NOTES: CELL & TISSUES

Cell Organelles and their Functions

Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane is also termed as a Cell Membrane or Cytoplasmic Membrane. It is a

selectively permeable membrane of the cells, which is composed of a lipid bilayer and proteins.

The plasma membrane is present both in plant and animal cells. It functions as the
selectively permeable membrane, by permitting the entry of selective materials in and out of the
cell according to the requirement. In an animal cell, the cell membrane functions by
providing shape and protects the inner contents of the cell. Based on the structure of the plasma
membrane, it is regarded as the fluid mosaic model. According to the fluid mosaic model, the
plasma membranes are subcellular structures, made of a lipid bilayer in which the protein
molecules are embedded.

Also refer to the Difference Between Cell Membrane and Plasma Membrane

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is present both in plant and animal cells. They are jelly-like substances, found
between the cell membrane and nucleus. They are mainly composed of water, organic and
inorganic compounds. The cytoplasm is one of the essential components of the cell, where all the
cell organelles are embedded. These cell organelles contain enzymes, mainly responsible for
controlling all metabolic activity taking place within the cell and are the site for most of the
chemical reactions within a cell.

Nucleus

The nucleus is a double-membraned organelle found in all eukaryotic cells. It is the largest
organelle, which functions as the control centre of the cellular activities and is the storehouse of
the cell’s DNA. By structure, the nucleus is dark, round, surrounded by a nuclear membrane. It is
a porous membrane (like cell membrane) and forms a wall between cytoplasm and nucleus.
Within the nucleus, there are tiny spherical bodies called nucleolus. It also carries an essential
structure called chromosomes.

Chromosomes are thin and thread-like structures which carry another important structure called a
gene. Genes are a hereditary unit in organisms i.e., it helps in the inheritance of traits from one
generation (parents) to another (offspring). Hence, the nucleus controls the characters and
functions of cells in our body. The primary function of the nucleus is to monitor cellular
activities including metabolism and growth by making use of DNA’s genetic information.
Nucleoli in the nucleus are responsible for the synthesis of protein and RNA

Nucleus

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals filled with fluid. They are the
transport system of the cell, involved in transporting materials throughout the cell.
There are two different types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are composed of cisternae, tubules, and

vesicles, which are found throughout the cell and are involved in protein manufacture.
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are the storage organelle, associated with the
production of lipids, steroids, and also responsible for detoxifying the cell.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of the cell as they produce energy-rich molecules for
the cell. The mitochondrial genome is inherited maternally in several organisms. It is a double
membrane-bound, sausage-shaped organelle, found in almost all eukaryotic cells.

The double membranes divide its lumen into two distinct aqueous compartments. The inner
compartment is called a ‘matrix’ which is folded into cristae whereas the outer membrane forms
a continuous boundary with the cytoplasm. They usually vary in their size and are found either
round or oval in shape. Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration in the cell, produces
energy in the form of ATP and helps in the transformation of the molecules.
For instance, glucose is converted into adenosine triphosphate – ATP. Mitochondria have their
own circular DNA, RNA molecules, ribosomes (the 70s), and a few other molecules that help in
protein synthesis.

Also read about Mitochondria

Plastids

Plastids are large, membrane-bound organelles which contain pigments. Based on the type of
pigments, plastids are of three types:

 Chloroplasts – Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound organelles, which usually vary

in their shape – from a disc shape to spherical, discoid, oval and ribbon. They are present
in mesophyll cells of leaves, which store chloroplasts and other carotenoid pigments. These
pigments are responsible for trapping light energy for photosynthesis. The inner membrane
encloses a space called the stroma. Flattened disc-like chlorophyll-containing structures
known as thylakoids are arranged in a stacked manner like a pile of coins. Each pile is
called a granum (plural: grana) and the thylakoids of different grana are connected by flat
membranous tubules known as stromal lamella. Just like the mitochondrial matrix, the
stroma of chloroplast also contains a double-stranded circular DNA, 70S ribosomes, and
enzymes which are required for the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins.
 Chromoplasts – The chromoplasts include fat-soluble, carotenoid pigments like
xanthophylls, carotene, etc. which provide the plants with their characteristic color –
yellow, orange, red, etc.
  Leucoplasts – Leucoplasts are colorless plastids which store nutrients. Amyloplasts store
carbohydrates (like starch in potatoes), aleuroplasts store proteins, and elaioplasts store
oils and fats.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are non membrane-bound and important cytoplasmic organelles found in close
association with the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are found in the form of tiny particles in
a large number of cells and are mainly composed of 2/3rd of RNA and 1/3rd of protein. They are
named as the 70s (found in prokaryotes) or 80s (found in eukaryotes) The letter S refers to the
density and the size, known as Svedberg’s Unit. Both 70S and 80S ribosomes are composed of
two subunits. Ribosomes are either encompassed within the endoplasmic reticulum or are freely
traced in the cell’s cytoplasm. Ribosomal RNA and Ribosomal proteins are the two components
that together constitute ribosomes. The primary function of the ribosomes includes protein
synthesis in all living cells that ensure the survival of the cell.

Ribosomes

What is Golgi apparatus? List its functions.

The Golgi apparatus, also called Golgi complex or Golgi body, is a membrane-bound organelle

found in eukaryotic cells (cells with clearly defined nuclei) that is made up of a series of

flattened stacked pouches called cisternae. It is located in the cytoplasm next to the endoplasmic

reticulum and near the cell nucleus.

Functions:

1. The main function of Golgi apparatus is to carry out the processing of proteins generated

in endoplasmic reticulum. Golgi apparatus also transports protein to the different parts of

cell.

2. The Golgi enzymes present in membranous disks of cisternae carry out the modification

of cargo proteins. Modification of various substances is carried out by enzymes in

cisternae with the help of processes like phosphorylation and glycosylation.

3. Sulfation is an important task carried out by the Golgi body. The sulfating of substances

passing through the lumen of Golgi body is carried out with the help of sulfotransferases.

Transportation of lipids around cells and creation of lysosomes are the important functions

carried out by Golgi apparatus.

Transpiration in Plants
Like all living organism, plants also require an excretory system to discharge excess
water from their body. This process of elimination of excess water from the plant body is
known as transpiration. It is generally the evaporation of water from the surfac e of the
leaves.

During the process of transpiration, water molecules in the plant tissues are removed
from the aerial parts of the plants. Only a small amount of water absorbed by the plants
is utilised in growth and development. The rest is eliminated in the form of transpiration.

Transpiration in Plants

What is transpiration?

Transpiration is the biological process of removal of excess water from the aerial parts of the
plants.

What are the different types of transpiration in plants?

There are the following different types of transpiration in plants:

 Stomatal transpiration
 Lenticular transpiration
 Cuticular transpiration
How does the opening and closing of stomata regulate the transpiration
process?

Stomata are minute pores present on the lower side of the leaves that help in the exchange of
gases and water vapour. When the stomatal pores open the rate of transpiration increases, and
when the pores are closed, the loss of water is reduced.

How is transpiration important to the plants?

The process of transpiration keeps the cell turgid, cools the surface of the leaves, and helps in the
movement of minerals from the soil to different parts of the plant.

What are the drawbacks of transpiration?

Transpiration results in water scarcity that can damage the plants due to desiccation. It also
causes wilting of the leaves and results in stunted growth of the plants.

What is evaporation?
Evaporation is a process where liquid changes into a gas below the temperature at which it boils.
When water gains heat energy it changes to a gas. An increase in temperature speeds up the rate
of evaporation.

Tissues
Tissues are a group of cells that combine together to perform a particular function.

Plant Tissues
Plant tissues are of various types, and they are made up of similar types of cells. They
are different from animal tissues since there are several differences between animal
and plant cells. Meristematic tissues and permanent tissues are the two types of plant
tissues.

Animal Tissues
Animal tissues are made up of animal cells. These tissues are usually not rigid since the
cells do not have cell walls.
Watch the below videos to know the basics of Tissues

Plant Tissues

Meristematic tissues
Meristematic tissues are seen in plants. They are primarily made up of rapidly dividing
cells. They are the growing tissues of the plant.

Permanent tissues
Permanent tissues arise from the meristematic tissue and have structural and functional
properties. Permanent tissue can be made up of either living or dead cells. They are
specialised to perform a specific function, e.g. parenchyma, collenchyma, xylem,
phloem, etc. Permanent tissues are of two types simple and complex permanent tissue.

Differentiation
Differentiation is the process by which the meristematic tissues develop into different
types of permanent tissues based on the location and requirements of the plant.

Apical meristem
Apical meristem is present on the apex of the plant shoot and root. They are rapidly
growing tissues and aid in increasing the height of the plant.

Lateral meristem
Lateral meristem is present on the lateral walls of the stem. They help in the horizontal
growth of the plant and increase the stem girth.

Intercalary meristem
Intercalary meristem can be found between the nodes of the stem and the base of the
leaf. They help in branching.

Simple permanent tissues

These are tissues that are made up of only one type of cell. They usually have a
structural role.

Complex permanent tissues

Complex permanent tissues are made by the combination of different types of cells.
These cells work together to perform a specific task.

Parenchyma
Parenchyma tissues are made up of loosely packed cells with thin cell walls and large
intercellular spaces. They are live cells and help in support and storage. Two types;
Chlorenchyma and Aerenchyma.

Collenchyma
Collenchyma tissues are made up of live cells which have irregularly thickened corners
and thus, have decreased intercellular spaces. They help in bending various parts of the
plant without breaking
Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma tissues make up the hard and stiff parts of the plant. They are made up
of dead, long and narrow cells. They almost have no intercellular space as the walls are
thickened due to the presence of lignin

Phloem
Phloem is made up of the following components – sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem
parenchyma and phloem fibres. Phloem conducts food in both directions. Among all the
components, phloem fibres are the only dead cells.

Xylem
Xylem is made up of the following components. The vessels and tracheids – help in the
conduction of water and minerals from the soil. Xylem parenchyma helps in food
storage, and the xylem fibres provide mechanical support.

Animal Tissues

Epithelial Tissues
Epithelial tissues are seen on the outer layer of a body or organ surface. They form the
outermost protective layer of most animals.

Squamous Epithelium
Squamous epithelium forms an extremely thin and flat layer of tissues. They are semi-
permeable and, thus, perfect for gaseous exchange. They are present in the lining of
the oesophagus and the mouth.

Cuboidal Epithelium
As the name suggests, they are cuboidal in shape and form the lining of salivary glands
and kidney tubules. They provide mechanical support. They also form glandular
epithelium when they form glands.
Columnar Epithelium
These tissues line the organs which help in absorption and secretion, such as the lining
of the intestines. They are made up of elongated cells. When cilia are present in these
cells, they form ciliated columnar epithelium like those present in the respiratory tract.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

This kind of tissue is formed when multiple layers of squamous epithelium are arranged
in a pattern. Our skin is made up of this kind of tissue.

Muscular Tissue
These tissues make up our muscles which are responsible for almost all the movements
that take place in the body.

Striated/Skeletal Muscles
All the voluntary movements in our body are carried out by the striated or skeletal
muscles. They are called skeletal because these tissues are mostly attached to the
bones. They are long, cylindrical, unbranched with striations and multinucleated.

Unstriated/Smooth Muscles
Almost all involuntary movements in the body are carried out by the smooth or striated
muscles. They are long, smooth, spindle-shaped and uninucleate. We can find them in
places like the alimentary canal and blood vessels.

Cardiac Muscles
Cardiac muscles make up our entire heart. These muscles are involuntary in nature and
show rhythmic contractions and relaxations. Structurally they may look quite similar to
striated muscles, but they are branched, uninucleated and have intercalated discs.

Connective Tissues
These tissues help in connecting different parts of the body. Examples include blood,
bones, cartilages, tendons, ligaments, areolar tissues and adipose tissues
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue makes up the entire brain, spinal cord and nerves of the body. They are
responsible for all sensations, consciousness, memory and emotion

Neurons
These are the cells that form the entire nervous system. Neurons consist of a cell body,
axon and axon terminals.