Water Resour Manage (2014) 28:1–14

DOI 10.1007/s11269-013-0469-y

Irrigation Planning and Management

Through Optimization Modelling

Ajay Singh

Received: 14 April 2013 / Accepted: 21 October 2013 /

Published online: 30 October 2013
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract Proper planning and management of irrigation is vital in achieving food security for
the burgeoning global population and sustaining livelihoods. Because irrigated agriculture is
expected to provide more food, if managed properly. The comprehensive reviews on the use of
various programming techniques used for planning and management of irrigation have been
provided in this paper. The literature review revealed that the management models used in the
past mainly considered the objectives of maximization of net farm income, minimization of
waterlogging, and minimization of groundwater depletion. These objectives were achieved by
optimizing the allocation of available land and water resources. The past reviews are grouped
into four sections based on the programming techniques adopted. The sections include: linear
programming, nonlinear programming, dynamic programming, and genetic algorithms. This
review provides the basis for the selection of appropriate methodology for the planning and
management of irrigation.

Keywords Optimization modelling . Linear programming . Nonlinear programming . Genetic

algorithms . Dynamic programming . Irrigation

1 Introduction

Irrigation is essential to increase agricultural production for fulfilling the food requirement of
burgeoning global population, which is expected to touch the 9.3 billion mark by 2050 from
the current 7.1 billion (United Nations 2010). However, without appropriate planning and
management, irrigated agriculture can be detrimental to the environment and may endanger its
sustainability (van Dam et al. 2006). For example, during the last few decades, many canal
irrigated areas of the world are facing rising groundwater levels, and problems of waterlogging
and salinisation have emerged (Boumans et al. 1988; Hoffman and Durnford 1999; McFarlane
and Williamson 2002; Konukcu et al. 2006; Guganesharajah et al. 2007; Singh 2012a, 2013).

A. Singh (*)
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur,
West Bengal 721302, India
e-mail: erajay07@yahoo.co.in

Ajay. Singh
e-mail: ajay@agfe.iitkgp.ernet.in
2 A. Singh

The increase in population and decline in good quality water resources have intensified
competition among different water users. This competitiveness can build up the agricultural water
shortage and serious problems can thus arise from poorly planned water management systems.
The optimal use of available surface water and groundwater resources is of paramount
importance in irrigation management for achieving food security and sustaining livelihoods
(Smith 2000). This can be attained by using an optimization technique (Singh 2012b). It helps
to find the answer that yields the best result for minimizing or maximizing an objective
function subjected to various constraints (Deninger 1970; Anwar and Clarke 2001; Salazar
et al. 2005; Joubert et al. 2007; Easa and Hossain 2008; Wei and Hsu 2009; Majone et al.
2010; Zhang and Huang 2011; Stray et al. 2012). The various optimization techniques have
been used by researchers from worldwide during the last five decades for irrigation
management (Castle and Lindeborg 1960; Yakowitz 1982; Chávez-Morales et al. 1987;
Paudyal and Gupta 1990a, b; Chen and Huang 2001; Maqsood et al. 2005; Khare et al.
2006; Luo et al. 2007; Li et al. 2008; Karamouz et al. 2009; Yang et al. 2009; Li et al. 2011;
Huang et al. 2012). This study presents a review of different programming techniques used for
irrigation planning and management.

2 Linear Programming

Linear programming (LP) optimization models were extensively used by researchers for
irrigation management because of its easy formulation and application (Castle and Lindeborg
1960; Morel-Seytoux 1975; Maknoon and Burges 1978; Loucks et al. 1981; Yaron and Dinar
1982; Feinerman and Yaron 1983; O’Mara 1988; Vincent and Dempsey 1991; Mohan and
Jothiprakash 2003; Lu et al. 2011; Singh 2012c). Boster and Martin (1979) used an LP model
in irrigated farms in Arizona. Male and Mueller (1992) presented a dual-objective LP model,
considering the use of groundwater without stream depletion. While, Peralta et al. (1995)
developed an LP model to obtain the sustainable groundwater extractions over a period of five
decades under conjunctive water use scenario.
An LP model was proposed by Tyagi and Narayana (1981) to allocate available
surface water and groundwater for irrigation in a semi-arid area of India. Kumar and
Pathak (1989) presented an LP model for optimal crop planning in a canal-aquifer
system. Ibáñez-Castillo et al. (1997) used a combination of LP and simulation models
for planning the operation of an irrigation system. Barlow et al. (2003) presented an LP-
based conjunctive management model to evaluate the tradeoffs between groundwater
withdrawal and streamflow depletion for alluvial-valley stream aquifer systems of the
northeastern United States. Lu et al. (2011) developed and applied an inexact rough-
interval fuzzy LP model to generate conjunctive water allocation strategies. The
researchers, i.e., Aron (1969), Suryavanshi and Reddy (1986), Gaur et al. (2011), and
Kashyap and Chandra (1982) have also used similar models for management and
planning of surface water and groundwater resources.
Matanga and Mariño (1979) developed a stochastic inter-seasonal model to determine
irrigation policy. Karmarkar (1984) has established that interior point LP (IPLP) algorithm
was quite efficient in solving very large LP problems. Later IPLP approach was used by
Ponnambalam et al. (1989) for reservoir operation. Easwaramoorthy et al. (1989) suggested
optimal cropping pattern for the lower Bhawani project using an LP model. A multilevel
optimization technique was used by Paudyal and Gupta (1990b) to solve the complex problem
of irrigation management in a large heterogeneous basin. Tyagi (1986, 1988) formulated and
applied decision models for optimal allocation of good quality limited surface water and saline
Irrigation Planning and Management Through Optimization Modelling 3

groundwater. Shyam et al. (1994) used LP technique for devising an improved method of
water allocation in India.
Morel-Seytoux (1975) solved an LP model by using the discrete kernel generator
(Morel-Seytoux and Daly 1975). Bowen and Young (1985) used an LP model to derive
estimates of financial and economic benefits of irrigation in Egypt. An LP model was
developed by Afzal et al. (1992) to optimize the use of different quality waters by
alternative irrigations in an area of Pakistan. Malek-Mohammadi (1998) presented a
mixed-integer LP model for planning an irrigation system. Latif and James (1991)
applied an LP model in the Indus basin in Pakistan to maximize the net income of
irrigators through cycles of wet and dry years over the long period. Similarly, Yamout
and El-Fadel (2005) developed a regional LP model to assist decision makers in the
planning and setting policies for optimal water resources allocation.
An LP model was applied by Feinerman and Yaron (1983) for guiding annual decision
making with regard to saline irrigation water mixing from various sources. Panda et al. (1983)
developed and applied an LP model for conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater in a
canal command area of Indian Punjab. Tyagi and Narayana (1984) developed a deterministic
LP model for allocation of surface water and groundwater for irrigation. Kaushal et al. (1985)
developed a deterministic LP model to find out the optimal cropping pattern and optimum use
of saline groundwater in a canal command area in India. The results of a study on a forecasting
system of irrigation water requirements using the fuzzy theory was presented by Saruwatari
and Yomota (1995). Khare et al. (2007) used an LP model to investigate the scope of
conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater for a link canal command in Andhra
Pradesh, India.
Khanjani and Busch (1983) developed a procedure to specify optimal plans for an irrigation
system with temporary internal storage. An LP model for planning the management of an
irrigation district in Mexico was developed by Chávez-Morales et al. (1987). Panda et al.
(1996) developed and linked three non-structural management models for the canal command
area of a semi-arid region of Indian Punjab. Teixeira and Mariño (2002) presented an
optimization methodology for reservoir operation coupled with an irrigation scheduling
scheme that maximized the net income to an irrigation district. Sun et al. (2011) concluded
that irrigation water productivity can be improved for the double cropping system under
optimized water management.
Smout and Gorantiwar (2005) presented a water allocation model, which incorporates deficit
irrigation for optimizing the use of irrigation water. Later, Gorantiwar and Smout (2005) applied
the model to a medium irrigation scheme in India to obtain the land and water allocation plans.
Moradi-Jalal et al. (2007) developed an LP model for the optimal multi-crop irrigation areas
associated with reservoir operation policies in a reservoir-irrigation system in Iran. Recently,
Singh (2012c) developed and applied an LP model for the optimal allocation of land and water
resources in a semi-arid region of India, which is underlain by poor quality groundwater.
Chance constrained linear programming (CCLP) is one of the approaches of LP under risk
wherein some or all parameters are random variables. Nieswand and Granstrom (1971)
used a set of CCLP models for the conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater.
Smith (1973) formulated a chance-constrained stochastic model for an irrigation project in
Bangladesh for studying the complex hydrologic and economic interactions on
conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater. The researchers, i.e., Mishra (1975),
Lakshminarayana and Rajagopalan (1977), Maji and Heady (1978), and Panda et al.
(1985) have also used CCLP approach for irrigation planning and management. While,
Li et al. (2010) utilized an inexact two-stage water management model for irrigation
planning in the Zhangweinan River Basin, China.
4 A. Singh

3 Nonlinear Programming

The inability of LP models to handle nonlinear problems and difficulty in attaining global
optimal solution of other algorithms (Sedki and Ouazar 2011) thrusts the use of nonlinear
programming (NLP) models in irrigation management (Rydzewski and Rashid 1981). Khan
(1982) presented an NLP model for managing irrigated agriculture with different quality
waters. Danskin and Gorelick (1985) developed a groundwater-surface water management
model using NLP technique. Ghahraman and Sepaskhah (2004) used LP and NLP models for
exploring the irrigation optimization. A conjunctive use planning model was formulated by
Chiu et al. (2010), considering optimal pumping and recharge strategy.
An NLP model was formulated by Gupta et al. (1987) for conjunctive use through blending
of poor quality groundwater and good quality canal water. The potential of a quadratic
programming-based optimization approach was evaluated by Wardlaw and Barnes (1999)
for improving the real time irrigation water management in systems with complex distribution
networks. Benli and Kodal (2003) formulated a crop water benefit function-based NLP model
for the determination of irrigation water needs and farm income under adequate and limited
water supply conditions in southeast Anatolian Region of Turkey. The similar approach was
adopted by Mainuddin et al. (1997), Alaya et al. (2003), Raju and Kumar (2004), and Shang
and Mao (2006).
A methodology was developed by Haimes and Dreizin (1977) for solving the problems of
conjunctive use of a large scale complex groundwater system. Rastogi (1989) used NLP for
the simulation of a groundwater management model in the Blue Lake aquifer in Northern
California. Carvallo et al. (1998) developed an NLP model for determining the optimal
cropping pattern with cultivated area in each soil as decision variable. Similarly, Ghahraman
and Sepaskhah (1997) also used NLP for maximizing farm income, while, Paudyal and Gupta
(1990a) proposed an NLP model for irrigation management. Takahashi and Peralta (1995)
computed optimal perennial groundwater yield pumping strategies for a complex multilayer
aquifer of the Great Salt Lake in Utah.
For the efficient utilization of water resources in a coastal groundwater basin of Orissa in
India, NLP and LP models were developed and applied by Rejani et al. (2009). Montazar et al.
(2010) developed an integrated soil water balance algorithm and coupled to an NLP model for
carrying out water allocation planning in complex deficit agricultural water resources systems.
Similarly, Huang et al. (2012) developed an integrated two-stage interval-quadratic
programming model for water resources planning and management in China. Austin et al.
(1998) analysed different programming models and concluded that NLP models do not give
appreciably better performance compared with LP models.

4 Dynamic Programming

Because of its inherent advantages, the use of dynamic programming (DP) technique is very
common in irrigation planning and management (Yakowitz 1982) and it has been extensively
used by various researchers worldwide (e.g., Flinn and Musgrave 1967; Hall et al. 1968; Hall and
Butcher 1968; Burt 1970; Yaron et al. 1987; Rao et al. 1988, 1992; Sunantara and Ramirez 1997;
Naadimuthu et al. 1999; Shangguan et al. 2002; Abdallah et al. 2003; Tran et al. 2011). The
important developments in the area of the DP application in irrigation management has been
reported by many researchers, i.e., Yeh (1985), Kennedy (1986), Bosch et al., (1987), and
Benedini (1988). Usually, the DP approach has been limited to two or three state variables.
However, Philbrick and Kitanidis (1998) applied a second order gradient DP method which had
Irrigation Planning and Management Through Optimization Modelling 5

five state variables. Panda (1992) applied DP for irrigation planning and management of a semi-
arid region through conjunctive use of surface water and gypsum treated sodic groundwater.
Yaron and Dinar (1982) presented a system analysis approach for water allocation during
peak seasons to alternative crops. A differential DP algorithm was developed by Jones et al.
(1987) to reduce dimensionality. Tsakiris and Kiountouzis (1984) developed a DP model to
optimize the intra-seasonal distribution of irrigation water under the constraint of
predetermined irrigation timing. An integrated LP-DP model for intra-seasonal irrigation
allocation was developed by Vedula and Kumar (1996). Rao et al. (1990) developed an
optimization model for optimal weekly irrigation scheduling by considering both seasonal as
well as intra-seasonal competition of water.
A DP model was developed and applied by Karamouz et al. (2004) for fulfilling the
objective of meeting agricultural water demands in the Tehran metropolitan area. Prasad
et al. (2006) developed a deterministic DP model for obtaining optimal irrigation planning
in a multi-crop and multi-season environment in Nagarjuna Sagar right canal command of
India. Similarly, Shangguan et al. (2002) developed and used a DP model for regional optimal
allocation of irrigation. Recently, Li et al. (2011) developed and used a robust multistage
interval-stochastic programming method and applied it to the planning of regional water
management systems.
The stochastic dynamic programming (SDP) demonstrated to be a potential tool in
solving irrigation management problems (Rhenals and Bras 1981; Duldley 1988;
Rajput and Michael 1989; Protopapas and Georgakakos 1990). Bras and Cordova
(1981) proposed a SDP algorithm for optimal temporal allocation of irrigation water.
The researchers i.e., Stedinger et al. (1984), Rao et al. (1988), Sunantara and Ramirez
(1997), and Paul et al. (2000) also used SDP approach for addressing the problems of
optimal allocation.
A SDP model was used by Dudley et al. (1971) for integrating the systems for determining
the optimal irrigation timing. Later, Dudley and Burt (1973) and Duldley (1988) have made
improvement in the model. Gupta and Chauhan (1986) modeled stochastic irrigation needs of
paddy. Reca et al. (2001a) proposed an optimization model for planning of deficit irrigation in
the Bembezar river irrigation district, Spain (Reca et al. 2001b). Datta and Dhiman (1996)
developed a model for designing a groundwater quality monitoring network. Azaiez et al.
(2005) developed a chance constrained model for optimal multi-period operation of a multi-
reservoir system. An optimization model using fuzzy theory within the SDP was proposed by
Bertsekas and Tsitsiklis (1996) to deal with highly nonlinear problems.
A SDP technique was developed by Alaya et al. (2003) to satisfy the irrigation water
demand and ensure minimal water storage in the Nebhana dam. Vedula and Mujumdar (1992)
developed a three state variable SDP model to obtain an optimal reservoir operating policy.
Saad et al. (1996) developed a fuzzy learning disaggregation method to decompose monthly
optimal policies of an aggregated reservoir using DP. Ghahraman and Sepaskhah (2002)
developed an NLP-SDP model for optimal allocation of water in Ardak reservoir dam in an
arid region.

5 Genetic Algorithms

The inability of conventional LP and NLP models in handling nonlinear non-convex

problems and difficulty in attaining global optima generate demand for other types of
algorithms. The genetic algorithms (GA) (Holland 1975; Fogel 1994) has been
established as a valuable tool for solving complex optimization problems (Wang 1991;
6 A. Singh

Oliveira and Loucks 1997; Wardlaw and Sharif 1999; Wu et al. 2007; Liu et al. 2008;
Rana et al. 2008; Sedki et al. 2009; Nicklow et al. 2010). This technique has been used
by many researchers for dealing with a wide range of optimization problems (Davis
1991; McKinney and Lin 1994; Mckinney and Lin 1995; Huang and Mayer 1997; Haupt
and Haupt 1998).
Although GA has been extensively used for many optimization problems, its
application for irrigation planning is relatively new (Aly and Peralta 1999; Hilton and
Culver 2000, 2005; Morshed and Kaluarachchi (2000); Nixon et al. 2001; Wu and
Simpson 2001; Ahmed and Sarma 2005; Espinoza et al. 2005; Vedula et al. 2005; Kumar
et al. 2006). Sharif and Wardlaw (2000) presented a GA algorithm to the optimization of
a multi-reservoir system in Brantas Basin in Indonesia. Wardlaw and Bhaktikul (2004) utilized
the time block approach and GA for solving the irrigation scheduling problem. However, the
approach used by Wardlaw and Bhaktikul (2004) was criticized by Haq et al. (2008). An
irrigation allocation model was presented by Kumar et al. (2006) by using a GA approach. Kuo
et al. (2003) performed a comparative study on optimization techniques for irrigation project
planning. Maskey et al. (2002) used the groundwater flow and particle tracking models and a
global optimization tool, GLOBE for the groundwater remediation.
A multiobjective planning model was developed (Yang et al. 2009) by integrating a
multiobjective GA, constrained differential DP (CDDP), and a groundwater simulation
model. Sarker and Ray (2009) provided useful insights about solutions that are generated
using population-based approaches. Raju and Kumar (2004) applied GA for evolving an
optimal cropping pattern utilizing surface water resources. A GA model was used by
Karamouz et al. (2009) to optimize a water resources allocation scheme considering the
conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater resources. Zeng et al. (2010)
developed a fuzzy multiobjective LP model for crop area planning of Liang Zhou region,
Gansu province, China.
An integrated LP-GA model was formulated by Md. Azamathulla et al. (2008).
Hilton and Culver (2000) compared an additive penalty method with a multiplicative
penalty method in a GA. Reed et al. (2000) presented a review of the existing tools
from literature to ensure that a GA converges to an optimal or near-optimal solution.
Wardlaw and Sharif (1999) performed the evaluation of GA for a four-reservoir
problem. A GA model was formulated by Karamouz et al. (2008) to optimize the cropping
pattern of irrigation networks. Wu and Simpson (2001) concluded that messy GA requires
fewer design trials than for other GAs. Archibald et al. (2006) proposed a new
approach that can be applied to more general reservoir systems, allowing arbitrary
partitions. Moghaddasi et al. (2010) developed a regional optimal allocation model
which allocates water samong different crops and irrigation units.
An integrated GA-CDDP model was used by Hsiao and Chang (2002) for
obtaining the optimal solutions of the groundwater resources planning problem. A
hybrid two-stage GA model was developed by Afshar et al. (2010) for optimizing the
design and operation of a nonlinear and semi-distributed cyclic reservoir system in an
irrigated area. The researchers, i.e., Dariane and Hughes (1991) and Mujumdar and
Ramesh (1997) addressed the problem of real time reservoir operation for irrigation.
Nixon et al. (2001) applied a GA for optimizing off-farm irrigation scheduling. Huang
et al. (2002) developed a GA-SDP model to cope with the dimensionality problem of
a multiple-reservoir system. The researchers, i.e., Rao et al. (2004), Bhattacharjya and
Datta (2005), Rao et al. (2006), and Safavi et al. (2010) have used artificial neural
networks (ANN) (Rogers and Dowla 1994) to solve the optimization problems of
water resources.
Irrigation Planning and Management Through Optimization Modelling 7

6 Conclusions

The literature review revealed that the management models used in the past for irrigation
planning and management mainly considered the objectives of maximization of net farm
income, minimization of waterlogging, and minimization of groundwater depletion. The LP
technique was extensively used because of its easy formulation and application. However its
inability to handle nonlinear problems propels the use of NLP. CCLPs were used to
accommodate random variables in decision making. The use of DP techniques was very
common in irrigation planning and management because of its ability to model sequential
decision-making processes and ability to incorporate stochasticity of hydrological processes.
The complex nonlinear non-convex optimization problems were solved by using GA as it
could yield better results as compared to the traditional optimization techniques. The GA-
based optimization approach is mainly suitable for externally linking the numerical simulation
model within the optimization model. Some past studies developed and used multiobjective
planning models by integrating GA and DP. The ANNs were used because of their simple
structure and ability to approximate even highly complex systems. Many researchers
concluded that simulated annealing with an ANN can be useful for real problems of modest
size. Combined use of optimization and simulation models have been preferred recently to
explore the unique advantages of the technique.
The reviews on the different programming techniques used for the planning and
management of irrigation was done and presented in this paper. This review provides the
basis for the selection of appropriate methodology. Although the study has examined all
possible literature sources, it seems to be practically impossible to include in a review all
publications. This review paper highlights an overall approach for optimization modelling
applications for the planning and management of irrigation. It is likely that some aspects of
some of the subjects have either been overlooked or only briefly referred to. Some of the
subjects may deserve a more comprehensive, special review. It is expected that these gaps
could be filled by subsequent contributions and that there is scope for further discussion about
the subject covered in this review.

Acknowledgements The author extends great appreciation to the editors and anonymous reviewers of the
journal, whose constructive and insightful comments and suggestions have led to considerable improvement to
the early version of the manuscript.

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