India in the Early 20th

Century
By Sir Walid Fulara
Formation of the Indian National Congress:
● In 1883, the Indian Association suggested the formation of a body that represented Indian views
to the British
● The same year, Allan Octavian hume wrote a letter to the graduates of Calcutta university calling
on them to take the lead in setting up a national political organization.
○ He followed up this letter by setting up the Indian National Union (which had branches in
several cities) with the approval of Viceroy Lord Dufferin
● In December, the first conference was called in Bombay.
○ At the same time, a second conference was held in Calcutta
● In 1885, it officially became the Indian National Congress.
● In 1886, it stated that its aim was to promote the welfare of citizens and India by educating the
public and convincing the British government to end unfair practices
● At its beginning, the INC was keen not to offend the British; it followed the Queen’s rule well.

Why the INC was set up:

● The British created the INC as a safety valve to release the frustration of Indians, who would now
have a political platform in which to vent instead of revolting
● It was set up so that Indians would have a platform to present their views to the British
● They wanted to promote the welfare of Indians via education and legislature
● It was set up to make British rule more wide-spread and accepted

How Successful were the British in setting up the INC?:

Successes:
● It declared its loyalty to the Queen and stated that its ambition was to make British rule should
be more widely accepted
● It provided Indians a platform to present their political views
● Gave Indians a place in the government
○ Due to this, they could now avert revolutions by dealing with problems diplomatically.
Failures:
● It became a nationalist, Hindu majority party by the 20th century
● It opposed the partition of Bengal
○ Declared 16th October 1905 a day of mourning
○ Protested and attempted an assassination
● They started the Swadeshi movement
● Played a pivotal role in partition
● Gained a large role in the Indian Civil Service
● Later, they also started to demand self-rule which meant they wanted maximum representation
in the government and wanted to make policies. As a result, the British began to ignore the
Indians and the INC.

Partition of Bengal 1905:

● In 1905, India’s largest and most populous province was partitioned overnight by the Lord
Curzon, the British Viceroy of India
○ In West Bengal, 42 out of the 54 million people were Hindus, and in East Bengal, 18 out
of the 31 million people were Muslims
● East Bengal consisted of four areas: Dhaka, Chittagong, Mymen Singh, and Assam
● Bihar and Orissa were separated into separate provinces

Why Bengal was parted:

Geographical considerations
● This area was extremely large and wide
○ It was 189,000 square miles
○ Some Eastern areas were difficult to access due to poor transport and communication,
partially due to the rivers and forests in the area
○ This made it difficult for a single governor to keep a check on the status of the entire
province and implement their reforms effectively
● It was also the most densely populated province, with 85 million people at the time.
○ This made it difficult to please everyone
○ It meant that the province required a lot of resources.
○ Due to the sheer amount of potential criminals, law and order was also difficult to
maintain, die to which violence was rampant

Economic considerations
● There was a huge economic disparity between the East and West
○ The East was extremely lacking in infrastructure such as communication and transport.
In fact, some areas lacked basic facilities and were virtually inaccessible
○ On the other hand, the West was extremely urbanised
 ○ In order to promote trade from Port Chittagong in East Bengal, the partition of Bengal
was necessary
● The economy of the East was completely controlled by the West
○ The economy of the East depended on agriculture. If your crop failed, you had to take a
loan from West Bengal
○ Due to this, they were able to exploit East Bengal. As the farmers were all indebted to
them, they, the consumers, were able to decide the selling price of raw materials from
West Bengal

Social:
● Cultural Differences:
○ The people of East Bengal spoke a different language than those from West Bengal
○ West Bengalis considered themselves superior to their Esat Bengali counterparts
● Muslim Development:
○ At the time, Muslims were severely underdeveloped
■ Most were uneducated farmers
○ The partition of Bengal presented the opportunity to provide them a province of their
own
○ This would also help improve their relations with Muslims, which would help them
politically

Political
● Countering the growing influence of the INC:
○ The rising popularity of the INC concerned the British, who felt they might become an
unstoppable force
○ By giving muslimst a separate province, they hoped Muslims would be encouraged to
become a political entity themselves
○ Improving their relations with Muslims would also subjugate a part of the populace,
stabilizing British rule
● According to the Hindus, this was a part of their “Divide and Conquer” policies
○ This was seen as an attempt to divide the populace on sectarian lines to prevent them
from uniting against their colonial oppressors

Reaction to the Partition

Muslims:
They reacted positively as:

● This signified that the British were ready to develop Muslims

● It was a chance to develop free of the oppression of Hindus
○ In this new province, they wouldn’t have to compete against the Hindu capitalists who
had a large head start
 ● They had gotten a majority state, which was an opportunity for political, social and economic
development
○ Education- the Curzan Hall College was established there in 1908

Hindus:
They reacted negatively and performed every type of boycott and protest possible

● Protest marches and anti-partition speeches, articles, and papers

○ 16th October 1905, the day when the partition came into affect, was declared a “Day of
Mourning” and a national tragedy
● Assassination attempts
○ Against the future viceroy Lord Minto
○ Derailed a train containing the governor of Bengal
○ Muslim leader- Nawab Salimullah
● Swadeshi movement
○ People were told to stop using British products in favour of local products
○ British cloth was burned
● Titles were returned and government jobs were resigned
● British schools and colleges were boycotted
● British reaction to this:
○ In response to this, the British passed the Press Act of 1906 which censored newspapers.
○ They also arrested hundreds of protesters and editors of Anti-British magazines
(Including Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak)
○ They developed the Muslim League

Why did they react like this?

● Fear of domination:
○ The Hindus in East Bengal feared that, now, they would be dominated by the Muslim-
majority populace
○ Thus, they feared that their position of superiority would become one of inferiority
● They were worried over the economy of East Bengal, which was where they got raw materials
○ Before, they were controlled via debt.
○ Now, they wouldn’t be in control of the area via economic subjugation
● Religious concerns:
○ They declared that this was an assault on Hindu religion as India had been divided on
communal lines
○ They feared that the British were trying to divide Mother India
● Lawyers feared that the new province would have separate courts, thus affecting their practice

Reversal of the Partition of Bengal (1911):

● On 12th December 1915, King George V announced the reunification of Bengal
 ● Due to this, Muslims ditched all efforts to cooperate with the British. It had been proven that
they could not be trusted. Therefore, they started working for self-rule
○ They now shared a common goal with the Congress, which partially resulted in the
Lucknow Pact
Reasons:
● It was reversed due to Hindu pressure- they, in fact, threatened to boycott the upcoming tour of
King George V.
● The Swadeshi movement
● Assassination attempts

Muslim League:
Simla Deputation:
● The Simla deputation was a Muslim deputation to the Indian Viceroy, Lord Minto, who was
currently on vacation in Simla
● It had 35 members
● It was headed by Sir Agha Khan in 1906
● They presented several requests to the Viceroy, including reserved seats for Muslims, the right of
separate electorates, and the appointment of Muslim judges
● The Viceroy assured the Muslims that their rights would be protected under his administration

Why it was sent:

● They had recently been given a province of their own; this was a gesture of thanks to the British
in an attempt to improve their relations
● To counter the propaganda of Congress by assuring the British that they were not part of the
protests and that they were capable of running a province
● To raise political demands
○ Right of separate electorates
■ Following the Two-Nation theory
○ ⅓ seats should be reserved for Muslims
■ This was greater than the Muslim population, who made up only 25% of the
Indian population. However, it was necessary as 33% was necessary to oppose a
bill being passed

Importance:
● Showed that the attempts of Sir Syed had been successful
○ Now, relations between Muslims and the British were mended as the British accepted
Muslim demands for separate electorates and reserved seats’
● The communal rivalry between Muslims and Hindus now existed on a constitutional level
● Showed that many Muslims now believed they should be treated separately from Hindus
 ○ This led to the creation of ML and the Pakistan Movement

What was the Muslim League?

● At the 20th session of the MAO education conference, a resolution was passed unanimously that
a separate political party for Muslims should be created.
○ This was the largest ever Muslim conference, with over 300 delegates from the whole of
India
○ It took place in the residence of Nawab Salim Ullah Khan and was headed by Nawab
Viqar-ul-Malik
● The first president was Sir Agha Khan
● Its first annual session took place in 1907 in Karachi
● It had three aims at creation
○ Promoting loyalty to British
○ Working for the political interest and rights of Muslims
○ Preventing the growth of ill-will to other communities

Why it was created:

Two Nation Theory and Hindi-Urdu Controversy:
● In 1867, the Hindu-Urdu controversy arose when it was suggested by Hindus that Hindi should
be the second official language of India instead of Urdu
○ In UP, Sir Anthony Macdonal ousted Urdu from public offices
● In response to this, Sir Syed Ahmed presented his Two-Nation Theory
○ It stated that Muslims and Hindus were two separate nations living in India
○ Due to their different culture and language, they should also be treated differently
● Hindus were already represented by the INC (which supported Hindi)
● Thus, a need was felt to represent the other ‘nation’, Muslims, to protect Urdu

Counter the INC:

● Though the INC was supposed to represent the whole of India, it quickly turned out to be a
predominantly Hindu body and presented anti-Muslim demands such as:
○ Direct democracy with no reserved seats
○ Competitive examinations for roles in the ICS
○ They also demanded that India be treated as a cultural and political whole and
supported Hindi
● In order to speak for the Muslim community and oppose the INC’s measures, Muslim leaders in
India felt the need to create the Muslim League
○ This would promote Muslim interests and help them develop socially
Partition of Bengal:
● It was important to have a Muslim party to represent the populace of East Bengal, who were
now much more politically important due to their separate province
● The INC was also presenting a lot of propaganda against it, even starting violent movements
such as the Swadeshi Movement
○ The ML was set up to oppose to propaganda being presented against the partition of
Bengal
○ It was also created to assure the British that Muslims were not taking part in such
protests

The Success of the Simla Deputation:

● To take advantage of the separate electorates and 33% of seats reserved for them
● It gave Muslim leaders confidence
○ If a smaller group of 35 could get so much success, why not create a bigger party which
would be at a better position to negotiate and get more rights for Muslims?

British Elections of 1906:

● In 1906, a new liberal government had taken office in Britain that seemed likely to make changes
in political representation
○ Due to this, they felt like they needed their own party to present their demands to a
more sympathetic government

Activities of Hindu Extremist Groups:

● Hindu extremist groups such as the Arya Samaj were threatening the rights of Muslims
○ They were forcefully converting Muslims to Hinduism
● In order to protect Muslims against such groups, the Muslim Leageu was formed

Morley-Minto Reforms (1909):

● The Morley-Minto reforms were constitutional reforms made with the aim of appeasing Indians
● At the time, John Morley was the Secretary of State for India and Minto was the Viceroy
● They drafted a reform 1906 and took it to the parliament in 1909
● These are also known as the Indian Council Act

Reforms:
● The imperial council was enlarged by adding more Indians (16 → 60 members)
○ Pros- more representation
○ Cons- The majority of members were still British officials
● Central Legislative Council was enlarged- 60 new members were added
 ○ Pros - Powers were given to the members to debate and discuss the importance of the
topic. They were also able to raise questions on key political issues
○ Con- the powers given to Indians were only advisory, they had no actual executive
authority. No discussions on foreign policy or on relations with the princely states were
permitted.
○ Note - though, in the textbook, it is written that the Central Executive Council was
enlarged, most other sources say that the Legislative Council was enlarged so take that
as you will
● Provincial councils were enlarged to 50 members in large provinces and 30 members in smaller
provinces
○ Pros- increased Indian representation
○ Cons- British maintained control by maintaining the majority.
■ Also, most of the authority was in the hands of the provincial governor, who was
nominated, not elected
● Muslims were given separate electorates and ⅓ seats in the councils
○ Pros- the British government accepted the Two-Nation theory
■ They were showing interest in the protection of rights of the minority
○ Cons- Hindus and Congress opposed this; it was called a communal division
■ They also objected to Muslims being given a disproportionate amount of seats in
the parliament
● On the suggestion of Morely, Lord Minto appointed the first Indian into his Executive Council
○ Pros - Representation
○ Cons - Muslims heavily opposed the fact that a Hindu, S.P. Sinha, was appointed. They
suggested that two members should be elected
■ The next time, a Muslim was appointed
● Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian affairs
● Voting was to be indirect and through a very limited franchise
○ Pros - democracy for the first time
○ Cons - There was an extremely limited franchise and members were not voted directly

Why they were introduced:

● Pacify Indians and Hindu opposition
○ After the partition of Bengal, there was plenty of unrest, such as the Swadeshi
movement. They wanted to end this
● Enhance Muslims
○ The ⅓ seats and separate electorates promised were now delivered
● Increase Indian representation
○ They were given a larger role in the Imperial and Legislative Councils
○ This was an attempt to win Indian support for British rule as a whole
Hindu Reaction:
● Other than criticizing and rejecting the reforms, the INC, in their annual meetings, passed a
resolution condemning the separate electorates between 1910-1915 and 1917-1935
○ They said that it was an attempt to sow the seeds of distrust
○ They didn’t sign it in 1916 due to the Lucknow Pact
■ Despite this, they still claimed to be representative of all Indians

Reasons:
● Separate electorate and ⅓ seats for Muslims
● Indians were not granted self-rule
○ For example, the Legislative Council had little executive authority
● Lack of representation
○ For example, the British retained their majority in the Imperial Council

Lucknow Pact (1916):

World War 1:
Approaches to WW1:
● The elites believed that it was a moral responsibility to help the British, their colonial masters
● Political parties believed that there was no harm helping Britain in the war as long as more
concessions were made by them
○ In other words, they offered conditional support
● Extremist groups believed that British necessity was Indian opportunity
○ Lala Hardayal, who was in exile in America started sending arms to India in 1913.
However, the party supporters were betrayed in 1915 and they were all sent to jail
○ In 1915, there was an uprising in Punjab which was easily put down by the British
○ A mutiny by Indian troops in Singapore was crushed (like Pak Studies crushes my soul)
and dozens of troops were executed or imprisoned
○ The Silk Letter Conspiracy by Muslims was easily put down

Cooperation between the ML and INC:

● In 1915, partly due to the convincing of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the two parties agreed to hold a
joint session.
○ At the end of the joint session, a committee was made to increase cooperation between
INC and ML
● It was after this that the British announced future constitutional reforms.
○ The British saw that people were willing to offer conditional support. Therefore, they
announced that once the war had reached an end, there would be a constitutional
reform in which Indians would be given half of the seats in the executive council and a
majority of the seats in the Indian council.
 ● Indians took it as a promise.
○ From here, the need of increasing cooperation was felt so that they could ask for more
constitutional reforms.
○ Due to this, the Lucknow Pact was signed in 1916

What was the Lucknow Pact?

● The Lucknow Pact 1916 was a joint scheme of constitutional reforms between the INC and ML
● In this session, the Muslim League was represented by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Congress by
Ambeka Chran Mahajan
● During it, the INC made some concessions to the ML and
● Joint demands were raised to the British for more rights.

Demands:
● The member of elected seats on the council should be increased (Indians must have a majority
in the government council)
● Bills passed by the majority must be implemented and accepted as law
● Rights of minorities must be protected
● Adequate provincial autonomy must be given
● Muslims should be given ⅓ of the seats in the central government
● Voting rights for all
● Separation of the executive and judicial wings of the government
● No bill shall be passed in the council related to any community unless ¾ of the same community
in the council approved to it

Why was it Signed?

● Need for increased cooperation
● Both were working for the same cause (self-rule)
● Congress wanted to make political concessions to Muslims to gain support
○ They accepted ⅓ seats for Muslims, the right of separate electorates, and that no bill
shall be passed in the council related to any community unless ¾ of the same
community in the council approved to it

Importance:
● The Lucknow Pact was important for the future of Muslims because it marked the first
acceptance by Hindus of the Two-Nation theory.
● This also marked the beginning of cooperation between Hindus and Muslims. Two opposing
sides were willing to come together against a common enemy
○ This posed a great threat to British rule
● Due to this meeting, self-rule was popularized in Muslims. This marked a change in Muslim
opinion towards self-rule and foreshadowed that they would start working for it
Home Rule Leagues:
● During 1917, two Home Rule Leagues campaigned in India for self-rule
○ One was led by Gangadhar Tilak
○ The other was led by a British woman, Annie Besant
● Annie Besant was arrested in 1917 but then released due to public outcry
○ She was then elected the INC’s President
● Both parties were ultimately unsuccessful

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919):

● This was a constitutional reform presented by the Viceroy (Lord Chlemsford) and the Secretary of
State (Lord Montagu) in 1919
○ The first report of these reforms was presented in 1918 after Lord Montagu met with
different governmental and non-governmental representatives
● The two leaders stated that a system of government should be introduced which gives Indians
some responsibility in their government
● Give some of its terms in the four mark answer

Reasons:
● A constitutional reform was due
○ Every ten years, constitutional reforms were to be introduced
● To announce what they had promised after the Lucknow Pact
○ When they had seen that conditional support for WW1 was being offered, they offered
the Indians self-rule
● To give Indians more representation in parliament and give them some measure of responsibility
for the state of their country
● Win the support of Indians

Terms:
Central Legislative Council:
● The Central Legislative Council was divided into two councils under a system known as
‘Bicameral Central Legislature’.
○ The Upper House was known as the Council of State
■ 33 of its 60 members were to be elected
○ The Lower House was known as the Legislative Assembly
■ 103 of its 145 members were to be elected
● 32 seats were reserved for Muslims
● The job of this council was to make laws.
● It was headed by the Viceroy, whose powers were enhanced:
 ○ He could veto any law
○ He could pass any law if he felt it necessary for the safety of India
● The Viceroy’s council was to comprise of 8-12 people, 3 of which were to be Indians
○ He was supposed to follow their advice
● Muslims retained their ⅓ seats and separate electorates
○ Other minorities were given separate electorates, too

Council of Princes
● The Council of Princes, which had 108 members who represented the Princely States, was set up
● Its aim was to allow them to discuss matters of importance
○ However, as they had no actual executive power, some did not even bother to attend,
regarding it as a ‘talking shop’

The 8 Provincial Legislative Councils:

● A system of diarchy was set up.
○ Under this system, areas of responsibility were either reserved or transferred.
● Reserved subjects were controlled by the Provincial Governor (who was nominated by the
Viceroy) and his executive council (who were nominated by the Governor).
● The transferred subjects were entrusted to ministers chosen by the Viceroy.
○ The Viceroy chose these ministers from the Legislative Council, so that meant that even
if someone got most of the votes it wasn’t certain that he would still be entrusted with
more responsibility.
■ The Council was to consist of 70% elected members and 30% nominated
members
○ Furthermore, the ministers were answerable to the Viceroy, who had the power to
dismiss them at will. Due to this, they were under a lot of pressure to comply with
British wishes as a slight mis-step could result in them being dismissed.
● Reserved Subjects:
○ Justice, Police, Resources, Finance, Press and Publication
● Transferred Subjects:
○ Education, Health, Public Work, Forests
● Voting rights were extended to 2% of the population (5.5 million out of 250 million people)

Rejection:
● Both the INC and ML both condemned it, calling for self-rule
○ Gandhi called it ‘inadequate, unsatisfactory, and disappointing’

Reasons for its Rejection:

● Legislative Council:
 ○ The power of the Viceroy was enhanced. Therefore, even though they had gained some
power, it was practically useless as any laws the British deemed bad would be vetoed
○ Sikhs were given a separate electorate. Hindus, who had barely accepted the Muslims’
separate electorate, rejected this, regarding it as further division on communal lines
● Council of Princes:
○ They had no actual power- they were only allowed to discuss. Due to this, it was
regarded as a ‘talking shop’
● Voting Franchise:
○ The voting franchise was too small and only extended to the higher classes. Due to this,
there was no advantage for the lower classes.
● Many Indians had fought with the British in WW1 and they felt like they deserved much greater
concessions

Rowlatt Act:
● In 1917, a committee was set up by Justice Rowlatt to investigate revolutionary actions in India
and recommend ways to stop them.
● They submitted their report in 1918. However, it was not implemented immediately, as they
hoped that the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms would be enough to quell the Indians.
● This act, also known as the Anarchial and Revolutionary Crimes Act of India, later became part of
the Defense Act of India

Suggestions:
● Arrest without warrant
● Detention without bail
● Right of provincial government to order people where to live
● Gatherings of 5 or more people in public places was to be banned

Backlash:
● There were many protests against this as it seemed to go against central principles of British
justice- trial by jury and safeguards against illegal imprisonment.
● Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council and Gandhi launched a mass protest
(hartal).
● However, despite the opposition, the Viceroy still implemented this

Reasons for its Implementation:

● 2-3 explanations of revolutionary activities during World War 1
○ Silk Letter Conspiracy by Anti-British Muslims, in which they wrote plans on silk
hankerchiefs so that they could easily be erased
○ Lala Hardayal set up a Mutiny Party and sent arms to India from America
 ○ An uprising by Indian nationalists in Punjab during 1915
● The Indian Reaction to MCR- they rejected it and protested against it

Amritsar Massacre (1919):

● On 10th April 1919 rioting started in Amritsar
○ 2 banks were robbed and 5 Europeans were killed
○ General Dyer, the British commander, determined to restore order, banned all public
meetings.
● After this, 20,000 people showed up in a peaceful demonstration at Jallianwala Bagh
○ Some Sikhs were there to relax after a religious festivals and most to protest
■ This is partly because signs banning public meetings were not properly put up.
Therefore, most did not see them
● This was a walled park with a few narrow exits. General Dyer ordered his troops to block the gate
and fire without warning
○ 1600 rounds were fired- 1200 were injured and 400 killed
■ While these are the ‘official’ statistacs, the INC said that 1000 were killed and
neutral bystanders that 700
○ To save themselves, some even went so far as to jump in wells
○ Manto has written an excellent firsthand account of this if you wish to read it:
https://www.rekhta.org/stories/1919-ki-ek-bat-saadat-hasan-manto-stories?lang=ur

Hunter Committee:
● In 1919, after orders issued by the Secretary of State Montagu, the Hunter Committee was set
up
● It was an inquiry to investigate General Dyer’s actions in Amritsar
● Due to it, Dyer was removed from active service. No other punishment was given
○ The people did not like this. It was this that made Gandhi say “Cooperation in any shape
or form with this satanic government is sinful.”

Analytical Questions:
Was ___ the most important reason that led to the breakout of violence in India in 1919?
Explain your answer. [14]
● MCR
○ See reasons for its rejection
● Rowlatt Act
○ Cite its terms
● Amritsar Massacre
○ Give a brief account of the event and the failure of the Hunter Committee
● Arrest of Muslim leaders during and after World War 1
 ○ Those asking Muslims not to help in WW1 were arrested.
■ Thousands were arrested during and after the war
● Self rule was not given to Indians even though:
○ It was promised
○ Indians fought for the British
○ There was support for Indian self rule in the Parliament

Was MMR/Lucknow Pact/MCR the most important attempt made either by British or by
Indians to reach a constitutional settlement in India during 1909-1919? Explain.
Successes:
● The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was an agreement between the Muslims and Hindus, which placed a
number of political demands to the British government in an attempt to show a united front and
produce common aims. For the first time Hindus acknowledged that Muslims had the right to a
separate electorate and was therefore seen as a beacon of hope for the future.
● The Morley-Minto Reforms became law in 1909 as the Indian Councils Act. The importance of
the Councils, which were enlarged, was to ensure that Indian legislators were given a chance to
express their opinions. The British also accepted the right of Muslims to have a separate
electorate.
● The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms held out concessions to political parties provided that they
accepted the right of the British to remain in control.

Failure:
● The Morley-Minto Reforms were well intentioned but the councils that were enlarged could only
give advice, with power remaining in the hands of the British. The Indians objected to this as
they wanted more say in their affairs
● The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms disappointed the Muslims and Hindus as they had hoped for
greater concessions. Central government reserved sweeping powers for itself with only minor
concessions for the locals. As the Indians had supported the British during WW1 they felt that
the British government should reward this by giving them more responsibility in running their
own affairs
● The Rowlatt Act of 1919 followed the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms and increased the
resentment of the political parties by including the right of arrest without a warrant and
detention without bail. This was to cause great unrest

Why was India not given self rule? [7]

● Britain was severely weakened after WW1, especially economically. All colonial nations were
facing demands from their colonies for independence in one form or another, and the British
viewed India as the Jewel of the empire
● Britain’s standing as a world power would be weakened if it gave In to Indian demands
● Strategically, India was important for the British Navy and British influence in the region.
Therefore, the British were reluctant to give in to Indian demands
● There were many thousands of British people living in India who could not be abandoned. The
British government did not want to lose the businessmen, missionaries, and civil servants who
had settled there.