I.

Asexual Reproduction

❑ Advantages:
▪ Mates not required.
▪ The process of reproduction is rapid.
▪ An enormous number of organisms can be produced in a very less time.
▪ It occurs in various environment.

❑ Disadvantages:
▪ Lack of diversity. Since the offsprings are genetically identical to the parent they are more susceptible to same diseases and nutrient
deficiencies as the parent. All the negative mutations persist for generations. So, they are prone to extinction.
▪ Since only one organism is involved, the diversity among the organisms is limited.
▪ They are unable to adapt to the changing environment.
▪ A single change in the environment would eliminate the entire species.

❑ Types of Asexual reproduction:

1. Binary Fission
2. Budding
3. Fragmentation
4. Vegetative Propagation
5. Sporogenesis
 1. Fission

▪ The term “fission” means “to divide”.

▪ In fission a parent cell divides to give rise to daughter cells.
▪ Types of fission:

S.no. Binary fission Multiple fission

1. In this method a parent cell divides into two identical daughter In this method a parent cell divides into many daughter cells.
cells.
2. No protective coat or cyst is formed around the cell. A cyst or protective coat or wall is formed around the cell.
3. The division of nucleus and cytoplasm takes place initially. Only nucleus divides initially followed by division of cytoplasm.
4. It takes place under favourable condition. It takes place under unfavourable condition.

5. E.g. Amoeba (under favourable conditions), yeast etc. E.g. Amoeba (under unfavourable conditions), Plasmodium etc.
 2.Budding

❑ Budding is the process of producing an individual

through the buds that develop on the parent body.
❑ Hydra is an organism that reproduces by budding.
❑ The bud derives nutrition and shelter from the parent
organism and detaches once it is fully grown.

❑ Differences between Binary Fission and Budding:

Characteristics Binary Fission Budding

Definition Division of a single parent organism into two daughter organisms. Budding is the formation of a new organism through a bud of the parent
organism.
What happens to the parent cell No parent can identified after the division since it is divided into two The parent organism remains the same after the new organism detaches
daughter organisms. from the parent.
Resulting cells Two daughter cells. A mother cell and a daughter cell.

Size of the cells Two daughter cells cell are similar in size. Parent cell is always larger than the newly formed daughter cell.

Cytoplasmic division It is a symmetric division. It is an asymmetric division.

Artificial performance It is a natural process. It can be induced artificially.

Occurrence Occurs in Amoeba, bacteria, archaebacteria etc. Occurs in Hydra, fungi and some green plants etc.
 3.Fragmentation

❑ Fragmentation is another mode of asexual reproduction exhibited by organisms

such as spirogyra, planaria etc.
❑ The parent body divides into several fragments and each fragment develops into
a new organism.

Characteristics Fragmentation Regeneration

Definition Process of breaking an organism into several pieces, which are capable Regrowth of a broken part of the body.
of growing into new individuals.

Organisms Can be seen only in invertebrate forms. Present in both Invertebrates and vertebrates.

Mode of reproduction A method of reproduction. Used as a method of reproduction or to regenerate broken parts or
lost body parts.

Broken fragments Both parts produce new organism. The separated part cannot grow into a new organism when
regenerating broken parts.
Cells involved No specific cells are involved. Specific cell divides to form a mass of cells which further differentiate
to form different tissues.

Occurrence Spirogyra, Planaria, Hydra etc. Flatworms – Any part of their bodies, including heads.
Star fishes – Limbs and even their whole bodies if their central ring
is intact.
Tadpole larva– They can regenerate their limbs but loose their
ability in adulthood.
Humans– Skin and Liver cells.
 4.Vegetative Propagation.

❑ Vegetative propagation is the asexual form of reproduction wherein part of plant other than seeds are used for the production of new plants.
❑ There are two methods of vegetative propagation: Artificial and Natural.
1. Artificial Vegetative Propagation: Artificial vegetative propagation is a type of plant reproduction that involves human
intervention.
▪ Methods of artificial vegetative propagation:

i) Cutting: A part of a plant, typically a stem or leaf, is cut off and planted.
▪ Adventitious roots develop from the cuttings and a new plant forms.
▪ Cuttings are sometimes treated with hormones (IAA,IBA, IPA etc) before being planted to induce root development.
▪ Example: Leaves: Snake plant.
Stem: Dahlia, Jasmine, Lemon.
Roots: Blackberry, Raspberry, Rose etc.

Scion
ii) Grafting: In grafting, a desired cutting or scion is
attached to the stem of another plant that remains rooted
in the ground.
▪ The tissue systems of the cutting become grafted into
or integrated with the tissue systems of the base plant Stock
over time.
▪ Example: Rose, Bougainvillea, Hibiscus, Mango,
▪ Lemon, Guava etc.
▪ Stock system – Disease resistant and healthy
vascular system.
▪ Scion – Desirable characters.
iii)Layering:

➢ Mound layering: This method involves bending plant branches or stems so that they
touch the ground.
▪ The portions of branches or stems in contact with the ground are then covered with soil.
▪ Adventitious roots or roots that extend from structures other than plant roots develop
in the parts covered by soil and the attached shoot (branch or stem) with new roots is known
as a layer.
▪ This type of layering also occurs naturally.
▪ E.g. Jasmine

➢ Air layering: Air layering is also known as Gootee which is mainly practiced during
▪ Rainy season because of high rooting and survival of layers.
▪ For air layering 1 year old branches of 1 to 1-5 m length are selected.
▪ A ring of bark of 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, near the tip is removed.
▪ The girdled are is covered with moist soil and wrapped with polyethene tape.
▪ Rooting starts within 3-5 weeks.
▪ After 6-8 weeks when sufficient roots are visible through the transparent tape,
▪ The layer is removed from the branch by the means of cutting the stem below the girdled area.
▪ The polyethene is removed from the finally rooted stem.
▪ The stem is then potted and kept in the shade until new leaves appear.
▪ E.g. Guava, Pomegranate etc.
4. Micropropagation (Tissue Culture)
▪ Micropropagation is a method of propagating a large number of plants from a single plant in a short time under laboratory
conditions.
▪ This method allows propagation of rare, endangered species that may be difficult to grow under natural conditions, are economically important, or
are in demand as disease-free plants.
▪ To start plant tissue culture, a part of the plant such as a stem, leaf, embryo, anther, or seed can be used.
▪ The plant material is thoroughly sterilized using a combination of chemical treatments
standardized for that species.
▪ Under sterile conditions, the plant material is placed on a plant tissue culture medium that contains all the minerals, vitamins, and hormones
required by the plant.
▪ The plant part often gives rise to an undifferentiated mass known as callus, from which individual plantlets begin to grow after a period of time.
▪ These can be separated and are first grown under greenhouse conditions before they are moved to field conditions.
❑ Natural Vegetative propagation: Natural vegetative propagation happens when plants grow and
develop naturally without human intervention.
▪ An important ability that is key to enabling natural vegetative propagation in plants is the ability to
develop adventitious roots.
▪ Through the formation of adventitious roots, new plants may sprout from stems, roots, or leaves of
a parent plant.

i) Stem
a) Sub-aerial stem:
▪ Runners are stems that grow horizontally above the ground. They have nodes where buds are formed.
▪ These buds grow into a new plant.
▪ E.g. Grasses

b) Underground stem:

I) Bulb: A bulb contains an underground stem. Leaves are attached to the stem. These leaves contain much stored food.
At the center of the bulb is an apical bud. Also attached are lateral buds. The apical bud will produce leaves and a flower
while the lateral buds will produce new shoots. As the plant grows and develops it will form a new bulb underground.
E.g. Onion and garlic.
II) Rhizome: Rhizomes are modified stems that typically grow horizontally along the surface of or beneath the ground.
▪ Rhizomes are storage sites for growth substances such as proteins and starch.
▪ As rhizomes extend, roots and shoots may arise from segments of the rhizome and develop into new plants.
▪ E.g. Ginger.

III) Tuber: Tubers are vegetative organs that may develop from stems or roots.
▪ Stem tubers arise from rhizomes or runners that become swollen from storing nutrients.
▪ The upper surface of a tuber produces a new plant shoot system (stems and leaves), while the bottom surface produces a
root system.
▪ E.g. Potatoes.

ii) Leave: Leaves of Bryophyllum bear adventitious buds in the Notches in the margin of the leaf.
▪ When leaf follows the ground buds grow to form the independent plant.
 iii) Root: Some modified tuberous roots can be propagated vegetatively, when planted in soil.
▪ The buds present on the roots grow as leafy shoots called slips above ground and adventitious roots at their bases.
Each slip gives rise to a new plant.
▪ E.g. Sweet potato.