Trainee Characteristic

Motivation to learn is trainees’ desire to learn the content of training programs. Consider how
your motivation to learn may be influenced by personal characteristics and the environment.
Learning may also be inhibited by the environment. For example, maybe you want to learn, but
your study environment prevents you from doing so. Every time you are prepared to read and
review your notes and the textbook, your roommates could be having a party. Even if you do not
join them, the music may be so loud that you cannot concentrate!

Person characteristics refer to the employees’ knowledge, skill, ability, and attitudes. Input
relates to the instructions that tell employees what, how, and when to perform. Input also refers
to the resources that the employees are given to help them perform. These resources may
include equipment, time, or budget. Output refers to the job’s performance standards.
Consequences refer to the type of incentives that employees receive for performing well.
Feedback refers to the information that employees receive while they are performing. Interviews
or questionnaires can be used to measure person characteristics, input, output, consequences, and
feedback.

Training Design

Training design refers to factors built into the training program to increase the chances that
transfer of training will occur. For transfer of training to occur, managers need to apply transfer
of training theories and encourage trainees to take responsibility for learning and to engage in
self-management strategies.

Applications of Transfer of Training Theory

Three theories of transfer of training have implications for training design (the learning
environment): the theory of identical elements, the stimulus generalization approach, and the
cognitive theory of transfer. Table 1 shows each theory’s primary emphasis and the conditions
under which it is most appropriate to consider.

Theory Emphasis Appropriate Conditions Type of Transfer

Identical Training environment Work environment Near
is identical to work features are predictable and
 Elements environment stable. Example: training to
use equipment.
General principles are Work environment is
Stimulus applicable to many unpredictable and highly Far
Generalization different work situations variable. Example: training
in interpersonal skills.
Cognitive Meaningful material All types of training
Theory and coding schemes environment Near and Far
enhance storage and recall
of training content.

Table 1. Transfer of Training Theories. Source Book: R.A. Noe, Employee Training and
Development p.189)

Theory of Identical Elements

The theory of identical elements proposes that transfer of training occurs when what is being
learned in the training session is identical to what the trainee has to perform on the job. Transfer
will be maximized to the degree that the tasks, materials, equipment, and other characteristics of
the learning environment are similar to those encountered in the work environment.

Stimulus Generalization Approach

The stimulus generalization approach suggests that the way to understand the transfer of training
issue is to construct training so that the most important features or general principles are
emphasized. It is also important to identify the range of work situations in which these general
principles can be applied. The stimulus generalization approach emphasizes far transfer. Far
transfer refers to the trainee’s ability to apply learned capabilities to the work environment, even
though the work environment (equipment, problems, tasks) is not identical to that of the training
session. Programs that emphasize far transfer should include the following training designs:

• The program should teach general concepts and broad principles.

• Trainees should be made aware of examples from their experiences that are similar to those
emphasized in training so that connections can be made among strategies that have been
effective in different situations.

• The program should emphasize that the general principles might be applied to a greater set of
contexts than those presented in the training setting.

The stimulus generalization approach can be seen in the design of managerial skill training
programs, known as behavior modeling training, which are based on social learning theory. One
step in developing behavior modeling programs is to identify key behaviors that are needed to be
successful in a situation. Key behaviors refer to a set of behaviors that can be used successfully
in a wide variety of situations. The model demonstrates these key behaviors on a video, and
trainees have opportunities to practice the behaviors. In behavior modeling training, the key
behaviors are believed to be applicable to a wide variety of situations. In fact, the practice
sessions in behavior modeling training require the trainee to use the behaviors in a variety of
situations that are not identical.

Cognitive Theory of Transfer

The cognitive theory of transfer is based on the information processing theory of learning.
According to the cognitive theory of transfer, the likelihood of transfer depends on the trainees’
ability to retrieve learned capabilities. This theory suggests that the likelihood of transfer is
increased by providing trainees with meaningful material that enhances the chances that they will
link what they encounter in the work environment to the learned capability. Also important is
providing the trainee with cognitive strategies for coding the learned capabilities in memory so
that they are easily retrievable. The influence of cognitive theory is seen in training design that
encourages trainees, as part of the program, to consider potential applications of the training
content to their jobs. Many training programs include having trainees identify a work problem or
situation and discuss the potential application of training content. Application assignments
increase the likelihood that trainees will recall the training content and apply it to the work
setting when they encounter the appropriate cues (problems, situations) in the environment.
Application assignments are work problems or situations in which trainees are asked to apply
training content to solve them. The use of application assignments in training helps the trainee
understand the link between the learned capability and real-world application, which makes it
easier to recall the capability when needed.

Encourage Trainee Responsibility and Self-Management

Trainees need to take responsibility for learning and transfer. This includes preparing for
training, being involved and engaged during training, and using training content back on the job.
Before training, trainees need to consider why they are attending training and set specific
learning goals (either alone or, preferably, in a discussion with their manager) as part of
completing an action plan. Also, trainees need to complete any assigned pre-training
assignments. During training, trainees need to be involved. That is, they need to participate and
share experiences in discussions, to practice, and to ask questions if they are confused. After
training, trainees need to review and work toward reaching the goals established in their action
plan. They need to be willing to change (e.g., try new behaviors, apply new knowledge) and ask
peers and managers for help if they need it.

Self-management refers to a person’s attempt to control certain aspects of decision making and
behavior. Training programs should prepare employees to self-manage their use of new skills
and behaviors on the job. Self-management involves:

1. Determining the degree of support and negative consequences in the work setting for using
newly acquired capabilities.

2. Setting goals for using learned capabilities.

3. Applying learned capabilities to the job.

4. Monitoring use of learned capabilities on the job.

5. Engaging in self-reinforcement.

Work Environment

Climate for transfer refers to trainees’ perceptions about a wide variety of characteristics of the
work environment that facilitate or inhibit use of trained skills or behavior. These characteristics
include manager and peer support, opportunity to use skills, and the consequences for using
learned capabilities.

Manager support refers to the degree to which trainees’ managers (1) emphasize the importance
of attending training programs and (2) stress the application of training content to the job.
Managers can communicate expectations to trainees as well as provide the encouragement and
resources needed to apply training on the job. One company asked trainees and their bosses to
prepare and send memos to each other. The memos described what the other person should “start
to do,” “continue to do,” “do less,” or “stop doing” to improve learning transfer.

Peer Support

Transfer of training can also be enhanced by a support network among the trainees.22 A support
network is a group of two or more trainees who agree to meet and discuss their progress in using
learned capabilities on the job. This may involve face-to-face meetings or communications via e-
mail. Trainees may share successful experiences in using training content on the job. They might
also discuss how they obtained resources needed to use training content or how they coped with
a work environment that interfered with use of training content.

Opportunity to use learned capabilities (opportunity to perform) refers to the extent to which the
trainee is provided with or actively seeks experiences that allow for application of the newly
learned knowledge, skill, and behaviors from the training program. Opportunity to perform is
influenced by both the work environment and trainee motivation. One way trainees have the
opportunity to use learned capabilities is through assigned work experiences (e.g., problems,
tasks) that require their use. The trainees’ manager usually plays a key role in determining work
assignments. Opportunity to perform is also influenced by the degree to which trainees take
personal responsibility to actively seek out assignments that allow them to use newly acquired
capabilities.

Technological Support

Electronic performance support systems (EPSSs) are computer applications that can provide, as
requested, skills training, information access, and expert advice. An EPSS may be used to
enhance transfer of training by providing trainees with an electronic information source that they
can refer to on an as-needed basis while they attempt to apply learned capabilities on the job.