICMS 18% Brazilian state excise tax
Component Variable (X) K1 K2 K3
COFINS 2% Social security financing contribution
Pumps Power/kW 3.3892 0.0536 0.1538 TFSEE 0.5% Annual inspection fee on annual revenue
Turbines Power/kW 2.6259 −0.1557 0.1547 (ANEEL)
Heat Exchanger Area/m2 4.6656 1.4398 −0.1776 CSLL 8% Social contribution on net income
PIS 0.65% Profit participation program contribution

minimum environmental impacts, evaluated through the

Global Warming Potential (GWP) and zero Ozone Depletion
Potential (ODP). The organic fluid used herein is n-Pentane
due to its higher temperature applications, lower both com-
plexity and environmental impact [63–65]. Since n-Pentane
is classified as a dry fluid, a regenerative ORC layout is nec-
essary to use the heat rejection on the turbine exit to preheat
the organic fluid before entering the heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG), equipment that consists of superheater,
evaporator, and economizer. The schematic layout of the
regenerative ORC is displayed in Fig. 18.
All the equations used in ORC simulation are detailed in
Morais et al. [65]. The simulations were performed by using
the EES software [66] since the thermodynamic properties
of the organic fluids are readily available. It was assumed as
an initial hypothesis that all processes occur in a steady-state
condition, without variations of kinetic and potential energy,
as well as considering heat transfer processes at constant
pressure. Additional simulation parameters are shown in
Table 8.
Economic analysis definitions
The equipment cost of a Solar-ORC plant determines the
profitability of the project and as consequence an economic
evaluation of those systems is of crucial importance. In
addition to the energetic and exergetic analyses, it is pos-
sible to determine the acquisition costs of each equipment
(PEC, purchase equipment cost), usually as a function of
the required area for heat exchangers, and the generated/
consumed power by turbines and pumps [67–71]. Other
costs such as direct, indirect, operating and maintenance
costs can be estimated by using the PEC value. Table 9
summarizes the breakdown of the total investment cost for
energy conversion systems [72].
Heat exchanger costs (evaporator, economizer, super-
heater, regenerator, and condenser), steam turbines, and
pumps are estimated using the correlations proposed by
Heberle et al. [73] and presented by Eq. (23)
log10 (PEC) = K1 + K2 log10 (X) + K3 log10 (X)2 (23)
where parameters ­K 1, ­K 2, and ­K 3 and other economic
assumptions of the power block can be assumed as shown
in Tables 10 and 11.
After the implementation costs of the proposed system have
been assessed, the sales prices of the electric energy need to
be determined to calculate the revenues and operating costs.
In Brazil, the price of electricity is in the range of 38–100 $
­MWh−1, depending on the source of power generation, coun-
try region, and end-users [74]. An economic valuation must
include accounting and tax variables. The cash flow must
consider all taxes and other charges related to the generation
of electricity. Table 12 summarizes all taxes and charges to
produce electricity according to the Brazilian legislation.
The economic valuation methodology uses several tech-
niques that provide decision criteria to determine the economic
and financial viability of investments, considering opportunity
costs [75]. These decision parameters are determined by two

13
Thermal and economic investigations of parabolic trough collector arrays with application… 165

Fig. 19  PTC power plant grid

from five to fifty PTC modules
with eight modules in a row

Row n

Row 3 PTC 8

Row 2 Hot fluid

to ORC
PTC 3
PTC 2
Row 1
PTC 1

Cold fluid

important variables: net present value (NPV), and internal rate 14 m = 0.75 kg s–1
of return (IRR). In this analysis, the NPV and the IRR will be m = 1 kg s–1
m = 2 kg s–1
12
the two main parameters. m = 4 kg s–1

NPV is a parameter used to assess the impact of future 10

events related to a particular investment on present value. In

NPV/M US$

other words, NPV is the monetary equivalence of the future 6

cash flows at the current point in time, discounted at the attrac-
tive minimum interest rate. The NPV equation is given by [65] 4

2
∑n CFi
NPV = (24) 0
i=1 (1 + i)t
0 10 20 30 40 50
where CF is the cash flow in the period t; i is the annual Collector rows

interest rate; and t is the period (annual).

The cash flow is the sum of the income minus the system Fig. 20  Net present value in million dollars versus number of collec-
expenses. Incomes include the sale of the produced elec- tor rows – Gb = 700 W ­m−2
trical energy, while the expenses include the amortization
of the investment plus taxes and fees. The amortization is
Table 13  Variable ranges investigated in the thermo-economic analy-
expressed by Eq. (25), where the variable INV represents the
sis
total investment [65],
Variable Range Unit
i(1 + i)t
[ ]
Am = INV (25) Mass flow rate 0.75–4 kg ­s−1
(1 + i)t − 1 Solar beam radiation 500–700 W ­m−2
The IRR is defined as the discount rate at which the NPV Number of rows 1–50
of the project’s cash flows is zero. The IRR is calculated to
determine if the profitability of the project exceeds a min-
imum acceptable rate of return. Equation (26) shows the Results and discussion for thermo‑economic
expression used to calculate the IRR [65]: analyses
∑n CFt
INV = (26) Mass flow rate versus solar beam radiation level
i=1 (1 + IRR)t
This case study will be based on the economic analysis of a
different number of ET-150 PTC rows (previously shown in

13
166 J. C. da Costa Filho et al.

5 m = 0.75 kg s–1 m = 0.75 kg s–1

4%
m = 1 kg s–1 m = 1 kg s–1
m = 2 kg s–1 m = 2 kg s–1
4
m = 4 kg s–1 2% m = 4 kg s–1

3
NPV/M US$

0%

IRR/%
2
– 2%

1
– 4%
0
– 6%
–1
– 8%
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Collector rows Collector rows

Fig. 21  Net present value in million dollars versus number of collec- Fig. 23  Internal Rate of Return versus number of collector rows –
tor rows – Gb = 500 W ­m−2 Gb = 500 W ­m−2

Table 5) in a power plant grid as displayed in Fig. 19. The
influence of the number of PTC rows and solar radiation on
the NPV and IRR is shown in Figs. 17–20 with mass flow
rates of Therminol VP-1 for each PTC array ranging from
0.75 to 4 kg ­s−1. Choosing the number of collector rows
has a high influence on both the NPV and IRR, due to the
variation in mass flow rates of the HTF and ORC electricity
production. Higher values of NPV and IRR are observed
with the low mass flow rates, 0.75 and 1 kg ­s−1, because of
the inversely proportional relationship between the collector
output temperature and mass flow rates. Therefore, as the
mass flow rate increases, the output temperature decreases,
thus reducing the turbine input temperature, and the ORC
electricity production (Table 13).
By comparing the NPV curves in function of the number
of collector rows, Figs. 20 and 21, the best NPV values are
achieved for mass flow rates of 1 kg ­s−1 and 0.75 kg ­s−1 at
Gb = 700 W ­m−2 and 500 W ­m−2, respectively. For Gb = 700
W ­m−2 the curves of NPV are linear for all mass flow rates
investigated. Otherwise, for irradiance level of 500 W ­m−2,
10% m = 0.75 kg s–1
m = 1 kg s–1
8% m = 2 kg s–1
m = 4 kg s–1
6%
IRR/%
only at mass flow rate of 0.75 kg ­s−1 the NPV curve is nearly
linear, whereas at the other three mass flow rates the curves
are clearly nonlinear. Moreover, it is important to note that,
also regarding NPV, the use of mass flow rate of 4 kg ­s−1 is
not economically viable for the lower solar radiation level.
At last, for 700 W ­m−2 the NPV becomes positive when
using more than 10 rows of PTC at any mass flow rates. On
the other hand, for irradiance of 500 W m ­ −2 the NPV values
are positive for number of PTC rows higher than 20, 35 and
50 for mass flow rates of 0.75 kg ­s−1, 1 kg ­s−1 and 2 kg ­s−1,
respectively.
Figures 22 and 23 present the curves of the Internal Rate
of Return (IRR) for 700 W m ­ −2 and 500 W m ­ −2, respectively.
From those, the IRR becomes interesting for PTC arrays
under very high solar radiation levels, such as in the case
of Gb = 700 W ­m−2. For the higher solar radiation level, the
mass flow rate of 1 kg ­s−1 presents the best IRR, followed
by the mass flow rate of 0.75 kg ­s−1.
Based on the results from the previous paragraphs, in the
next sections will be presented the evaluation of the impact
of the main parameters, such as electricity cost, PTC module
cost, HTF cost, and Brazilian taxes, for PTC arrays operating
with a mass flow rate of 1 kg ­s−1 and Gb = 700 W ­m−2 as the
heat source of an ORC plant. It is run a project of 3.9 MW
ORC plant by using a solar field containing 400 ET-150
modules, being 50 rows and 8 collectors in a row in order to

4% achieve the required outlet temperature of the organic fluid

2% in the inlet of the steam turbine, which must be higher than
the critical temperature to ensure that there will not be liq-
0%
uid entering the turbine and closer to the value used in the
– 2% plant described in Morais et al. [65]. Based on simulations
0 10 20 30 40 50
of the complete solar power plant, on each collector row the
Collector rows inlet and outlet temperatures are 183 ºC and 300 ºC, respec-
tively. Moreover, it was proposed an array with 50 rows of
Fig. 22  Internal Rate of Return versus number of collector rows – PTC modules on the solar field for the case study because
Gb = 700 W ­m−2

13
Thermal and economic investigations of parabolic trough collector arrays with application… 167

50 25%

40
20%

30
NPV/M US$

15%
20

IRR/%
10 10%

0
5%
– 10

0%
– 20
110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55
PTC cost/US$ m–2
Electricity cost/US$ kW–1 h–1

Fig. 27  Internal Rate of Return versus PTC cost

Fig. 24  Net Value Present in million dollars versus electricity cost

30% 12.84

20% 12.82

NPV/M US$
IRR/%

10%
12.80

0%
12.78

– 10%
12.76
48 136 224 312 400
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55
Electricity cost/US$ kW–1 h–1 HTF cost/US$ kg–1

Fig. 25  Internal Rate of Return versus electricity cost Fig. 28  Net Value Present in million dollars versus HTF cost

25 of the higher NPV achieved and to get the maximum power

generation.
20 With regard to ORC, the useful gain from the solar field,
via HTF, is transferred in the superheater, evaporator, and
economizer and, consequently, to the organic fluid that
NPV/M US$

15
moves the steam turbine in order to generate electricity.

10
Electricity cost

5 The influence of electricity cost on NPV and IRR is shown

in Figs. 23 and 24, respectively. From the analysis of Fig. 21,
0 it is important to note that an increase of 400% in the elec-
110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 tricity cost (0.1 to 0.5 $ k­ Wh−1) leads to a 40-fold increase
PTC cost/US$ m–2
in NPV ($ 40 million). The IRR value becomes positive
for electricity costs higher than 0.19 $ ­kWh−1, while the
Fig. 26  Net Present Value in million dollars versus PTC cost
proposed project becomes attractive with electricity values
above 0.24 $ ­kWh−1.

13
168 J. C. da Costa Filho et al.

8.44% 25 %

20 %
8.42%

15 %
8.4%

IRR/%
IRR/%

10 %
8.38%

5%

8.36%
0%

es

FI IS

C IR

es
M
ax

P
8.34%

ax
t

L
S

an ou
ut
lt

SL
N

tI

tt
Al

an itho

ith
4 48 92 136 180 224 268 312 356 400

ou

ou
O

d
ith

ith
W

C
HTF cost/U$$ kg–1

W
d
Fig. 29  Internal Rate of Return versus HTF cost Fig. 31  Internal Rate of Return with exemption from taxes

PTC module costs HTF costs

The relationship between PTC module cost on NPV and
IRR is shown in Figs. 25 and 26, respectively. The varia-
tion of the PTC cost has a great influence on both NPV and
IRR. A decrease of 40% in the PTC cost leads to both an
increase of 37% in the NPV ($ 7.7 million) and an increase
of 52% in the IRR. It is important to highlight that a PTC
cost below 140 $ ­m −2 leads to IRR values higher than
the minimum interest rate. Therefore, it is evident that
the PTC cost and the electricity cost are two fundamen-
tal parameters in the economic viability of the proposed
power plant.
Figures 27 and 28 present the influence of HTF costs on the
NPV and IRR, respectively. As outlined above, the mass
flow rate entering the PTC array is 1 kg s­ −1. The variation
of the HTF cost did not present a significant impact on both
NPV and IRR. An increase of 100 times in the HTF cost (4
to 400 $ ­kWh−1) leads to a 0.5% decrease in the NPV and a
0.7% decreasing on IRR. In summary, the other parameters
evaluated before, such as the electricity and PTC costs, pre-
sented a much higher impact on the economic indicators,
when compared to the HTF costs.
Tax incentives

One of the possibilities to increase both NPV and IRR can

be achieved by tax incentives of the Brazilian Federal gov-
ernment and its states. Exemption or reduction of taxes on
income (PIS and COFINS), services (ICMS) and on net
income (IR and CSLL) may improve the economic viabil-
40
ity of the plant. Considering the current costs of the PTC
module and electricity in Brazil, the NPV and IRR curves
30
with the exemption of PIS and COFINS, ICMS, IR and
NPV/MU$$

CSLL, and without all taxes, are shown in Figs. 27 and 28,
20
respectively.
Figure 29 shows that a net income from the net income
10
tax significantly impacts the economic viability of the pro-
posed system. The exemption from the taxes increases the
0 NPV of the system from 10 to 40 million dollars (about a
S

30-fold increase). As presented in Fig. 30, the power plant

C IR
es

es
M
O IS
ith S

C
ax

ax
ith LL
t
C P

an hou
N

tI

could reach values of IRR above 20% in order to be eco-

lt

tt
d ut
FI

S
ou
Al

ou
an itho

it
W

nomically feasible when the exemption from the net profit

W

tax is considered (Fig. 31).

Fig. 30  Net Present Value in million dollars with exemption from
taxes

13
Thermal and economic investigations of parabolic trough collector arrays with application…
Concluding remarks
In this work a two-dimensional methodology was imple-
mented and validated on EES software to predict the ther-
mal performance of standard PTC setups under different
environmental conditions with two HTFs (Therminol VP-1
and Molten Salt). By considering the thermophysical prop-
erties nonuniform along an 8-module ET-150 PTC array,
the model allowed detailed energetic and exergetic for each
collector to be performed. Followed by the thermal perfor-
mance analysis, a case study employing from 1 to 50 PTC
arrays as heat source of a 3.9 MW ORC power plant situ-
ated in the Northeast region of Brazil is developed using a
thermo-economic analysis.
With respect to the results, the most important remarks
are:
• Regarding turbulent flows (mass flow rates of 0.5 kg ­s−1
1 kg ­s−1), ten divisions on the receiver for Gb = 500 W
­m−2 and twenty divisions for Gb = 900 W ­m−2 must be
used to stabilize the results. On the other hand, for lami-
nar/transition flows (mass flow rates between 0.05 kg ­s−1
and 0.2 kg ­s−1), it is necessary at least 100 divisions on
receiver to stabilize the outputs;
• Useful gain, heat loss and irreversibility are not affected
to the discretization of the receiver for mass flow rates
higher than 2 kg ­s−1;
• The increase of absorber tube diameter impacts nega-
tively both useful gain and heat loss. Theheat gain
achieved by increasing the mass flow rate from 0.75 to
1 kg ­s−1 is higher than from 1 to 2 kg ­s−1, and so forth.
• For low mass flow rates (0.75 kg ­s−1) the useful gain
tends to be degraded from the last three collectors of
the array, especially when using molten salt as HTF;
• The results indicated that the combination of small
diameters and high mass flow rate seems to be a good
choice to reduce the thermal losses. The increase of
the absorber tube diameter induces about 40% of aug-
mentation of thermal losses for the same mass flow rate
and Gb = 900 W ­m−2. In the worst scenario (0.75 kg ­s−1
and absorber tube diameter of 80 mm), the predicted
heat loss for the eighth collector of the array is 400%
higher than on the first collector when using Thermi-
nol VP-1 at G b = 500 W ­m −2, and 500% increase at
Gb = 900 W ­m−2. In the case of molten salt, the same
analysis denotes an increase of heat loss about 250% at
Gb = 500 W ­m−2, and 400% at Gb = 900 W ­m−2 between
the eighth and the first collector, for the worst scenario;
• In the worst cases (mass flow rate of 0.75) it is observed
a decrease of the thermal efficiency about 2.5% and
4.0% when using Therminol VP-1 and molten salt,
respectively, as the number of collectors in the array
169
increases from one to eight collectors. For a mass flow
rates of 2 kg ­s−1 and 4 kg ­s−1 the decrease on thermal
efficiency is practically negligible for an array with one
and eight collectors;
• For Therminol VP-1 the curves of exergetic efficiency
as function of number of PTC modules behave mono-
tonically. Otherwise, for molten salt the exergetic
efficiency presents inflection points (between third
and fourth collector of the array for 500 W m ­ −2 and
between the fourth and fifth collectors for 900 W m ­ −2);
• The best NPV was achieved for mass flow rates
of 1 kg ­s −1 and 0.75 kg ­s −1 of Therminol VP-1 at
G b = 700 W ­m −2 and G b = 500 W ­m −2, respectively.
NPV becomes positive when more than 10 rows of PTC
with eight modules in a row is employed, at Gb = 700
W ­m−2. For Gb = 700 W ­m−2, the NPV is positive for
number of PTC rows of 20, 35 and 50 at mass flow
rates of 0.75 kg ­s−1, 1 kg ­s−1, and 2 kg ­s−1, respectively.
• In the case of IRR, this economic parameter becomes
interesting for PTC arrays operating under very high
solar radiation levels, such as in the case of Gb = 700
W ­m−2;
• For a 3.9 MW Organic Rankine Cycle that uses fifty
rows of ET-150 modules with eight collectors in a row
hypothetically situated in the Northeast region of Bra-
zil, the NPV could rise the NPV about 30-fold increase
(from 10 to 40 million dollars) if Brazilian governmen-
tal taxes are not applied; in this case, the IRR could
reach about 25%, becoming the power plant economi-
cally viable.
At last, this work can contribute to choosing thermally
and economically efficient PTC arrays for applications in
climates similar to the case study. The discretization scheme
used in the methodology could also be helpful in cases with
phase change flows, such as in Direct Steam Generator
(DSG).
Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the finan-
cial support provided by CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de
Pessoal de Nível Superior) for Grant No. 88887.622271/2021-00 and
FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo)
for Grant No. 22/12073-1.
Author contribution J.C.C.F.: Software, Data curation, Writing—
review & editing. D.J.D.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project
administration, Supervision, Writing—review & editing, Software,
Data curation. H.D.M.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—
review & editing, Data curation. J.I.Y.: Methodology, Writing—review
& editing. P.H.S.M.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—
review & editing, Data curation. W.G.F.: Conceptualization, Method-
ology, Software, Data curation, Writing—review & editing. M.M.S.:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—review & editing, Data
curation. A.A.-B.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—review
& editing, Data curation.
13
170 J. C. da Costa Filho et al.

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