Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109076

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Review Article

A review of flywheel energy storage rotor materials and structures

Hu Dongxu a, b, Dai Xingjian a, b, Li Wen a, b, Zhu Yangli a, b, Zhang Xuehui a, b, Chen Haisheng a, b, *,
Zhang Zhilai c
a
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100190, China
b
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
c
Nanjing Institute of Future Energy System, Nanjing 211135, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The flywheel is the main energy storage component in the flywheel energy storage system, and it can only
Flywheel energy storage achieve high energy storage density when rotating at high speeds. Choosing appropriate flywheel body materials
Rotor materials and structural shapes can improve the storage capacity and reliability of the flywheel. At present, there are two
Shape design
main types of flywheel materials: metal materials and composite materials. The design and processing technology
Reliability
of metal materials is relatively mature. Composite materials have the characteristics of high strength and low
density, which can achieve higher energy storage density, while the manufacturing process of composite ma­
terials is more complex, and the understanding of failure modes is not yet mature. This article introduces the
evaluation indicators of flywheel rotor. The material characteristics of metal flywheel rotor and composite
flywheel rotor are introduced. The performance characteristics of composite materials with different structures
are also emphasized. Different flywheel structures are introduced and explained through application examples.
In order to fully utilize material strength to achieve higher energy storage density, rotors are increasingly
operating at extremely high tip speeds. However, this trend will lead to severe centripetal stress and potential
safety threats caused by rotor failure. This article summarizes and elaborates on this issue. Finally, a summary
was made on the material and structural design issues of the flywheel rotor.

1. Introduction
As more and more renewable energy production technologies, such
as wind and solar power plants, are integrated into the grid, related
challenges, such as intermittency and power quality, must be addressed.
More and more long-term and short-term energy storage technologies
are deployed to address this issue, thereby improving the reliability and
robustness of renewable energy based power grids [1–3].
Existing energy storage systems use various technologies, including
hydro power, batteries, super capacitors, heat storage, and energy
storage flywheels, etc. [4]. Distinguishing between electrical energy
storage and thermal energy storage is necessary. The former mainly
stores electrical energy in batteries, supercapacitors, flywheels and
other devices, and converts various forms of energy into electricity for
storage. The latter mainly stores heat energy in phase change materials
(PCMs), heat storage tanks and other devices, and converts various
forms of energy into heat for storage. Flywheel Energy Storage Systems
(FESS) play an important role in the energy storage business. Its ability
to cycle and deliver high power, as well as, high power gradients makes
them superior for storage applications such as frequency regulation,
voltage support and power firming [5–7].
Today, FESS faces significant cost pressures in providing cost-
effective flywheel design solutions, especially in recent years, where
the price of lithium batteries has plummeted [8–11]. It is reported that
the capital cost per unit power for different FESS configurations ranges
from 600 to 2400 $/kW, and the operation and maintenance costs range
from 5.56 to 5.80 $/kW-year [12]. Another source reported that the
capital cost per unit power of a FESS system with a rated power of 250
kW and a maximum expected storage time of 15 min is 250 to 350$/kW,
and the corresponding unit energy cost is 1000 to 5000$/kWh [13]. The
International Renewable Energy Agency estimates that the unit energy
installation cost of FESS will decrease by 35 % by 2030, from the current
estimate of 1500–6000$/kWh to 1000–3900$/kWh [14].
The high cost of flywheel energy storage per kilowatt hour is one of
the key factors restricting its promotion and application. Therefore, the
selection of appropriate rotor materials and the design of rotor structure

* Corresponding author at: Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100190, China.
E-mail address: chen_hs@mail.etp.ac.cn (C. Haisheng).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.109076
Received 8 June 2023; Received in revised form 3 September 2023; Accepted 22 September 2023
Available online 19 October 2023
2352-152X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Dongxu et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109076

are the key to reducing the cost of flywheel energy storage, which is
crucial for the promotion of flywheel energy storage.
Several review papers address different aspects of FESS research.
Most of the current literature on FESS focuses on its application in
renewable energy [15,16], especially for improving the quality of wind
power generation or the automotive area [17–19]. These scholars place
great emphasis on the application and market outlook of flywheel en­
ergy storage [20]. There is also one investigation on different design
approaches, choices of subsystems, and the effects on performance, cost,
and applications [6,21]. There are also a few books that systematically
introduce flywheel energy storage systems from aspects such as struc­
ture and application [22,23].
Although these reviews provide a comprehensive summary of
flywheel energy storage, given the crucial role of flywheel rotor material
and structure in flywheel system design, some issues are still worth
summarizing and exploring. Based on this, this article will summarize
relevant literature on flywheel energy storage rotor materials, structural
design, and reliability. Based on the results of literature research, the
existing problems and development trends in this field were proposed.
2. Flywheel evaluation metrics
2.1. Kinetic energy storage
The FESS energy storage capacity is expressed by total storage energy
and available storage energy, which can be expressed as:
1 increased, and the stress distribution can be further improved. Com­
E = J ω2 (1)
2
∑
J= mi ri2 (2)
i 3. Flywheel materials
E is the amount of energy stored; J is the rotational inertia; ω is the
rotational angular velocity; ri is the radius of each part of the flywheel;
mi is the corresponding flywheel mass.
The effectively stored energy is the difference between the highest
and lowest speeds:
1 ( ) flywheel. To achieve greater energy storage and higher energy storage
Ea = J ω22 − ω21 (3)
2 density, it is necessary to select materials with higher specific strength to
ω2 is the maximum operating speed, which is the maximum speed
that the flywheel motor can reach; ω1 is the minimum operating speed,
which is the minimum speed required for the flywheel rotor to contin­
uously discharge. The flywheel operating speed range is ω1 ∼ ω2 .
2.2. Energy storage density
For a flywheel made of homogeneous material, assuming that the
axial thickness h of the flywheel is only a function of the radius r, the
mass m and rotational inertia J can be expressed as follows:
∫ ro
m = 2πρ h(r)rdr (4)
ri
density.
The simplified force model of the flywheel body is shown in Fig. 1.
The maximum stress occurs at the center of the disk, and its value can be
determined by the following formula [24]:
3+υ 2 2
σ rmax = σθmax = ρω r0 (7)
8
The maximum rotational speed of the flywheel is subject to the
allowable stress of the material. Frequent charging and discharging
operations also require consideration of the fatigue strength of the
flywheel material.
2.3. Shape factors
The shape factor is a dimensionless quantity that numerically de­
scribes the geometry of the flywheel. When designing a flywheel rotor,
on the premise of meeting the energy storage capacity requirements, the
designed flywheel should be compact in volume, light in weight, and
low in cost. Specific energy storage for different rotor shapes has been
considered, using the shape factor Ks defined as [25].
E σmax
= Ks (8)
m ρ
The closer Ks is to 1, the more energy can be stored in a particular
mass of material, density, and material strength. By optimizing the
structure of the flywheel, the shape coefficient of the flywheel can be
posites are usually wound into circular ring or hollow cylinder due to the
complexity of their winding process [26–29].
3.1. Material properties
The energy storage density is affected by the specific strength of the
flywheel rotor (the ratio of material strength to density σ /ρ). The
allowable stress and density are both related to the material used in the
make the flywheel body [30–32]. The materials of flywheel body mainly
include metal materials such as high-strength alloy steel, and composite
materials such as carbon fiber and glass fiber [33,34].
Engineering design should fully consider the impact of flywheel size
on material mechanical properties, consider the micro uncertainty of
material properties, select reasonable safety factors, and have reliable
detection or testing methods. Usually, composite materials have higher
specific strength than metal materials, but metal materials are isotropic,
so they can theoretically be made into a constant stress disk. Composite
materials are orthotropic so cannot ever have the shape of a constant

∫ ro
J = 2πρ h(r)r3 dr (5)
ri

ρ is the material density; ω is the rotational angular speed; ri and ro

are the inner and outer diameters of the flywheel body.
The energy storage density (ESD) refers to the energy stored per unit
mass of the flywheel. According to Eqs. (1), (4), and (5), the energy
storage density can be obtained as:
∫ ro 3
E 1 J 2 1 ri h(r)r dr 2 1 2 2
ESD = = ω = ∫ ro ω = Rω (6)
m 2m 2 ri h(r)rdr 2

From Eq. (6), it can be seen that increasing the effective turning
radius R of the flywheel and the speed ω can increase the energy storage Fig. 1. Stress state of rotating disk.

2
H. Dongxu et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109076

stress disk. Therefore, metal material flywheels can have higher Ks than
composite material flywheels. The maximum theoretical energy storage
density of commonly used flywheel body materials is shown in Table 1
(Assuming Ks = 1 for Metal Material and Ks = 0.5 for composite
materials).
It should be noted that Table 1 only provides a theoretical compar­
ison of the possible energy storage densities of common materials. Due
to the frequent charging and discharging of the flywheel during opera­
tion, flywheel rotors cycle up and down in stress hence fatigue strength
is of great importance. As a result, aluminum alloy is generally not used
as a material for flywheel rotors for the reason that fatigue strength is
not good. Titanium alloy is also almost never used as a flywheel rotor
material because its price is too expensive compared to high-strength
alloy steel. Usually, the flywheel rotor is made of high-strength steel
or composite materials. A significant feature of steel flywheel rotors is
their large energy storage and low cost [38]. The metal flywheel is easy
to process and has mature technology. Although the strength of metal
materials is not as strong as composite materials and cannot reach the
limit rotational speed of composite flywheel, the metal density is high, Fig. 2. Conventional flywheel energy storage power and energy storage range.
and it mainly relies on large mass and large rotational inertia for energy
storage. For a composite flywheel rotor, the specific energy per unit
Table 2
mass is significantly greater but the rotor takes up greater volume than a
A summary of FESS systems.
steel rotor. Metal rotors have better energy per cost of materials
Groups/Manufacturer Rotor type Energy storage Power
[39–41].
(kWh) capacity(kW)
Composite materials are structural materials composed of fibers and
matrices, which have many advantages such as high specific strength, Active Power [102] steel 2.83 675
Amber Kinetics [97] steel 32 8
high specific stiffness, design ability, long service life, and good safety
Calnetix/Vycon [99] steel 0.52 125
performance. Therefore, they have become the preferred material for Levistor Flywheel [103] steel 5 100
making energy storage flywheel [42,43]. The main design aspects of Temporal Power [104] steel 50 500
composite rotors is mature having been worked out during the 1980s. Piller Group [98] steel 2.9 625
London University [105] steel 5 10
However, the understanding of failure modes is not yet mature, espe­
Texas A&M University [106] steel 100 100
cially explosive failure modes. It could be argued that the design of Tsinghua University [107] steel 16.7 1000
flywheel rotors both steel and composite is not mature given that there Qifeng Energy Technology [108] steel 5 500
are so many different design approaches. There are mature products of Honghui International Energy steel 25 250
both types but none are produced at the right cost to challenge Li-Ion. Technology [109]
Huachikinetic Energy [110] steel 125 500
PEREZ APARICIO et al. [39] established a differential equation for
Candela New Energy [111] steel 20 100
the mechanics of composite materials, and directly integrated to obtain Adaptive Balancing Power [112] Composite 12 400
closed accurate solutions for displacement, stress, and failure factors. Beacon Power [78] Composite 25 100
Chen Qijun et al. [44] adopted a stiffness attenuation model to predict Boeing [74] Composite 5 3
Kinetic Traction [113] Composite 3.9 333
the failure process of composite flywheel under different conditions. Li
GKN Hybrid Power [114] Composite 0.44 120
Songsong et al. [45] designed and discussed different process methods Helix Power [115] Composite 25 1000
and analytical models for carbon fiber composite flywheel rotors, and Powerthru [76] Composite 0.53 101
analyzed the stress distribution, energy storage density optimization, Ricardo TorqStor [116] Composite 0.056 101
and dynamic characteristics of the flywheel. Aparicio et al. [46] pro­ Rotonix [117] Composite 12 1100
Stornetic [118] Composite 3.6 80
posed a closed expression for the displacement, stress, and failure factors
Railway Tech. Res. Ins,t. [77] Composite 100 300
of composite flywheel rotors.
Fig. 2 shows the distribution range of current main flywheel power
and energy storage. The data source is Table 2. From the figure, it can be basically the same. The power distribution range of flywheel energy
seen that the proportion of metal flywheel and composite flywheel is storage units is wide, reaching over 1000 kW, but the energy storage is
mostly concentrated below 30kWh. Considering the heat dissipation
factor, the power has basically reached the upper limit, so how to
Table 1 improve the energy storage of the flywheel energy storage unit should be
Comparison of candidate flywheel materials [35–37]. one of the important directions for future research. (See Figs. 3–7.)
Material σmax /MPa Density/ Strength Maximum energy
(kg/m3) allowable storage density/ 3.2. Material structure
coefficient (Wh/kg)

High strength Scholars have adopted multi-strategy optimization algorithms to

aluminum 600 2850 0.9 52.6 solve the problem of multi-layer hybrid fiber composite flywheel,
alloy
achieving the optimization goal of maximizing energy/cost ratio [47].
Maraging steel 2400 7850 0.9 76.4
Titanium alloy 1200 5100 0.9 58.9 There is also the use of a combination of multi-layer glass fiber and
Glass fiber carbon fiber hybrid structures to form two wheel edge pressing processes
1800 2150 0.6 70.0
composite [48]. Dai Xingjian et al. [49] developed the traditional multi-layer
T700 fiber interlayer hybrid flywheel into a multi-layer interlayer hybrid
2100 1650 0.6 106.0
composite
T1000 fiber
flywheel in response to the problems of low radial strength and easy
4200 1650 0.6 212.0 delamination of high-speed composite flywheel. The rotational defor­
composite
mation test results show that the hybrid design method is flexible and

3
H. Dongxu et al.
Fig. 3. Circular/radial fiber stacking [36].
)LOO\DUQ
:DUS\DUQ
Fig. 4. Stacked fber-woven rotor. Reprinted from [59].
Fig. 5. Samples of woven composite flywheel [36].
feasible. Two-dimensional or three-dimensional strengthening is
another path in the design of composite flywheel. The circular and radial
bidirectional reinforcement of fiber laying is optimized by the finite
element method of Quadratic programming algorithm parameters [50].
In the optimization design of radial/circumferential bidirectional fiber
placement stacks, the maximum stress criterion, the maximum strain
criterion have a significant impact on the prediction of the maximum
energy storage density of the flywheel [51].
The orthogonal laminate molding method is to prepare a circum­
ferential ply with fibers arranged in the rotation direction and a radial
ply with fibers arranged in the radial direction, respectively. The ad­
vantages of using laminated method to produce flywheel rotor are:
simple process, stable size, and relatively dense structure. The so-called
laminate design, in which unidirectional reinforced laminates are
alternately laminated. The example is shown in [36,52–56]. In [54], the
effect of failure criteria on the optimization of laminated composite
flywheel was studied. Some literature introduces the manufacturing and
non-destructive testing of multi-directional composite flywheel rims
[55–58].
Another method is weaving technology. The use of circular two-
4
Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109076
dimensional woven structure laminated composite materials to ach­
ieve radial strengthening of the flywheel is a new attempt, with theo­
retical predictions that the energy storage density can reach 53 W ⋅ h/kg
[59–61]. The fibers in two orthogonal directions, namely, warp yarn and
filling yarn, are woven and formed into a spiral annular fabric, which is
stacked and formed into a disc shaped rotor after being compounded
with resin. Different weaving styles can be used, such as plain, twill, and
satin. The volume fraction of warp and weft yarns can vary along the
radius [62].
As shown in [63], in order to increase the specific elastic modulus,
more warp yarns can be arranged on the outer side in the radial direc­
tion. In [59], five braided rotors were manufactured and tested. One of
the rotors achieved a maximum speed of 479 m/s. This rate is lower than
expected due to progressive damage caused by material defects and low
strength at the tail of the stack structure. Generally speaking, the uni­
formity of braided rotors is not as good as that of filament wound rotors.
Especially at the end of a laminated fabric, peeling may occur due to its
low strength.
Tsinghua University and Tianjin University of Technology are
collaborating to produce a new type of carbon fiber thin layer spiral
circular continuous fabric, a new type of single layer two-dimensional
woven complete circular texture with circumferential single contin­
uous warp yarn, and a test flywheel is obtained by laminating with
epoxy resin. A rotation test was conducted, and the linear speed of the
flywheel edge reached 800 m/s. The exploration indicates that two-
dimensional woven circular ring composite materials have good appli­
cation prospects in flywheel structures. Ha et al. [64] aimed to optimize
the energy storage density and designed the inter layer interference and
fiber winding angle of multi-layer composite materials based on plane
strain theory. They pointed out that optimizing the inter layer inter­
ference is more effective in improving the energy storage performance of
the flywheel than optimizing the fiber winding angle. Achieving 800 m/
s is comparable with traditional filament wound designs. In theory,
these new structures should be more robust in avoiding the destructive
explosion failure modes that occurred in the early 2000s, which requires
further experimental verification, and the manufacturing process of
composite materials with such structures is also more complex.
4. Flywheel shape design
The maximum speed of the flywheel is not only related to the
selected material properties, but also significantly influenced by the
structural shape of the flywheel body. Different flywheel structures have
important effects on mass distribution, moment of inertia, structural
stress and energy storage density. Under a certain mass, arranging the
materials as far away as possible from the center of the shaft can
effectively improve the energy storage density of the flywheel rotor per
unit mass. However, it is necessary to consider the centrifugal load on
the rotor at the set speed. Therefore, moving the material away from the
center of the shaft results in greater centrifugal stress at the center of the
shaft [22,65–67]. However, due to considerations such as ease of pro­
cessing and material cost savings, equal diameter discs are commonly
used as the main structural form of flywheels in industry [68,69].
4.1. Composite flywheel
Due to factors such as anisotropy and complex processes, it is diffi­
cult to make significant improvements in the design of composite ma­
terial structures. Therefore, more research has focused on optimizing
wheel hub structures or studying multi-layer composite materials. In
1999 [70], the University of Texas at Austin developed a 7-ring inter­
ference assembled composite material flywheel energy storage system
and provided a stress distribution calculation method for the flywheel
energy storage system. In 2003 [71], a flywheel energy storage system
with a rated power of 2 MW and an energy storage capacity of 100 kWh
was developed. The flywheel body material was graphite composite
H. Dongxu et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109076

Fig. 6. Composite flywheel structure [71].

Fig. 7. Boeing 100 kW / 5 kWh UPS Flywheel System Design [74].

material, with an energy density of 11.67 Wh/kg.
The carbon fiber epoxy resin composite flywheel rotor developed by
the University of Maryland in the United States has successfully stored
20 kWh of energy, with a maximum speed of 46,345 rpm [72]. The
University of Houston in the United States [73] is mainly dedicated to
the development of spindle shaped flywheels, with a shape coefficient
close to or equal to 1. The designed 19 kg composite flywheel has an
energy storage capacity of 1 kWh. The composite flywheel designed by
Boeing [74] adopts a three-layer circular ring structure with
circumferential winding, and different specifications of carbon fibers are
selected based on the different stress states of each layer, which im­
proves the overall strength and material utilization of the flywheel.
Arvin et al. [75] used simulated annealing method to optimize the
structure of composite flywheel and optimized the energy storage den­
sity of flywheel energy storage system by changing the number of
flywheel layers. The results showed that increasing the number of
composite material rings can improve the energy storage density of
flywheel energy storage system while meeting the strength requirements

5
H. Dongxu et al.
of composite materials.
The small energy storage composite flywheel of American company
Powerthu can operate at 53000 rpm and store 0.53 kWh of energy [76].
The superconducting flywheel energy storage system developed by the
Japan Railway Technology Research Institute has a rotational speed of
6000 rpm and a single unit energy storage capacity of 100 kW⋅h. It is the
largest energy storage composite flywheel developed in recent years
[77]. Beacon Power has carried out a series of research and development
work on composite flywheel energy storage, and has conducted several
iterations of the flywheel single machine system structure. Two 20 MW
flywheel energy storage independent frequency modulation power sta­
tions have been established in New York State and Pennsylvania, with
deep charging and discharging of 3000–5000 times within a year [78].
The Beacon Power 20 MW systems are in commercial operation and the
largest FESS systems in the world by far. They comprise of 200 sets of
100 kW flywheel energy storage systems, each of which had to be buried
due to the issue of safety. Earlier on, the plan was to have these above
ground until news of explosive failures modes was discovered.
From the above structure, it can be seen that the composite flywheel
shaft system adopts either a segmented structure or an integral structure.
But they have one thing in common, which is to increase the axial length
of the composite flywheel body as much as possible, with the aim of
improving the energy storage of the flywheel in limited space and
relatively low material stress. In order to avoid separation between the
flywheel hub and the composite flywheel body, some designs use a T-
shaped hub structure, as shown in Figs. 8 and 10. In addition, to achieve
this goal, making metal flexible flywheel wheels is also a common
method. To counteract circumferential strain, a carbon glass/epoxy
resin dome shaped hub has been developed, which is fitted to the rotor
through interference pressure. A series of parameter studies were con­
ducted in sequence to determine fiber fraction, layer thickness, winding
angle, interference, and the shape of the geodesic dome contour [28].
The conical or dome shaped wheels used in the above scheme have a
significant drawback, as self-expansion can cause bending effects on the
wheels and reduce the stability of the shaft system during operation.
Double conical symmetric wheels may be a good solution, as shown in
Figs. 12 and 13. In [60], the aluminum hub ring is divided into 24
segments and welded to the shaft at the top and bottom joints. During
the rotation process, these segmented hubs are more likely to expand
and maintain contact with the composite flywheel. The maximum speed
of the rotor test reached 40,000 rpm without significant separation.
A self-expanding wheel hub was proposed in reference [79], which
can adapt to disc shaped wheels with large diameter but short axial
height. The wheel hub is composed of two symmetrical “double cones”.
This structure can achieve significant radial expansion without
increasing the axial length. Increasing the thickness of the shell in this
structure will not lose its self-expansion, thus achieving high radial
flexibility and stiffness, which to some extent balances the relationship
between deformation and stability.
4.2. Steel flywheel
The maximum stress of a solid disk made of metal materials is smaller
than that of a hollow disk, which is beneficial for increasing the speed of
the flywheel. Therefore, when designing metal flywheel materials, the
solid disk structure is often given priority. The stress component of a
solid disk with equal thickness gradually decreases with the increase of
radius, and the material properties on the outer side of the flywheel are
not fully utilized. Therefore, it is considered that the thickness of the
flywheel gradually decreases along the center of the disk towards the
outer edge of the flywheel, resulting in a variable thickness disk struc­
ture. The rotor structure with smaller mass compared with the structure
with equal thickness can be obtained by variable thickness design of the
rotor with fixed moment of inertia and radius, thus improving the en­
ergy storage density of the system. The drawings in Fig. 14 show some
common metal material flywheel structures, but it should be pointed out
6
Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109076
that these structures have significant drawbacks. The undercut creates
high stress concentration at the place of highest stress (near the cen­
treline). This defeats the purpose of the shaping of the disk. (See Fig. 9.)
(See Fig. 11.) (See Figs. 15–17.)
Satcon Technology Company in the United States [81] adopts an
umbrella shaped flywheel structure, which saves materials, has a large
moment of inertia, a reasonable motor installation position, and a
compact structure, improving system stability. Shiraz University in Iran
[82] has developed a belt type variable inertia flywheel for the recovery
of kinetic energy during the stopping and running of electric buses,
achieving the goal of energy conservation and stable operation. Lau­
tenschlager et al. [83] studied the multi-objective optimization design
problem of variable thickness metal material flywheels based on plane
stress theory, with the design objectives of minimum stress and
maximum energy storage. Arslan [84] studied and compared the energy
storage performance of six metal flywheel materials with different cross-
sectional shapes based on the finite element method. Zhao Yulan et al.
[85] selected a stepped variable cross-section approximate equal stress
rotor metal material flywheel, and adopted an external rotor structure
integrated with the motor and flywheel body to obtain higher energy
storage density, while the flywheel energy storage system has a better
compact structure. Ren Zhengyi et al. [86] conducted finite element
analysis on three different forms of hollow aluminum alloy flywheel
rotor models, and optimized the curved spoke flywheel based on the
stress and deformation distribution of the hollow flywheel rotor at an
extreme speed of 15,000 r/min. Based on the assumption of spatial stress
state, Lan Chen et al. [87] conducted finite element analysis on two
types of variable thickness hollow aluminum alloy flywheels and ob­
tained the influence of flange height on the maximum radial, circum­
ferential, and axial stress and deformation of the two types of flywheels.
Kress et al. [88] used the finite element method to reduce stress
concentration by optimizing the shape of the flywheel rotor. EbyD et al.
[89] conducted research based on parallel genetic algorithms with the
goal of improving flywheel energy storage density. Wu Guang qiang
et al. [90] used the finite element method and Lagrange multiplier
method to optimize the shape of the flywheel, which significantly
improved the flywheel energy storage density. Guo et al. [91] used
differential evolution algorithm to optimize the shape of high-speed
rotating metal wheels. At present, the main algorithms used for opti­
mizing flywheel rotors include progressive structural optimization, ICM,
ESO, and genetic algorithms [92–96].
Amber Corporation [97] of the United States proposed a small power
(8 kW, 32 kWh) and high energy flywheel single machine for solar en­
ergy regulation. 16 single machines form an array with a capacity of 128
kW/512kWh, and the charge discharge cycle efficiency is higher than
80 %. The use of small power motors and large energy storage alloy steel
flywheels is a unique low-cost technology route. The German company
Piller [98] has launched a flywheel energy storage unit for dynamic UPS
power systems, with a power of 3 MW and energy storage of 60 MJ. It
uses a high-quality metal flywheel and a high-power synchronous
excitation motor. VYCON [99] adopts a permanent magnet motor and a
metal flywheel, with a speed of 36,000 r/min, and adopts electromag­
netic fully suspended bearings. Dai Xingjian et al. [100] designed a
variable cross-section alloy steel energy storage flywheel with rated
speed of 2700 r/min and energy storage of 60 MJ to meet the technical
requirements for energy and power of the energy storage unit in the
hybrid power system of oil rig, and proposed a new scheme of keyless
connection with the motor spindle. The flywheel section is designed as
“H” shape, the outer rim is thickened, and the Mass distribution is
adjusted to obtain large moment of inertia.
Some research institutions or enterprises have proposed various
flywheel rotor structures, which have different advantages and disad­
vantages. Some flywheel rotors are “slender” cylindrical, with the
advantage of compact structure and small footprint, but they face
challenges in rotor dynamics. However, some flywheel rotors are close
to a disc shape and look like a gyroscope. The disadvantage of this
H. Dongxu et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109076

Fig. 8. Powerthu 100 kW/0.53 kWh Flywheel System Design [76].

Fig. 13. Self-expanding hub [79].

Fig. 10. 100 kW/25kWh Flywheel System Design [78].
structure is that the flywheel rotor operates at a lower speed, the cost of
an electric generator is higher, and the floor area is larger. Therefore,
when designing the flywheel rotor structure, it is necessary to compre­
hensively consider various factors such as cost, reliability, and floor
space based on actual needs.

5. Reliability design of flywheel rotor

The flywheel energy storage system mainly stores energy through the
inertia of the high-speed rotation of the rotor. In order to fully utilize
material strength to achieve higher energy storage density, rotors are
increasingly operating at extremely high flange speeds. However, this
trend will lead to severe centripetal stress and potential safety threats
caused by rotor failure.
In 2011, two carbon fiber composite rotors weighing 1 ton and
Fig. 12. Flywheel rotor with concave segmented hub [60].
storing about 30 kWh failed and began to disintegrate. The flywheels
failed due to flawed early production runs of the carbon fiber material
used in their manufacture. The faulty flywheels spun out of balance and
tilted to touch the chamber sides, which caused the flywheels to “grind

7
H. Dongxu et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109076

(a) Diamond cross-section (b) Plate cross-section

(c) Rhombic rib section (d) Flat rib section

Fig. 14. Common cross-sectional shapes of metal flywheel materials [80].

The rotor deforms due to heat, causing dynamic balance damage and
instability, exacerbating the rapid deterioration of equipment operation
status, causing damage to the flywheel system, and causing instanta­
neous disassembly of the flywheel [119].
The potential safety and economic losses caused by flywheel failures
are enough to attract high attention from flywheel designers and man­
ufacturers. Among them, the rupture of the flywheel rotor is undoubt­
edly the most destructive flywheel energy storage system failure.
Therefore, in the design process of flywheel rotor, it is necessary to fully
evaluate the operation safety of flywheel energy storage system based on
the material, size, and speed of the rotor. Specifically, on the one hand, it
is necessary to consider that when the flywheel rotor runs to the
maximum speed, the allowable stress of the rotor structure is within the
safe design margin; On the other hand, it is necessary to consider
accurately predicting the fatigue life of the flywheel rotor under
frequently charging and discharging in the flywheel energy storage
system.
Fig. 9. 300 kW/100 kWh Flywheel System Design [77].

5.1. Design margin of structural strength

down” into a heated “cotton candy-like material” of carbon fiber. The
machine is installed below the ground and poses relatively little harm to
The term design margin is narrowly defined as the ratio of the stress
personnel or nearby equipment [118].
at failure under test conditions to the maximum allowable stress in
In 2016, during the debugging process of a flywheel energy storage
normal operation. The safety factors are usually used interchangeably,
system used in the steamer, the vacuum pressure was higher than the
but for clarity, only design margins are used here. Due to the lack of clear
specified the vacuum condition required for normal operation of the
specifications and standards for flywheels, safety standards for flywheels
equipment (which should be maintained at 5-20 Pa). The high-speed
mainly refer to structural standards that use similar materials and pre­
rotating flywheel rotor rubs against the air and generates heat,
sent similar hazards. Accepted standards for equipment with charac­
causing rapid expansion of gas in the cylinder to form positive pressure.
teristics similar to flywheels may be used to establish recommended

Fig. 11. Dome shaped flywheel hub structure [28].

8
H. Dongxu et al.
Fig. 15. Piller Metal Flywheel System Design [98].
Fig. 16. 1 MW/60 MJ Metal Flywheel System Design [100].
design margins for flywheel rotors [120]. Of course, there are also some
shortcomings in directly referencing other similar equipment standards.
For example, Bender suggests adopting pressure vessel codes. The
problem with this is that pressure vessels are designed to leak before
Fig. 17. 250 kW/25kWh Metal Flywheel System Design [101].
9
Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109076
burst to relieve pressure before fast fracture and explosion occurs. This is
a very different as compared to flywheels in which it is not possible to
prevent failure by use of tougher material. All this will give a few more
fatigue cycles but will not prevent burst.
In order to gain high specific energy contents in FESS, rotor speeds
must be increased and the strength of the rotor material must be fully
exploited within the design margin. Operating at such high speeds,
particularly high-strength steel is required. The required strength of
these rotors is obtained through forging. Because the highest stress in the
solid steel flywheel rotor occurs on the centerline, the material proper­
ties on the centerline are crucial, but they are difficult to control and
cannot be inspected in the finished product.
Changzhong et al. [121] used a direct reading spectrometer, infrared
carbon sulfur analyzer, optical microscope, and hardness tester, com­
bined with the manufacturing process of the flywheel, to analyze the
cause of cracking of a 40Cr steel flywheel. The analysis results indicate
that the surface quenching of the wide journal of the flywheel is uneven,
and the interface between the unhardened zone and the quenched layer
forms stress concentration. At the same time, there are large-sized sul­
fide inclusions in the flywheel, leading to the cracking of the flywheel.
The impact of forging and heat treatment processes on material
properties decreases with the increase of flywheel thickness, which puts
higher requirements on the forging and heat treatment processes of large
forged steel flywheels. Mingzhe Wang et al. [122] optimized and
controlled the smelting, forging, and heat treatment processes during
the manufacturing of flywheel body forgings on the main circulation
sodium pump motor, and their mechanical properties met the technical
requirements. Shichao Liu et al. [123] optimized the forging process and
heat treatment process by dissecting and analyzing the 34CrMo1A large
cross-section and hollow shaft forgings, and achieved ideal compre­
hensive performance.
Here it is proposed that design margin for flywheel rotors be drawn
from standards for other industrial equipment where the equipment
presents a potential prompt lethal hazard. Pressure vessels share this
trait with flywheels and have been the subject of the development of
extensive codes and standards. Many of the elements captured in these
standards are directly applicable to flywheels [120].
ASME pressure vessel code contains extensive information on the
allowable stress for a range of materials and various design practice
cases can serve as references for selecting the design margin of flywheel
rotors [124]. The safety factor based on tensile strength for pressure
vessels made of metal materials according to Chinese national standards
is 2.7 [125].
H. Dongxu et al.
The constitutive characteristics of composite materials are relatively
complex, but some design standards for related structures can also be
found. Certain NHTSA standards for hydrostatic testing of a CNG fuel
container using carbon composites call for a ratio of burst pressure to
service pressure of 2.25 [126]. ASME Pressure vessel code calls for
similar margins when qualification testing in order to qualify the design
[124].
5.2. Fatigue life prediction
As is well known, accurately estimating fatigue life in the real world
is a complex task, in which various variables must be considered to avoid
unnecessary and dangerous failures. When designing flywheel rotors, in
order to pursue low manufacturing and material costs, the maximum
structural stress is often sought within safety margins. However, during
the service of the flywheel rotor, fatigue may have the potential to be a
serious life limiting mechanism due to fluctuating rotational speeds,
however in depth analysis is lacking in the literature. Establishing an
accurate fatigue life prediction model for flywheel rotors is of great
significance for ensuring the safety of flywheel energy storage systems.
The classical models of fatigue life prediction mainly include stress-
based models, strain-based models and strain energy-based models.
Researchers have provided new concepts and fatigue parameter ex­
pressions for estimating multiaxial fatigue life, which is more common
in practical engineering under multi axial loading. The main multiaxial
fatigue life prediction models include critical plane models, enclosed
surface models, integral type models, material structure-based models,
stress invariants-based models, statistical assessment models and plas­
ticity framework models.
J.P. Rouse [34] quantified the severity of fatigue in flywheels which
re-establish grid inertia by applying fatigue design methods (such as the
rainflow cycle counting method and the generalised strain amplitude
methods of Ince and Glinka for fatigue lifing) to loading scenarios that
represent grid frequency fluctuations.
Bowen Liu [127] conducted in-depth research on the multi axial load
situation of metal materials, and proposed 4 corresponding fatigue life
prediction models for R = -1 axial-torsional proportional loading,
multiaxial loading with mean stress, non-proportional loading and notch
fatigue situation:
The fatigue theory research of composite material MSUL (Multi axial
stress under uniaxial loading) can be divided into: S–N curve models,
residual stiffness/strength models, progressive damage models, and
critical plane based models.
Jingmeng [128] systematically studied the multiaxial mechanical
behavior and fatigue life prediction model under combined tensile-
torsional loading for laminated composites. For fibers and matrices,
energy type fatigue damage parameters were proposed, and a macro-
micro multiaxial fatigue life prediction model suitable for MSUL
(multiaxial stress uniaxial loading state) and MSML (multiaxial stress
multiaxial loading state) was established. Based on the gradual damage
analysis of multiaxial static strength of composite laminates, an expo­
nential relationship between fatigue life and energy type fatigue damage
parameters was established, which is a macro-micro multi axial fatigue
life prediction model for composite laminates. Fatigue life model of
laminated composite materials under tensile torsional multiaxial fatigue
loading:
lgW * − bm
(9)
mi
Nmi = 10 km
lgW * − bf
fi
Nfi = 10 kf
(10)
where, km, kf, bm, and bf are the slopes and intercepts of the benchmark
equations, respectively. W*mi is the matrix fatigue damage parameter of
the i-layer single-layer panel, W*fi is the fiber fatigue damage parameter
of the i-layer single-layer panel, Nmi is the matrix fatigue failure life of
10
Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109076
the i-layer single-layer panel, and Nfi is the fiber fatigue failure life of the
i-layer single-layer panel.
Geng Hou [129] proposed a fatigue life prediction method for central
hole of needled C/SiC composite. The proposed method can predict the
fatigue life of central hole by using the S–N curve of smooth specimen
and the stress concentration factor of central hole specimen. The com­
parison between predicted and experimental lives showed that the
proposed method can better predict the fatigue life of central hole
specimen for needled C/SiC composite. This method has certain refer­
ence significance for predicting the fatigue life of composite flywheel.
As a high-speed rotating component, the fatigue life prediction
model of flywheels can refer to some mature high-speed rotating ma­
chinery. Jie Zhou [130], through his research on turbine blades, con­
siders that during service, the turbine blades are subjected to alternating
loads, and the load amplitude and average stress change continuously
with different operating conditions. Based on the Walker model, he has
made some innovation and proposed an equivalent strain fatigue life
prediction model and apply the equivalent strain model to predict the
fatigue life of turbine blades.
[ (σ )1− γ ]d0
(11)
max
Nf = A0 λ(2εa )γ − Δε0
E
where A0 and d0 are material constants, Δε0 is the equivalent fatigue
strain limit; Nf is fatigue failure cycles; λ is compensation coefficient; εa
is total strain amplitude; γ is sensitivity coefficient; E is elastic modulus.
6. Conclusion
Flywheels are energy storage components that require high-speed
rotation and mainly utilize the specific strength performance of mate­
rials. After years of development, there are mature design optimization
methods. The structural design of metal flywheel involves shape opti­
mization. Composite flywheel is not very mature due to the design
ability of materials, the correlation between material properties and
processes, and the complexity of failure mechanisms, and has always
been a hot research topic. In addition to using multi ring sets, hybrid
materials, gradient materials, and fiber pre-tensioned fiber winding are
designed to improve the energy storage density. Two-dimensional or
three-dimensional strengthening is another path in the design of com­
posite flywheel materials.
The increase in the capacity of the flywheel energy storage unit will
greatly expand its applicability, and its single cycle duration and system
efficiency will be effectively improved. However, due to factors such as
material performance and rotor dynamics, it is difficult to significantly
improve the energy storage of a single machine in practical applications.
In the future, the focus should be on how to improve the stability of the
flywheel energy storage single machine operation and optimize the
control strategy of the flywheel array.
The design of composite rotors mainly optimizes the operating
speed, the number of composite material wheels, and the selection of
rotor materials. However, the optimization of metal rotors is usually
achieved by changing the rotor shape or topology structure. Only a few
studies focus on how the selection of operating speed and materials af­
fects the design of metal rotors. Future research may focus on the
interdependence between rotor geometry and other design parameters,
such as operating speed, rotor size, and rotor material characteristics.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
H. Dongxu et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109076

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