DESIGNS AND NAMING: A CASE STUDY OF T-SHIRT INSCRIPTIONS

BY

CHIEZIE CHUKA ALFRED

REG. NO: MA/ARTS/1840201036

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE POST GRADUATE SCHOOL,

UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF

ARTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

AUGUST, 2023

1
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation has been written by me and that it is a record

of my research efforts. It has not been presented in any previous application for a

degree or higher degree. All sources of information are duly acknowledged as

works cited.

________________________

CHIEZIE CHUKA ALFRED

REG. NO: MA/ARTS/1840201036

2
 CERTIFICATION

This dissertation has been certified and approved by the underlisted as meeting the

requirements for the award of Master of Arts degree in English Language in the

Department of English, Faculty of Arts, University of Abuja.

___________________ _____________
Prof. A.U. Madu Date
(Supervisor)

____________________ ______________
Professor Razinat Talatu Date
(Head of Department)

____________________ _______________
Prof. Muhammed Ndagi Date
(Dean, Faculty of Arts)

_________________
_______________
Prof. Ukerto Gabriel Motti Date
(Dean, PG School)

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 DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to the Almighty God from whom every good thing cometh.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My appreciation goes to the Almighty God who has been the source of my strength

during my pursuit of this academic endeavour.

I am ever grateful to my committed and dedicated supervisor, Professor A.U.

Madu for taking out time to supervise and constructively shape this work; thank

you so much ma!

My sincere appreciation goes to the entire lecturers and staff of the Department of

English, University of Abuja, for the knowledge they have impacted in me from

my undergraduate days. To start with, I am thankful to the former H.O.D, Dr.

Na’uzo Hamzat Abdulkadir. I equally appreciate the present HOD, Prof. Razinat

Talatu. I also appreciate Prof. M. Azuike, Prof. Abochol Simon, Prof. E.B. Uwatt,

Prof. Gboyega Kolawole, Prof. Isidore Nnadi, Prof. Shimawua Atimga, Dr.

Owojecho Omoha, and Dr. Nonyelum Chibuzo Mba, to mention just a few. You all

have impacted my life positively.

Finally, to my family, especially my wife, Linda Chiezie, course mates and my

good friend, Deborah Owooh Ejembi, for her kindness. I say a big thank you and

may God bless you all.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page………………………………………………………………………… i
Declaration…………………………………………………………………………ii
Certification………………………………………………………………………..iii
Dedication………………………………………………………………………….iv
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………...v
Table of
Contents…………………………………………………………………..vi
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………..x

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study……………………………………………………….1

1.2 Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………5

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study……………………………………………….5

1.4 Research Questions………………………………………………………..……6

1.5 Research Methodology…………………………………………..

……………...6

1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study……………………………………………

6

1.7 Significance of the

Study………………………………………………………..7

6
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Preamble………………………………………………………………………..8

2.1 Conceptual Framework…………………….…………………………………...7

2.1.1 The Concept of Semantics………………….………………………….…….7

2.2 Theories of Semantics…………………………………………………………

13

2.2.1 Meaning of
Meaning.......................................................................................14

2.2.2. The Naming Theory of

Meaning....................................................................17

2.2.3. The Truth Conditional Theory of

Meaning....................................................20
2.2.4. The Ideational Theory of
Meaning.................................................................22

2.2.5. The Behaviourist Theory of

Meaning............................................................25

2.2.6. The Compositional Theory of

Meaning.........................................................27

2.2.7. The Componential Theory of

Meaning..........................................................29

7
2.3 Types of Semantic
Meaning…………………………………………………...31

2.3.1 Conceptual Meaning.......................................................................................32

2.3.2 Connotative
Meaning......................................................................................33

2.3.3 Stylistic/Social Meaning.................................................................................35

2.3.4 Affective or Emotive

Meaning........................................................................37

2.3.5 Reflected Meaning..........................................................................................38

2.3.6 Collocative Meaning.......................................................................................40

2.3.7 Thematic Meaning..........................................................................................41

2.3.8 Associative
Meaning.......................................................................................43

2.4 Semantic Processes and Elements of Sentence Meaning………………………

43

2.5 T-Shirt Inscriptions as Graphology……………………………………………

51

2.6. Theoretical Framework.....................................................................................54

2.7 Empirical
Review...............................................................................................58

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 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Preamble………………………………………………………………………63

3.1 Research Design………………………………………….……………………

63

3.2 Population of the

Study………………………………………………………..63

3.3 Sampling Design and Procedure………………………………………………64

3.4 Instrumentation………………………………………………………………..64

3.5 Method of Data Analysis………………………………………………………

65

CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.0 Preamble……………………………………………………..……..................66
4.1. Semantic field of social lifestyle, identity and
culture………………………..66
4.2. Semantic Field of Religion……………………………………………………
73

4.3. Semantic Field of Economy and Advertisements…………………………….77

4.4. Semantic Field of Politics………………………………………….…………83

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4.5. Linguistic and Stylistic Features of T-shirt Inscriptions………….
………….89

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary of
Findings………………………………………………………….93

5.2 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….95

5.3 Recommendations…………………………………………………………….95
5.4 Contribution to Knowledge……………………………………………….…..95
Works Cited………………………………………………………………………97
Appendix……………………………….………………………………………..102

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 ABSTRACT
This study examines the meanings contained in T-shirt inscriptions, focusing on
both the content and the style of expression. It aims to analyze the true meaning of
words and styles on T-shirts insignias with political, educational, and religious
messages. Using Ogden and Richards' theory of meaning as theoretical foundation,
the study collected 66 samples of T-shirt inscriptions from online sources and
students at various Abuja-based schools, including Baze University, Nile
University, College of Education in Zuba, and the University of Abuja. Using a
descriptive/content analysis methodology, the results show that T-shirt inscriptions
have a wide range of meanings, including those that are purely stylistic, emotional,
and social. They can take on various forms; typically, they are brief, catchy phrases
or sentences, but occasionally they are just a word with an image. Political
messages are prevalent and frequently ambiguous or have multiple meanings.
Additionally, there are thought-provoking questions and references to Nigerian
Pidgin English. It has an online writing style similar to how people write using
alpha-numeric words, such as '5 Alive berry...' T-shirt writings are generally
expressive, educational, and occasionally offer advice. The study recommends
further investigations into T-shirt inscriptions in order to gain a deeper
understanding of their meaning, writing style, and conversational functions.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

This research is grounded in meaning as it examines the semantics of T-Shirt

inscriptions. Adejumobi defines semantics as the exploration of the significance

behind words, phrases, and sentences (32). Crystal views it as the examination of

the meaning within linguistic structures (315). Conversely, Lyons simplifies it as

the study of meaning itself (81). Overall, these diverse viewpoints suggest that

semantics refers to the linguistic field focused on understanding the meanings

behind words and sentences.

In the realm of semantic analysis, the emphasis typically lies in uncovering the

conventional meanings of words, rather than delving into a speaker's specific

intentions for those words at a given time. This methodical approach prioritizes

objectivity and generality, steering clear of subjectivity and localized

interpretations. However, this dissertation steers readers’ attention toward language

itself before its intended meanings (semiotics). This shift is due to the study’s

focus on deciphering the significance behind T-shirt messages, which are conveyed

through language, prompting us to explore their meanings.

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Language fundamentally operates as a social construct, a notion underscored in

M.A.K. Halliday's definition cited in Bloor, which suggests that language serves as

a vehicle to articulate a writer's intent. When individuals employ language to

convey meanings, they do so within specific contexts, influenced by the intricate

elements of those situations (14). This research centers on unraveling the meanings

embedded within T-shirt messages, a graphical or graphological means of

expressing thoughts, emotions, and sentiments. Wearers of such inscribed T-shirts

utilize them as a medium for communicating meaning, whether consciously or

subconsciously.

Language analysis involves three fundamental levels: sound, form, and meaning.

At the sound level, phonetics/phonology come into play, encompassing the

spectrum of possible human sounds and the specific sounds utilized within a

particular language. Moving to the form level, morphology/syntax take center

stage, where morphology delves into the examination of language's minimal units,

while syntax explores the arrangement of these units based on a language's rules or

principles. Within the realm of meaning, the domains of semantics, pragmatics,

stylistics, and discourse studies operate.

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Ogunsiji (266) clarifies that phonetics/phonology encompasses the sounds inherent

in language, delineating the potential range of human sounds and the specific

sound systems employed within a given language. Morphology, on the other hand,

focuses on analyzing the minimal components of language. It encompasses

research investigating language's internal and external structures and their

correlations. Language itself can be elucidated primarily through three dimensions:

substance, form, and context. Substance level involves describing a language's

phonetics or phonology, where phonetics tends to vary among different languages

due to the oral nature of language, while scripts appear to represent attempts to

transcribe spoken language into written form.

The second level, form, delves into the internal composition of individual words

(morphology) and how these words adhere to a language's structural rules or

principles (syntax). The amalgamation of these facets constitutes 'grammar,' the

study of construction structure and organization.

The focus of our study rests on the third level, semantics, which concerns the

exploration of meaning and its connections within language. This particular

research centers on the meanings conveyed through T-shirt messages. Investigating

language meanings involves how language utilizes logical structures and real-

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world references to communicate, process, and attribute meanings, while also

addressing and resolving ambiguity (Ogunsiji, 266).

T-shirt inscriptions fall within the realm of graphology, a subset of linguistics that

examines writing and printing as systems of signs. It involves studying a

language's writing system, encompassing the rules guiding the transformation of

spoken language into written form using available technologies (e.g., pen and ink,

typewriters, printing presses, electronic screens). The English language's current

grammatical system relies on a 26-letter alphabet in lowercase (a, b, c), uppercase

(A, B, C), and a combination of both, along with regulations governing

capitalization and spelling. Additionally, punctuation marks and formatting rules

(like headlines and indents) are integral to this system, used to structure text by

identifying sentences, paragraphs, and other textual units (Crystal, 126). T-shirt

inscriptions are a form of informal non-verbal communication or messages aimed

at their readers.

Many people wear T-shirts with hidden messages that could attract the attention of

strangers without even realizing it. For example, if a teenage girl wears a T-shirt

that reads, "I lost my virginity," she might attract a lot of attention from the public.

The teenage girl's appearance may cause many people to view her negatively,

15
especially those who might take it seriously. Others, though, might not associate

her attire with anything bad.

Conversely, individuals intentionally wear T-shirts with messages or meanings

they want the world to know. For example, during the administration of Goodluck

Jonathan, when the terrorist group Boko Haram kidnapped approximately 250

schoolgirls in Chibok, some people, groups, and activists wore T-shirts with the

slogan "Bring Back Our Girls," a clear message to political leaders to work

feverishly to secure the girls' release. The discussion of T-shirt inscriptions using a

semantic approach will help clarify any potential semantic problems that may

arise.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

There have been many research works which adopted semantic analysis approach

to different areas such as advertisement, tourist destination, images, car stickers,

etc. but very little have filled the gap of T-Shirt inscriptions. So, it is the intention

of the present researcher to dwell on the application of the concept of semantics to

analyse some T-Shirt inscriptions in order to fill the gap.

Since most scholarly works on semantics draw data from newspapers, headlines,

speeches, semiotics and car stickers, this research intends to consider semantics

that go with T-Shirt inscriptions as a medium of human communication. This will

16
serve as a theoretical framework to enhance readers’ understanding of meanings

with different T-Shirt inscriptions used by people. It will reveal the importance and

effects of these T-Shirt inscriptions. This is the problem to be solved in this

research.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this research is to examine the semantics of T-Shirt inscriptions. The

following objectives will help guide the study:

i. To identify T-Shirt inscriptions.

ii. examine the various meanings that go with T-shirt inscriptions

iii. discuss the linguistic features of T-shirt inscriptions

iv. describe the stylistic characteristics of T-shirt inscriptions.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide this study:

i. What are the various meanings that go with T-shirt inscriptions?

ii. What are the linguistic features of T-shirt inscriptions ?

iii. What are the stylistic characteristics of T-shirt inscriptions?

1.5 Research Methodology

17
This research adopts descriptive and content analysis method. The data will be

analyzed from a semantic perspective to explain the various meanings and

linguistic features that go with T-Shirt inscriptions. T-shirt with inscriptions from

online sources will be gathered and used as data for this study. The research will

equally gather information from the internet, journal articles, textbooks, etc. that

relate to the topic of this research.

1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

This research work shall be limited to the semantics of T-Shirt inscriptions under

various semantic fields like religion, advertisement, education, politics, lifestyle,

etc. These areas relate to man’s daily activities in society and provide an array of

data for analysis. The study shall examine the various meanings that go with T-

shirt inscriptions and discuss the linguistic and stylistic features of T-shirt

inscriptions.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The study will benefit youths who for obvious reasons have huge patronage for T-

Shirts to understand the semantic issues involved in the inscriptions on the T-Shirts

they wear. It will benefit students who may use this study as a source materials for

future research works on T-Shirt inscriptions and/or inscriptions on their items.

18
The study will contribute knowledge to the field of semantics especially in its

relationship to graphology. Lastly, it will also benefit advertising companies,

religious bodies, political groups and the education system that make use of T-shirt

inscriptions to pass across their messages.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Preamble

This chapter reviews scholarly works in semantics and graphology as they relate to

the topic of this research. It covers such areas like: the concept of semantics,

theories of semantics, types of semantics, semantic sense relations, graphology,

and T-Shirt inscriptions as graphology, among others.

2.1 Conceptual Framework

2.1.1 The Concept of Semantics

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Various scholars have taken a step at defining semantics. Charles Morris, a

behavioural semanticist, sees it as the science exploring the connections between

signs and their concepts in people's minds. Lyons views semantics as studying

meaning that's independent of context, elements ingrained in linguistic expressions

(roughly following Saussure's concept of signs) and considered unchanging across

all usage situations.

Crystal defines it as delving into the meaning of language structures, while Saeed

perceives semantics as the exploration of meaning conveyed through language. In

contrast, Kreidler defines linguistic semantics as investigating how languages

structure and express meanings. From these varied perspectives, it's evident that

semantics is a linguistic branch focused on understanding the meanings of words

and sentences in communication, encompassing even the significance behind T-

shirt slogans.

The quest for understanding meaning has long intrigued scholars across various

disciplines, particularly philosophers, who were among the earliest to delve into

this study. The term "semantics" finds its roots in the Greek word "seme," which

means 'sign.' In the realm of linguistics, semantics is defined as "the function of

signs in language." Broadly, semantics involves examining how meaning is

generated or formed in language. The exploration of language is an ancient pursuit,

20
as noted by Otto Jesperson, who observed that the science of language emerged

when individuals began contemplating issues such as the diversity of languages,

the origin of words, and the relationship between a name and its referent.

The history of lexical semantics can be traced back to the period between 1830 and

1930, marked by the development of historical-philological semantics. During this

time, the primary focus was on the evolution of word meanings. Plato and

Aristotle, both notable figures in the history of philosophy, held differing

perspectives on meaning—the naturalistic view and the conventionalist view. Their

contributions reflect the early attempts to grapple with the complexities of

semantics.

Plato and his adherents championed the naturalist perspective. In his work

"Cratylus," Plato elaborates that each idea possesses an inherent, accurate name

bestowed upon it by nature, one that best encapsulates its essential nature. They

asserted that a word's meaning is directly derived from its sound. Within this

dialogue, Plato explores the idea of an innate or intrinsic link between concepts,

suggesting that merely hearing a word would reveal its meaning. However, this

viewpoint poses a challenge in reality since only a handful of words resemble their

meanings—such as onomatopoeic words like 'splash,' 'meow,' and 'boom.'

21
In Aristotle's "The Complete Works," the opposing perspective is the

conventionalist outlook advocated by Aristotle and his followers. According to this

viewpoint, social agreements and consensus between individuals engaged in

speech communication—both the speaker and the listener—play a role in

determining meaning. Aristotle posits that the structure of other words within a

language influences the meaning of a specific word.

The philosophical inquiry into meanings gave rise to the field of semantics known

as philosophical semantics. This approach investigates linguistic expressions and

elucidates their references in the real world. Charles Peirce, a significant early

philosopher, notes that semantics initially emerged as semiotics in America. In

France, influenced by Ferdinand De Saussure's concept of language as an

interrelated system, the term 'semiology' was utilized. The origins of linguistic

semantics are traced back to France and Germany in the 1820s, with scholars like

Mike Breal and Ferdinand De Saussure. This era marked the recognition of the

significance of word meanings in the evolution of language.

Alfred Korzybski, a Polish-American philosopher and scientist, pioneered the

study of semantics as an independent discipline, which he termed "general

semantics" in 1933. He accomplished this by categorizing entities and dividing

them into three groups: tangible objects such as 'boy,' 'girl,' 'cow,' etc.; grouped

22
entities or categories like 'animals,' 'countries'; and intangible concepts such as

'love' and 'peace,' which lack tangible real-world counterparts.

In Cruse's work on Lexical Semantics, the origins of this field date back to the

early 19th century when it emerged as an academic field. The term "semantics"

was initially coined in 1883 by French scholar Micheal Breal. Breal's approach to

semantics, akin to that of Hermann Paul, H. Sperber, and others, followed a

traditional path. He focused on three main ideologies: semantics as a historical

study, a psychological approach to understanding meaning, and the methodological

implications of psychology in semantics.

During that era, semantic studies primarily centered on historical analysis,

observing changes in meaning over time, investigating their origins, logically

categorizing them, and devising theories and principles governing these changes.

This traditional approach persisted for around fifty years, leading to the period of

classical semantics, which spanned between the two world wars. This phase

concentrated on the fundamental query: "What is meaning?" Scholars like Ogden

and Richards, Gustaf Stern, and Stephen Ullmann significantly influenced this era

with their scholarly contributions.

Structuralist semantics emerged gradually and extended into the 1960s,

prominently featuring scholars like Leonard Bloomfield, an American linguist

23
whose 1933 book "Language" played a significant role. This period's works were

heavily influenced by Ferdinard De Saussure's contributions. Structuralists

perceived natural languages as symbolic systems possessing intricate properties

that dictate how linguistic signs operate. Their focus lay in studying the

connections between the meanings of terms within sentences and understanding

how meaning is constructed from smaller linguistic components.

The latter part of the 1960s and the early 1970s marked a pivotal phase in the

history of lexical semantics. It saw the integration of componential analysis into

generative grammar through Jerrold J. Katz and Jerry A. Fodor's 1963 paper titled

"The Structure of a Semantic Theory." This analysis attempted to blend the

structuralist approach to analysis, formal description systems, and the mental

concept of meaning. Katz, independently, continued to refine this analysis, leading

to what became known as Katzian semantics.

In the 1980s, the domains of cognitive and neostructural semantics emerged. The

neostructuralist approach to semantics evolved as a post-generative method.

Cognitive semantics aimed to unify meaning and cognition, merging the realms of

semantics and pragmatics in its development.

2.2 Theories of Semantics

24
Craig emphasizes that the concept of the "theory of Meaning" has been ingrained

in human communication since its inception. Communicators acknowledge that

almost everything they express holds significance, both personally and for those

they communicate with. Read points out that the term "semantics" did not surface

until it was introduced in a paper titled "Reflected Meaning: A point in Semantics"

in 1894. He highlights the ongoing struggle among linguists worldwide to

comprehend the concept of "meaning."

Palmer notes the limitations of relying solely on dictionary definitions for

understanding meaning, as these entries often present various interpretations or

shades of meaning for the term "mean." The study of Semantics faced initial

resistance until the contributions of Ogden & Richards. Though not part of the

book's main content, Semantics is featured in an appendix, widely regarded as a

seminal work in the field.

During communication, individuals typically do not give specific attention to how

they convey messages, leading to potential diminishment or complete loss of

communication between parties. Scholars have dedicated extensive time to

analyzing human communication, endeavoring to unravel the reasons behind our

communication methods. I.A. Richards is among those scholars, co-developing the

"Theory of Meaning" with Ogden and Richards. Their theory aims not only to

25
describe human communication approaches but also to comprehend the

breakdowns in communication when executed inadequately.

2.2.1 Meaning of Meaning

"What defines the essence of 'meaning'?" This question stands as a pivotal inquiry

within the realm of semantics. At first glance, it seems straightforward, yet it has

prompted varied responses among linguists. The term "meaning" poses

considerable challenges as it serves diverse purposes and carries numerous

connotations. In their book, "The Meaning of Meaning," C.K. Ogden and I.A.

Richards endeavored to grapple with this issue. They presented twenty-two distinct

definitions of meaning, revealing that a singular definition is elusive and that the

answer is inherently subjective, contingent upon one's viewpoint. Ogden and

Richards exerted a profound influence on semantics through their publication.

Their work captured the attention of prominent linguists and left a significant

impact on literary criticism and stylistics. Some of the definitions of meaning they

came up with include meaning as;

I. An intrinsic property.

II. A unique unanalyzable relation to other things.

III. The other words annexed to a word in the Dictionary.

IV. The connotation of a word.

26
 V. An Essence.

VI. An activity projected into an object.

VII. (a) An activity intended.

(b) A volition.

VIII. The place of anything in a system.

IX. The practical consequences of a thing in our future experience.

X. The theoretical consequences involved in or implied by a statement.

XI. Emotion aroused by anything.

XII. That which is actually related to a sign by a chosen relation.

XIII. (a) The Mnemic effects of a stimulus.

(b) Some other occurrence to which the mnemic effects of any occurrence

are appropriate.

(c) That which a sign is interpreted as being of.

(d) What anything suggests. In the case of symbols, that to which the user of

a symbol actually refers.

XIV. That to which the user of a symbol believes himself to be referring.

(a) Refers.

(b) Believes himself to be referring.

(c) Believes the user to be referring.

27
They presented this list to show how confusing and difficult it is to define

meaning. They hoped that more progress in science and education would result in a

clear definition. The "meaning" of signs has become undeniably clear in light of

recent developments in biology and psychology, which have examined memory

and heredity. Here, it is demonstrated that language and thought should be

approached equally (249). The research will now investigate a few of the meaning

theories put forth by various academics.

2.2.2. The Naming Theory of Meaning

Two crucial ideas within semantics are Sense and Reference. In 1892, the German

philosopher and mathematician Frege introduced the concepts of Sinn and

Bedeutung, later translated to Sense and Reference in English, in his paper "On

Sense and Reference." Sense denotes the abstract, context-independent meaning of

an expression, while Reference refers to the concrete object in the real world that

the expression represents. Semanticists often prioritize studying Reference,

although Sense generally offers a deeper understanding of an expression.

Jackendoff's semantic theory aligns with the Sense and Reference concepts. In his

1976 article "An Explanatory Semantic Representation," he delves into what he

terms as conceptual issues, discussing the inherent structures within individuals.

28
He posits that each speaker refers solely to their perceived world rather than an

objective reality, emphasizing the personal nature of reference in communication.

Originating in Aristotle's time, the Prototype or Naming Theory is predicated on a

concept known as "necessary and sufficient conditions." This method looks for a

set of requirements that a category must meet in order to be considered

representative of that category. Therefore, the three characteristics of being human,

male, and adult define "man." For the entity "man" to accurately represent what it

is, it must fall into each of these categories. An entity cannot be considered "man"

if any of these categories are absent.

The naming theory of meaning, also known as referential or denotative theory,

compares a word's meaning to the thing it represents or to the relationship between

the word and that thing. It compares meaning to allusion. According to this theory,

language can be viewed as a system of communication that consists of the signified

and the signifier (Palmer 2).

The naming theory of meaning, while appealingly straightforward, encounters

certain issues. Not every word necessarily points to something tangible. For

instance, "Pegasus" doesn't denote a real entity since there's no existence of a

winged horse. Similarly, consider the phrase "I saw nobody." What exactly does

"nobody" refer to? Palmer criticized this theory, highlighting that "some nouns,

29
such as unicorn, goblin, fairy, relate to creatures that don't exist; therefore, they

don't refer to objects in the physical world" (19). This argument holds true as

understanding meaning requires acknowledging different realms—the real world

and the realm of imaginary nouns like 'fairies' and 'goblins'. Furthermore, this

theory tends to focus on concrete nouns, lacking consideration for abstract nouns

like 'love,' 'fear,' and other human emotions categorized as nouns.

This is a major weakness as category may have prototypes, but they need not be

reference points for categorization. The theory equates the meaning of a word in

reference to an object it stands for or with word’s relation to such an object. Critics

have argued that there is no direct relationship between the reference and the

object. Even Shakespeare faulted this theory when he said “A rose by any other

name would smell as sweet”. (Romeo and Juliet Act II, Scene I)

Secondly, considering the sentence: (I) “Ralph is fat”. What does “fat” denote?

Perhaps it denotes something abstract, like property of being fat. Or as Plato would

have called it, The Fat itself. So perhaps when we express (I) we mean that Ralph

exemplifies the property of being fat. On this view, “is fat” means something like

“has fatness”.

So maybe what we’re doing is joining together the name of a person (Ralph) with

the name of a property (fat) by using “is”. But then what does “is” stand for?

30
Perhaps it stands for the relation of “having.” So (I) really means something like

“Ralph bears the having relation to fatness”. (Muehihauser 34) Now it looks like

we need to explain what “bear” refers to. And this could go on into infinity, and

we’d never be able to work out the referential meaning of the sentence.

Thirdly, there seem to be nouns that do not name individual things or kinds of

things or even abstract things like the property of being fat. Think of words like

“sake” and “behalf”. These words do not seem to refer to a thing or even an

abstract object. These nouns are meaningful, but they do not seem to get their

meaning by referring to anything at all.

Fourthly, if we consider words other than nouns, they often fail to refer to anything

at all: ‘very’, ‘of’, ‘a’, ‘yes’, and ‘alas’. These words don’t refer to anything and

yet they are meaningful. Also, there is more to meaning than reference. Some

words refer to the same thing but do not share the same meaning, for example:

“Joseph Ratzinger” and “The Pope”.

2.2.3. The Truth Conditional Theory of Meaning

In the 1960s and 1970s, Donald Davidson made a significant effort to also give

account of meaning. He attempted to describe the meaning on the basis of truth.

This theory derived from the theory of logic, as Davidson employed a Tarskian

theory of truth as a theory of meaning. Alfred Tarski, a Polish logician, defined

31
truth for formal (logical or mathematical) languages in terms of relation of

“satisfaction” between the constituents of a sentence and sequences of objects. On

this premise, truth is thereby determined systematically by the satisfaction of

sentential constituents.

This theory attempts to explain the logical meaning of sentences, treating a

sentence as a logical proposition or basic statement which can either be true or

false (Syal & Jindal, 153). According to Saeed (89), semanticists call a sentence

being true or false its “truth value”, and call the facts that would have to obtain in

reality to make a sentence true or false its “truth condition”. He gave example of a

sentence whose truth value is reversed through the addition of negator “not” as

follows:

Your car has been stolen.

Your car has not been stolen.

In the above sentences, if (a) is true, then (b) is false; also, if (a) is false, then (b) is

true.

Following the above illustration, it becomes obvious that the tenets of this theory is

that the meaning of a sentence is known if the condition under which it is true is

known. Thus, a sentence is true if all necessary conditions of truth are satisfied

32
(Syal & Jindal). As far as they are concerned, the truth or falsity of a sentence is

dependent or conditional upon the truth or falsity of other statements. Citing an

example, they gave the sentence:

John is in his office.

According to them, the above statement will be true if the statement “John is at

home” is false. In essence, the truth conditional theory does not refer to the

external world but basically to the logical relations which exist between

propositions in a language.

One of the limitations of this approach, as observed by Syal & Jindal (154) is that

it takes only statements into account and does not consider other sentence types

such as questions. Another limitation, they continue, is that truth-conditional

semantics is not concerned with synthetic truth, i.e. factual truth about the

conditions which prevail in the real world; it is concerned about analytic truth, i.e.

truth by the very nature of language.

2.2.4. The Ideational Theory of Meaning

The ideational theory of meaning otherwise known as the mentalist theory, was

developed by the British empiricist philosopher, John Locke, and was subsequently

promoted by Leonard Bloomfield. The cardinal principle around which the theory

is built is that, linguistic meaning is mental. That is, words are used to encode and

33
convey thoughts or ideas. Glucksberg, cited in Ogbulogo (26), claims that the

theory does not attempt any definition of words and expression using physical

associations. Rather, the range of possible meanings ascribed to a given word, that

is, the set of available feelings, images, ideas, concepts, thoughts, and inference

that can be produced as soon as a word is heard.

According to Locke, the meaning of an expression is the idea associated with the

mind of anyone who knows and understands that expression. In her own view,

Lawal (149) lucidly describes the ideational theory, which she refers to as

“meaning as mental image”, as a theory which sees the meaning of a word or

expression as the particular mental image that is usually conjured in the mind

immediately the word is uttered. In simple parlance, that mental image is the

meaning of that word. Since the meaning of linguistic expression is connected to

the mind, it therefore follows that successful communication requires that the

hearer correctly decode the speaker’s words into their associated ideas. Otherwise,

there will always be breakdown in communication.

Citing an example, there is a mental image or idea that will appear in the mind of

someone as soon as the word “dog” is uttered. Also, for the word “tree”, an image

will be pictured in the mind once it is verbally produced. Likewise, mentioning the

word “house” will cause its image to mentally manifest immediately. All the

34
mental images that are conjured by the utterance of the words “dog”, “tree” and

“house” respectively, are the meanings of these individual words as far as the

ideational theory is concerned.

One of the criticism levelled against this theory is that it is too abstract and

imprecise because of its heavy reliance on mental images for decoding the

meaning of words (Ogbulogo, 26). For instance, for a hearer to properly decode the

meaning of a word, he has to gain access into the mind of the speaker. This is

somewhat an impossible task. Thus, if the hearer conjures a mental image different

from the expectation of the speaker, such communication has not been successful

because the response or reaction of the hearer will not tally with what is expected

of him by the speaker. Along this dimension, this theory fails to take cognizance of

the fact that the meaning of a word may vary from one individual to another

because no two individuals have the same mindset.

Furthermore, if the meaning of an expression is the mental image associated with

it, it means therefore that word without associated ideas would be dubbed as

meaningless. For instance, since words such as “to”, “will”, “very”, “passion”,

“abstract”, etc. do not necessarily conjure any mental image when they are uttered

or heard, a possible way to account for their meaning is to regard them as simply

lacking semantic content, i.e. meaningless.

35
Another problem or shortcoming of this theory identified by Lawal is that two

synonymous expressions would be required to have the same mental image while

antonymous expressions would be expected to have opposing mental images. But

the reverse is sometimes the case as even synonymous words, for example, can be

associated with different mental images. Above all, the ideational theory is unable

to explain the compositionality of natural languages.

2.2.5.. The Behaviourist Theory of Meaning

In the literature, this theory is otherwise referred to as stimulus-response theory.

Originally, the development of the theory is attributed to the American

Psychologist B. F. Skinner. His development of this theory was born out of the

effort to render linguistic meaning more scientific. He therefore proposed that the

correct theory of meaning for a natural language is behaviouristic: the meaning of

an expression, as uttered on a particular occasion, is either the behavioural stimulus

that produces the utterance or the behavioural response that the utterance produces

or a combination of both. This theory approaches the meaning of communication

in order to explain the nature of meaning. During communication, especially an

interpersonal one, a stimulus is always accompanied by a particular response. That

response is the behaviour of the addressee in return of the directed stimulus by the

addresser. Thus, such linguistic behaviour is the meaning of the word or expression

36
uttered by the speaker; the addresser. Giving an empirical example, the meaning of

“fire” as uttered on a particular occasion might include running or calling for help.

The subsequent gesture that will accompany the production of the word “fire” by

someone will be termed as the meaning of that word in that particular context of

communication. Similarly, the meaning of the word “thief” might include danger.

Therefore, the moment someone utters this word, people around him will react in

the form of feelings of danger; looming in connection to the appearance of a thief.

In that wise, such response spurred by that stimulus is the actual meaning of the

word “thief” in that specific context of communication.

A major flaw of this theory is that it fails to take into consideration that response

does not always match with the intended meaning of an expression. That is,

responses to a single stimulus sometimes vary. Going back to the example of

“fire”, even on a single occasion, it is possible that not everyone who hears fire

will respond to it by running or calling for help. Suppose, for example, that the

hearers of the utterance include fireman, a pyromaniac, and a person who happens

to know that the speaker is a compulsive liar. For these people, the meaning of fire

is different for those who run or call for help.

Barring the above shortcoming, the behavioural theory is celebrated for its attempt

to justify the fact that the stimulus-response phenomenon is a great determinant of

37
meaning of an expression uttered on social occasion for interpersonal

communication.

2.2.6. The Compositional Theory of Meaning

This theory concerns itself with sentence meaning. Going by the position of Lawal

(150), this theory or principle states that the meaning of sentences are determined

by the meaning of the component words and the syntactic structure of those

sentence. In other words, the internal constituents of the sentence will go a long

way in assigning meaning to that sentence. To illustrate this principle, let us

consider the following sentence:

The man killed a goat with a knife.

The meaning of the above sentence can be deduced from the meaning of the

component words that make up the sentence. For instance, once the meaning of the

words “man”, “kill”, “goat”, and “knife” are decoded, it becomes easy unlocking

the semantic content of the sentence as a whole.

To show the role of component words and syntactic structure in the deduction of

the meaning of a sentence, the following sentences become relevant:

a) The teacher slapped the student.

b) The student slapped the teacher.

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The two sentences above do not have identical meaning even though they contain

the same words. What brings about the difference in meaning is the order of the

words in the sentences in that, while “the teacher” is the subject in (a), “the

student” is the subject in (b). If we also take a look at these two sentences:

a) I carried a bucket.

b) I carried a chair.

We will discover that the difference in their meaning is brought by the fact that,

while “bucket” is the object in (a), “chair” is the object in (b). This again shows the

relevance of component words in inferring the meaning of a sentence. In essence,

the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the component words and

how they are syntactically combined, as far as the theory or principle of

compositionality is concerned. (McGregor, 141) While this theory appears

appealing , it is not devoid of its shortcomings.

A principal limitation of this theory is that if one attributes meaning to a sentence

based on the meaning of the individual words combined in that sentence, one will

always assign wrong meaning to an utterance that:

Man Boy Woman

[+HUMAN] [+HUMAN] [+HUMAN]

[+MALE] [+MALE] [-MALE]

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 [+ADULT] [-ADULT] [+ADULT]

The meaning of each word above is defined by the inherent semantic components

into which the words have been broken. In essence, those components are the

respective meaning of this word.

O’Grady, Archibald and Katamba (204) argue that an obvious advantage of this

approach is that it allows us to group entities into natural classes (much as we do in

phonology). For example, “man” and “boy” could be grouped together as

[+human, +male]; while “man” and “woman” could be put in a class defined by the

features [+human, +adult]. Another benefit of this theory, as noted by Syal and

Jindal, is that it helps us understand meaning in relations such as synonymy is

idiomatic. In other words, this theory cannot capture the meaning of idioms or

idiomatic expressions because their meaning are not derived from the meaning of

their component words but what is actually intended. For example, “The sick man

eventually gave up the ghost” has a meaning (e.g. died ) entirely different from the

literal meanings of the words “gave”, “up” and “ghost”.

2.2.7. The Componential Theory of Meaning

The development of this theory was born out of an attempt to determine whether or

not words are the smallest semantic units in language. Some semanticists have

hypothesized, according to Saeed (247) that, words are not the smallest semantic

40
units but are built up of smaller components of meaning which are combined

differently (or lexicalized) to form different words. As a result of this hypothesis, it

was discovered that “the total meaning of a word is broken up into its basic distinct

components” (Syal and Jindal, 151). They stress further that each component of

meaning is expressed by a feature symbol with a “+” or “-” mark to indicate the

presence or absence of a certain feature respectively. The theory holds that each

word in a language is decomposable into certain inherent semantic properties or

features and that those features are actually the meanings of those words. In

another sense, for one to be able to account for the meaning of words, one must

first of all break those which characterize them. Only then would one be able to

give the accurate meanings of those words.

For example, the words “man”, “boy”, “woman”, “bachelor” and “spinster” can be

semantically decomposed into their semantic features as follows:

Bachelor Spinster

[+HUMAN] [+HUMAN]

[+MALE] [-MALE]

[+ADULT] [+ADULT]

[-MARRIED] [-MARRIED]

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Despite the relevance of componential analysis expounded above, some problems

are still posed. In the words of Yule (116), for many words in a language, it may

not be so easy to come up with neat components of meaning. For example, words

such as “advice”, “threat”, and “warning” do not have clear semantic components

into which they can be broken. If this is the case, one would erroneously conclude

that they have no meaning in English. Similarly, Syal and Jindal point out that

while many meanings can be understood in terms of binary contrasts, there are

some oppositions that involve more than two terms. Examples are in the field of

description of species of animals or plants, types of metals, colours and so on.

2.3 Types of Semantic Meaning

A piece of language conveys its dictionary meaning, connotations beyond the

dictionary meaning, information about the social context of language use,

speaker’s feelings and attitudes, rubbing off one meaning on another meaning of

the same word. Therefore, a word may have more than one meaning because of

habit of occurrence. Broadly speaking, ‘meaning’ means the sum total of what is

communicated through language. Words, Phrases and sentences have meanings

which are studies in semantics. Geoffrey Leech in his Semantic- A Study of

meaning, breaks down meaning into seven types or ingredients giving primacy to

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conceptual meaning. The Seven types of meaning according to Leech are as

follows:

2.3.1 Conceptual Meaning

Conceptual meaning is sometimes called denotative meaning or cognitive

meaning. It is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic communication

and it may be shown to be integral to the essential functioning of language in a

way that other types of meaning are not. The chief reason for assigning priority to

conceptual meaning is that it has a complex and sophisticated organization of a

kind which may be compared with, and cross-related to similar organization on the

syntactic and phonological levels of language. It refers to dictionary meaning

which indicates the concept. Take the word “walk” for example, the conceptual

meaning or the primary dictionary meaning is to move forward by placing one foot

in front of the other. Larson (100) notes that denotative meaning is also called

primary meaning; meaning suggested by the word when it is used alone. He states

that it is the first meaning or usage which a word will suggest to most people when

the word is said in isolation. It is the meaning learned early in life and likely to

have reference to a physical situation.

The denotation of a word is its agreed-upon sense-- what it refers to, stands for, or

designates, apart from the feeling it may call up. It is said that the aim of

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denotative meaning is to provide for any given interpretation of a sentence. It is a

configuration of abstract symbols, in which it shows exactly what we need to know

if we are to distinguish that meaning from all other possible sentence meaning in

the language.

Conceptual meaning of a language can be studied in terms of contrastive features.

It is possible to express the conceptual meaning of a word by using contrastive

semantic features. Such features indicate the attributes present and those that are

absent which are represented with (+) and (-) signs respectively. The meaning of

the word, for instance, “woman” could be specified as:

WOMAN = +HUMAN, -MALE, +ADULT, as different from the word “boy”

which could be defined as: BOY = +HUMAN, +MALE, -ADULT.

2.3.2 Connotative Meaning

Connotative meaning is the communicative value an expression has by virtue of

what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. The notion of

“reference” overlaps with conceptual meaning to a large extent. If the word

“woman” is defined conceptually by three features (+HUMAN, -MALE,

+ADULT), then the three properties ‘human’, ’adult’, and ‘female’ must provide a

criterion of the correct use of that word. These contrastive features translated into

‘real world’ terms become attribute of the referent. But there is a multitude of

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additional non-criterial properties that we have learnt to expect a referent of

woman to possess. They include not only physical characteristics (having a womb)

but also psychological and social properties (‘gregarious’, ‘subject to material

instinct’). It may also extend to features which are merely typical rather than

invariably concomitant of womanhood (‘capable of speech’, ‘experienced in

cookery’, ‘skirt or dress-wearing’). Furthermore, connotative meaning can embrace

the ‘putative properties’ of the referent, due to the viewpoint adopted by an

individual or a group of people or a whole society. So in the past, woman has been

burdened with such attributes (‘frail’, ‘prone to tears’, ‘emotional’, ‘irrational’,

‘inconstant’,) imposed on her by the male counter-part, as well as with more

becoming qualities such as ‘compassionate’, ‘sensitive’, ’hard-working’, etc.

Certainly, connotations are apt to vary from age to age and from society to society.

A century ago, ‘non-trouser-wearing’ must have seemed a complete definitive

connotation of the word woman. Equally, connotations will vary from individual to

individual within the same speech community. For instance, to an English speaking

hater of woman, woman will have many uncomplimentary associations not present

in the mind of speakers of a more feminist persuasion. It is clear that in talking

about connotation, we are talking about the ‘real world’; the experience one

associates with an expression when one uses or hears it. Another fact which

indicates that connotative meaning is peripheral compared with conceptual

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meaning is that, connotations are relatively unstable, they vary considerably

according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.

Connotative meaning is indeterminate and open-ended in a sense in which

conceptual meaning is not. It is open-ended in the same way as our knowledge and

beliefs about the universe is open-ended: any characteristics of the referent

identified subjectively or objectively may contribute to connotative meaning of the

expression which denotes it.

2.3.3 Stylistic/Social Meaning

Social meaning is the meaning conveyed by the piece of language about the social

context of its use. The decoding of a text is dependent on our knowledge of

stylistics and other variations of language. We recognized some words or

pronunciation as being dialectical, that is, telling us something about the region or

social origin of the speaker. Social meaning is related to the situation in which an

utterance is used. It is concerned with the social circumstances of the use of

linguistic expression. For instance, some dialectic words inform us about the

regional and social background of the speaker. In the same way, some stylistic

usages let us know something of the social relationship between the speaker and

the hearer. Example:

‘They have brought light’

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This sentence tells us about the speaker and that the speaker is probably a Nigerian

and half educated. Stylistic variation represents the social variation. This is because

styles show the geographical region and social class of the speaker. Style helps us

to know about the period, field and status of the discourse. Some words are similar

as far as their conceptual meaning is concerned but they have different stylistic

meaning. For example, ‘steed ’, ‘horse and ‘nag’ are synonymous. They all mean a

kind of animal, i.e. Horse. But they differ in style and so have various social

meaning. ‘Steed’ is used in poetry; ‘horse’ is used in general, while ‘nag’ is a

slang.

Stylistic variation is also found in sentence. For example, two criminals will

express the following sentence:

“They chucked the stones at the cops and then did a bunk with the look”

(Criminals after the event)

But the same ideas will be revealed by the chief inspector to his officials by the

following sentence.

“After casting the stones at the police, they absconded with the money.”

(Chief Inspector in an official report)

Thus through utterances we come to know about the social facts, social situation,

class, region, and speaker-listener relations by its style and dialect used in

47
sentences. The illocutionary force of an utterance also can have social meaning.

According to the social situation, a sentence may be uttered as request, an apology,

a warning or a threat, for example, the sentence, “I haven’t got a knife” has a

common meaning in isolation. But the sentence uttered to a waiter means a request

for a knife’. Thus, we can understand that the connotative meaning plays a very

vital role in the field of semantics and in understanding the utterances and

sentences in different context.

2.3.4 Affective or Emotive Meaning

This type of meaning is often related to the feelings and attitudes of the speaker

towards the hearer or the audience. Affective meaning refers to what is conveyed

about the feelings and attitude of the speaker through the use of language. It can be

seen as the speaker’s feeling/ attitude towards the content or the on-going context.

Affective meaning is often explicitly conveyed through the conceptual or

connotative content of the words used. In affective meaning, language is used to

express personal feelings or attitude to the listener or to the subject matter of his

discourse. Someone who is addressed for example: “you are a vicious tyrant and a

villainous reprobate and I hate you” Or “I hate you, you idiot”, is left in little doubt

as to the feelings of the speaker towards him. Here, the speaker seems to have a

very negative attitude towards his listener. This is called affective meaning.

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But there are less direct ways of disclosing our attitude than this. For example, “I

am terribly sorry to interrupt but if you would be so kind as to lower your voice a

little”, conveys our irritation in a scaled down manner for the sake of politeness.

Intonation and voice quality are also important here. Thus, the sentence above can

be uttered in biting sarcasm and the impression of politeness may be reversed

while for instance, “Will you belt up?”, can be turned into a playful remark

between intimates if said with the intonation of a request.

I.A. Richards argued that emotive meaning distinguishes literature or poetic

language from factual meaning of science. Moreover, there are elements of

language (chiefly interjections like Wow! and Aha!) whose chief function is to

express emotion. When we use them, we communicate feelings and attitudes

without the mediation of any other kind of semantic function. Finally, it must be

noted that affective meaning is largely a parasitic category. It overlaps heavily with

style, connotation and conceptual content.

2.3.5 Reflected Meaning

At the lexical level of language, reflected meaning arises when a word has more

than one conceptual meaning or multiple conceptual meaning. In such cases, while

responding to one sense of the word, we partly respond to another sense of the

word too. Leech says that in a church service, ‘the comforter and the Holy Ghost

49
’refer to the third person of the Trinity. They are religious words. But

unconsciously, there is a response to their non-religious meanings too. Thus, the

‘comforter’ sounds warm and comforting while the ‘Ghost’ sounds ‘awesome’ or

even ‘dreadful’. One sense of the word seems to rub off on another especially

through relative frequency and familiarity (e.g. a ghost is more frequent and

familiar in religious sense.).

In poetry too, we have reflected meaning as in the following lines from ‘Futility’

“Are limbs so dear achieved, are sides,

Full nerved still warm-too hard to stir”

Owen here, uses ‘dear’ in the sense of ‘expensiveness’. But the sense of beloved is

also eluded.

E.g. Daffodils

“They could not but be gay

In such jocund company”

The word ‘gay’ was frequently used in the time of William Wordsworth but the

word now is used for ‘homosexuality’. In such type of cases of multiple meaning,

one meaning of the word pushes the other meaning to the background. Then the

dominant suggestive power of that word prevails. This may happen because of the

relative frequency or familiarity of the dominant meaning. This dominant meaning

which pushes the other meaning at the background is called the reflected meaning.

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Reflected meaning is also found in taboo words. Examples are terms like

‘erection’, ‘intercourse’, ‘ejaculation’, etc. The word ‘intercourse’ immediately

reminds us of its association with sex (sexual intercourse). The sexual association

of the word drives away its innocent sense, i.e. ‘communication’. The taboo sense

of the word is so dominant that its non-taboo sense almost dies out. In some cases,

the speaker avoids the taboo words and uses their alternative words in order to

avoid the unwanted reflected meaning. For example, as Bloomfield has pointed

out, the word ‘Cock’ is replaced by speakers, they use the word ‘rooster’ to

indicate the general meaning of the word and avoid its taboo sense. These words

have non-sexual meanings too. (e.g. erection of a building, ejaculate-throw out

somebody) but because of their frequency in the light of the physiology of sex, it is

becoming difficult to use them in their innocent/ non-sexual sense. Thus, we can

see that reflected meaning has great importance in the study of semantics.

2.3.6 Collocative Meaning

Collocative meaning is the meaning which a word acquires in the company of

certain words. Words collocate or co-occur with certain words only e.g. ‘big

business’ not ‘large’ or ‘great’. Collocative meaning refers to associations of a

word because of its usual or habitual co-occurrence with certain types of words.

‘Pretty’ and ‘handsome’ indicate ‘good looking’. However, they slightly differ

51
from each other because of collocation or co-occurrence. The word ‘pretty’

collocates with – girls, woman, gardens, flowers, etc.

On the other hand, the word ‘handsome’ collocates with – ‘boys’ ‘men’, etc., so we

have ‘pretty woman’ and ‘handsome man’. While different kinds of attractiveness,

hence ‘handsome woman’ may mean attractive but in a mannish way. The verbs

‘wander’ and ‘stroll’ are quasi-synonymous-- they may have almost the same

meaning but while ‘cows may wander into another farm’, they do not stroll into

that farm because ‘stroll’ collocates with human subjects only. Similarly, one

‘trembles with fear’ but ‘quivers with excitement’. Collocative meanings need to

be invoked only when other categories of meaning do not apply. Generalizations

can be made in case of other meanings while collocative meaning is simply on

idiosyncratic property of individual words, it has its importance and it is a marginal

kind of category.

2.3.7 Thematic Meaning

It refers to what is communicated by the way in which a speaker or a writer

organizes the message in terms of ordering focus and emphasis . Thus, active is

different from passive though its conceptual meaning is the same. Various parts of

the sentence also can be used as subject, object or complement to show

prominence. It is done through focus, theme (topic) or emotive emphasis. Thematic

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meaning helps us to understand the message and its implications properly. For

example, the following statements in active and passive voice have same

conceptual meaning but different communicative values. For example:

“Mrs. Smith donated the first prize.”

“The first prize was donated by Mrs. Smith.”

In the first sentence, “who gave away the prize” is more important, but in the

second sentence “what Mrs. Smith gave” is important. Thus, the change of focus

also changes the meaning.

Like the grammatical structures, stress and intonation also make the message

prominent. For example, the contrastive stress on the word ‘cotton’ in the

following sentence gives prominence to the information.

“John wears a cotton shirt.”

“The kind of shirt that John wears is cotton one.”

Thus, sentences or pairs of sentences with similar conceptual meaning differ in

their communicative value. This is due to different grammatical constructions or

lexical items or stress and intonations. Therefore, they are used in different

contents.

“Ten thousand saw I at a glance”

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Wordsworth here inverts the structure to focus on ‘ten thousand’. Sometimes,

thematic contrast i.e. contrasts between given and new information can be

conveyed by lexical means.

2.3.8 Associative Meaning

Leech uses this as an umbrella term for five types of meanings (connotative, social,

affective, reflective and collocative). All these have more in common with

connotative than conceptual meaning. They all have the same open ended, variable

character and can be analyzed in terms of scales or ranges ( more/less) than in

either or contrastive terms. These meanings contain many imponderable factors.

But conceptual meaning is stable.

1) John owns the biggest shop in London

2) The biggest shop in London belongs to John.

The ways we order our message also convey what is important and what is not.

This is basically, thematic meaning.

2.4 Semantic Processes and Elements of Sentence Meaning

According to Adejumobi (207), semantic processes include the following:

i. Reduplication: The notion of reduplication involves the repetition of a word or

syllable in a way that creates a "doubled" effect. The resulting compounds, formed

54
through this reduplication process, are termed reduplicative. The components

brought together in this process can be either identical or exhibit slight variations.

Reduplication can also be achieved by altering sounds or letters. Illustrative

examples include terms like goody-goody, ding-dong, ticktack, zig-zag, tip-top,

and others (17-22).

ii. Clipping: The term "clipping" denotes the act of omitting portions of words in

spoken language. This process leads to the creation of compound words by

removing specific morphemes. Clipping manifests in three forms, one of which is

Initial Clipping, as exemplified by the word "phone," where the morpheme 'tele' is

omitted. Another type is Final Clipping, illustrated by the word "photo," where the

morpheme 'graphy' is clipped off. Other examples include:

Maths - Mathematics

Exam - Examination

Telly - television etc.

c. Initial and Final Clipping e.g. flu - influenza; fridge – refrigerator

iii. Blending: Blendings are compounds that fall under a category "less than"

traditional compounds, resulting from the combination of fragments of words.

Examples include 'smog,' formed by blending 'smoke' and 'fog'; 'motel,' a blend of

'motor' and 'hotel'; and 'urinalysis,' created by combining 'urine' and 'analysis.'

55
iv. Acronyms are words formed by using the initials of multiple words, and these

words are pronounced as if they are standalone terms with inherent meaning.

Illustrative examples include: NEPA (National Electric Power Authority), WHO

(World Health Organization), and NASU (Non-Academic Staff Union).

v. Borrowing: Borrowing in linguistic terms, refers to the process in which one

language or dialect assimilates certain linguistic elements from another. Examples

of this phenomenon include adopting words from the French language, such as

feast, government, crown, atomic, and others.

vi. Broadening: This occurs when the meaning of a word expands or becomes

more inclusive. For example, the Middle English term 'doggie' initially referred to

a specific breed of dog but later broadened to encompass all members of the

species.

vii. Meaning Shift: This denotes a type of semantic change, also known as a shift

in meaning. For instance, the word 'bead' originally meant 'prayer.'

viii. Homonym: Homonyms are words that are pronounced the same way and

share the same spelling but have different meanings. Examples include:

- Bore: To make a hole

- Bore: To feel tired

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- Bolt: A metal bar used to lock a door or window

- Bolt: To run away suddenly

ix. Homophone: Homophones are words that share the same pronunciation but

have different spellings and meanings. Examples include:

- Wear - Ware

- Knew - New

- No - Know

x. Antonym: An antonym is a word that has the opposite meaning of another

word. Examples include:

- Spinster - Bachelor

- Wife - Husband

- Cry - Laugh

- Tall - Short

- High - Low

- Dead – Alive

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xi. Synonyms: Synonyms are words that, despite sounding different, share the

same or nearly the same meaning. The term "synonym" implies a similarity in

meaning and refers to words or phrases in the same language that have equivalent

meanings. Examples include come - arrive; large - big; kill - eliminate; advise -

counsel.

xii. Polysemy: Polysemy occurs when a single word has multiple meanings,

making it polysemous or polysemic. These meanings can either be contextual or

isolated, as seen in words like table, fight, chair, etc.

xiii. Hyponym: The concept of hyponym involves the idea of inclusion, where

terms like hibiscus and rose are included in the broader category of flower, and

lion and elephant are included in the category of animal.

Ogbulogo states that understanding language goes beyond simply grasping the

meanings of isolated words. Words, in fact, come together in various ways to

produce diverse forms of meaning. Consequently, words demonstrate meaningful

relationships within sentences. These relationships are elucidated through

constructs such as paraphrase, ambiguity, vagueness, tautology, presupposition,

entailment, anomaly, and analyticity (341).

a. Paraphrase: While synonymy pertains to words, paraphrase pertains to

sentences. Consequently, paraphrase denotes a semantic relation wherein two or

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more sentences convey the same meaning. In other words, a sentence can be

restated in various ways, encompassing both lexical and structural paraphrases.

Lexical paraphrase occurs when two or more sentences share the same

interpretation due to the substitution of one word or phrase for another. For

instance, consider the following examples: "The chairman employed a spinster"

and "The chairman employed an unmarried woman." Another example is "Shade

was angry," which can be lexically paraphrased as "Shade was unhappy."

Structural paraphrase, on the other hand, is derived from the arrangement of

sentence elements. Consequently, many sentences categorized under structural

paraphrase result from transformations. Examples of structural paraphrase include:

i. "He desired recognition" (Basic SVO Structure)

ii. "It was recognition that he desired" (Cleft)

iii. "What he desired was recognition" (Pseudocleft)

iv. "Recognition was what he desired" (Topicalised)

b. Ambiguity: Ambiguous expressions can be open to more than one

interpretation, leading to a construction having multiple meanings due to the

presence of a specific word. Examples include:

i. "That plant is near."

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ii. "Those tables are beautiful."

iii. "We have many goals."

The underlined words, such as "plant," "tables," and "goals," can be interpreted in

various ways, like electricity generator or a small tree for "plant," items of

furniture or a diagrammatic representation of information for "tables," and diverse

meanings for "goals."

Vagueness is associated with a proposition being considered meaningless,

expressing something that is not easily interpretable. The truth of a proposition

relies on the background knowledge of the speaker. Meaninglessness arises from

the incompatibility of the semantic properties of certain words. Even though a

sentence may adhere to grammatical rules, it can be meaningless, as seen in

expressions like:

i. "The woods heard her cry."

ii. "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously together" (Chomsky, 1965).

Tautology involves the unnecessary repetition of elements in communication,

emphasizing the obvious without adding clarity or forcefulness. Examples of

sentences containing elements of tautology include:

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i. "That spinster has no husband."

ii. "The poor man is not rich."

e. Presupposition: is the information assumed by a speaker, expecting the listener

to already be aware of it. This implies a shared background of information between

the speaker and the listener. The listener's interpretation of the speaker's statement

is influenced by the presumed shared background.

f. Entailment: refers to the relationship between two sentences where the truth of

the second sentence necessarily follows from the truth of the first. This relationship

is exemplified in the following sentences:

i. "Okoro is a bachelor."

Sentence (i) entails (ii)

ii. "Okoro is a man."

g. Anomaly arises from the combination of two conflicting semantic features in

describing a phenomenon. Certain entities and words have selectional restrictions.

For instance, nouns like "man" and "tree" are described as vertical, resulting in

"tall man" and "tall tree," while others like "stick," "ruler," "snake," "rope," etc.,

are perceived as horizontal, leading to "long stick," "long ruler," "long snake," etc.

Consequently, nouns in the first category are described in terms of length. Based

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on this realization, the following structures are anomalous: "Long tree" instead of

"tall tree" and "Long man" instead of "tall man."

2.5 T-Shirt Inscriptions as Graphology

The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (11th Edition) describes `inscription'

as an adhesive label usually tuck on something which often has a message on it. In

other words, an inscription is a device of passing messages across to a reader in the

form of written text. Inscriptions could be found on T-Shirts, stone, walls, on

doors, windows, plates, most other things like objects that are able to sustain

adhesives.

Printing inscriptions and images on T-Shirts is a complex process, when the paint

is applied over the fabric. Modern technologies allow the application of almost any

prints on textiles; inscriptions and drawings, logos and pictures, turning ordinary

thing into one of the kind. T-Shirt with printing is an easy way to make a common

week day colorful or to present an original gift for the holiday.

Printing inscriptions on T-Shirts involve the process of heating to produce the

inscriptions. In making high-quality printing on T-Shirts and fabrics, you apply

print which is a thermal transfer using ordinary iron. The basis of this technology

consists of placing the image on the fabric, using strong pressure and temperature.

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Home-made printing involves buying a heat press to improve the quality. Digital

printing on textiles (T-Shirt printing) allows the application of a variety of fabrics

from natural to mix up. Professional printing companies provide digital printing on

black, white, colored and multi-colored t-shirts, sweater, shirts, etc. and the picture

looks bright and realistic regardless 44 the type of textile type and its color. The

unique organic water-based ink designed specifically for. textiles is used for

printing on t-shirts which really "grow together" with fabric and the image remains

imperceptible.

Graphology can be described as the art or form of writing or drawing. The

Hutchisork Encyclopedia (459) defines and explains graphology as; the study of

the writing system of language, including the number and formation of letter,

spelling patterns, accents and punctuations, capitalization etc. Berry (99) affirms

that graphology can be viewed from two senses: the linguistic and psychological.

Linguistically, it is the "study of the systems of symbol that have been devised to

communicate language in written form". Psychologically, it is "the study of

handwriting as a guide to character and personality". Graphology as a style and as

a concept, comes under graphic language as captured in the sketch below which is

based on the analysis by the British typographer Micheal Twyman, cited by Crystal

(182) which can be schematized thus:

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 Language

Oral Visual

Graphic Non Graphic

(e.g. expression, body gestures)

Verbal Pictorial Schematic

(Written) (e.g. Drawing, (charts, diagrams,
Photographs) musical notations)
.
Hand
Video Text

Print
Typescript

There is a wide range of graphological devices which people in everyday writing

consciously or unconsciously use and are of great semantic values. Some of such

devices are identified by Crystal and Davy (18), as the distinctive use of

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punctuation, capitalization, spacing, paragraphing, Schematic (charts, diagrams,

musical notations) italicization, abbreviations, spatial organization, colours and

special symbol like logograms. From the above diagram, we can conveniently

establish typology, as some of the features explained above are seen on T-shirt

inscriptions. It possesses individual words or phrases which are patterned in

different linguistic contexts, and with lexical items that are capable of

distinguishing meanings.

2.6. Theoretical Framework

This study adopts the theory of meaning proposed by C.K. Ogden and I.A.

Richards – the conceptual theory. This is an alternative to the naming theory which

differentiates between sense and reference. This distinction is reflected in the

semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards. The semantic triangle can be traced back

to the 4th century BC in Aristotle’s De Interpretatione Book II , but was first

published by Ogden and Richards in The Meaning of Meaning. The triangle is a

model that describes the relationship between thought (reference), linguistic sign

(or representamen) and a referent (the things they try to represent or refer to).

THOUGHT OR REFERENCE

(symbolizes a causal relation) (Refers to other causal relations)

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 SYMBOL . REFERENT

(stands for an imputed relation)

To correct the problems associated with “Meaning Theory”, Ogden and Richards

developed “Definition Theory”. One must understand that when a person speaks,

the word he or she chooses means different things to different people. One may

agree that a term best suited to describe this condition is ambiguity. Erickstad

quoting Ogden and Richards argues that the best way to solve the ambiguity

problem is to define various terms or concepts. (56) This can be accomplished in

many ways. One might choose to offer an explicit definition of the term or concept

being used, or he or she could opt to use the term in such a way as to project the

definition through the combination of other words that share the same universal

meaning. For instance, if a speaker states that another person was cold, based on

the example dealing with meaning, two inferences could be drawn. First, one could

assume that the person being discussed is physically, or temperately cold.

Similarly, one could infer that the person has projected an attitude that is

undesirable toward another person or object. (Erickstad 58)

Another option, expressed by Ogden and Richards is the use of metaphor.

Metaphors aid in the creation of definitions by forming a link between the word or

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idea and an experience he or she and the audience may share. If the speaker were

to either define the term or use other words to “prop” up the definition with the use

of metaphor, the meaning becomes clear. For instance, if the speaker states that he

or she has spoken to another person who always emits a negative demeanour in

conversation and that his or her attitude appears cold, the meaning is evident.

Ogden and Richards developed the “Symbol Theory” to explain how words

expressed in communication evoke images, thus providing a personal meaning

based on experience. Symbols are inherently arbitrary by themselves; however,

when used in conjunction with one another, meaning is created for the ideas being

expressed. Problems in communication arise when people attempt to communicate

through the use of arbitrary words because they have no exact or clear meaning.

Words are variables that can assume different meanings depending on the context

in which they are used (Erickstad 18). A good example of a symbol is text. Text,

by itself, is meaningless, as it draws no relation to anything outside itself.

However, when we combine text with a word and even a picture, we create a

workable definition from which to operate. This is the fundamental principle

behind Ogden and Richards theory.

To illustrate his point that there is a direct relationship between symbols and

thought, Ogden and Richards created the “Semantic Triangle”. The triangle is a

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simple model in which the three factors involved with the statement or idea placed

in the corners and the relationships between them are represented by the sides

(Ogden and Richards, 10).

A unique and fascinating quality of Ogden and Richards’ theory is that it implies

meaning can be arbitrarily used without the need to understand how one feels.

What this means is that, so long as definitions are created that all parties agree to,

feelings regarding those definitions are inconsequential. In fact, according to

Ogden and Richards, “Whenever we hear anything said, we spring spontaneously

to an immediate conclusion, namely, that the speaker is referring to what we

should be referring to when speaking the words ourselves” (15)

Ogden and Richards’ theories are not flawless, however, and have been challenged

over the years. Some critics cite that while symbols and definitions are important

to communication, there is more to conversation than merely what a word means to

someone (Erickstad 98). The critic is speaking of non-verbal communication in

that, other factors are at work that can affect what a person means and non-verbal

communication plays a huge role in this area. Even if one were to apply Ogden and

Richards’ “Semantic Triangle” to an interpersonal conversation, it is possible that

the “whole” picture would fall seriously short of capturing all that is meant by one

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person and understood by another person. For this reason, the ability to pick up on

non verbal messages become imperative.

Another problem encountered by the critic is that words are left standing by

themselves, unless they are spoken in context (Erickstad 99). An example was

demonstrated previously in the varying meanings for the word “cold”. What

perhaps the critic is failing to recognize is that Ogden and Richards have identified

the need to place words in context, thus the creation of “Definition theory”. While

one might assume that Ogden and Richards’ theories are not completely correct, he

or she should be able to recognize the truth offered in the theories. Whether or not

Ogden and Richards claim that their theories are the only answers to the problem

of failing communication is a moot point. What is fundamentally more important is

the fact that through the study of Ogden and Richards’ theories, scholars have been

afforded a new avenue from which to view communication behaviours and thus,

have provided a foundation upon which new theories and models can be

formulated. To this end, we might be able to grasp the seemingly infinite number

of facets that affect every level of human interaction through communication and

in many cases form a better understanding of the insurmountable realm of

explanations for these interactions as well as how to best manage them.

2.7 Review of Previous Works

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Research works on T-shirt inscriptions are rare. A few works on T-shirts, from

disciplines other than linguistics, have only examined T-shirt designs and social

functions as items of fashion. For instance, Miller (2002) argues that T-shirts

produced by the fans of the Phish Rock Band feature borrowed and re-

contextualized images, and function as an expression of affiliation and affection

for the Phish band.

Kelly (2003) examines image projection and expression of identity through T-

shirts in Hawaii. Her study argues that there is a casual self-image depicted by T-

shirt wearers, as well as a depiction of imagery on the T-shirts. The study

concludes that T-shirt images are pertinent to the four major markets in Hawaii

(i.e. local, native Hawaiian, surfer, and tourist), and are intentionally worn to

function as badges of social identity and expressions of political loyalty.

Hong (2005) looked at inscriptions on T-shirt as a form of communication that

have strong social or political views or opinions as a means of communication.

This is very true, especially if one thinks of no war, no drugs, antismoking,

protect the environment, and race or sex discrimination among others usually

found on some T-shirts. The inscriptions convey different locutions and

illocutionary forces on the audience. They help to describe or identify context and

the participants (Martins 2002), and they are prominent forms of communication in

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our contemporary linguistic landscape; and further notes that little researches on it

have examined the semiotics of this unique mode of communication.

Glass (2008) draws anthropological attention to the representative function of T-

shirt souvenirs in the mediation of social relations. The study observes that the T-

shirts are produced as gifts and souvenirs to remember local events, and also to

flexibly identify social groups within communities in British Columbia. A

sociolinguistic study carried out by Barbara Johnstone (2009) suggests that

Pittsburghese T-shirts are indicative of the existence of a Pittsburgh dialect in

Pennsylvania. The study argues that Pittsburghese shirts are produced, circulated

and consumed with intent, which has contributed “to dialect enregisterment in at

least four ways: i.e. they put local speech on display; they imbue local speech with

value; they standardize local speech, and they link local speech with particular

social meanings” (157).

Penny (2009) argues that the use of political T-shirts in the American 2008

presidential campaigns was a powerful and important medium of communication;

though its exact role was ambiguous, the medium would continue to remain a key

feature of American political and cultural life.

Ghilani (2010), examining the use of T-shirts as a type of propaganda to promote

the contributions of women in post-war America, argued that T-shirts like posters

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with images of women heroes have continued to recruit women who preach and

support the course of womanhood. The T-shirt as represented here serves as a

veritable means of political and social awareness; a situation where organizations,

churches, clubs and political parties use it to reach their audience, sell their

manifestoes, inform, instruct and even educate the populace. This is also a truism,

when one recurs that in the Apartheid years in South Africa, the T-shirts, were

commonly used to preach against it and to show the ills of it on humanity.

Adrover (2013) examines the corporate logo (chiefly images) T-shirts in Ghana.

The study posits that T-shirts worn during the annual Fetu Afahye festival in Ghana

are functional discourses. While the corporate logo T-shirts are part of the

marketing strategy of companies that sponsor the festival, by contrast, when worn

by chiefs, T-shirts are a means of brand promotion and are used to nurture

friendship and explore possibilities of future support from the sponsors. However,

Adrover observes that the presence of T-shirts branded with a chief’s photograph is

suggestive of an assertion of political authority, and this serves as “a medium to

resist sponsor impositions and re-inscribe the space of the festival with distinctive

forms of political affiliations” (58).

While most of the studies reviewed above focused on multimodal aspects of T-

shirts such as images and graphic forms and (in some cases) economic uses,

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studies that examine the semantic contents of T-shirt messages are almost non-

existent, especially as it relates to the Nigerian society. However, among works on

discourse types that are structurally related to T-shirt inscriptions are those of

graffiti and bumper stickers (e.g. Nwoye 1993; Ferrell 1995; Chiluwa 2008). What

these have in common is that they are printed on some surfaces; the messages

printed on them are generally brief and incisive, and target particular audiences.

Their messages are also used to address different topics that relate to social and

cultural practices (Salamon 2001), as well as express emotions (Newhagen &

Ancell 1995).

From the above review, it could be seen that studies on the semantics of T-shirt

inscriptions are rare. This present study intends to fill this gap by examining the

semantics that accompany T-shirt inscriptions in Nigeria. The choice for T-shirt

inscriptions is purposive because unlike bumper/vehicle stickers, T-shirts

inscriptions are more in use by youths and teenagers; besides, T-shirts are often

accompanied by graphic arts or photos. Unlike graffiti, T-shirts are mobile and

dynamic. Compared with graffiti and stickers, T-shirts are more vibrant and

sensational; they are controlled by fashion and more amenable to social and

cultural change. T-shirt messages may be found and read anywhere human beings

are found, because they are not restricted to any particular space, time or location,

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as are other types of messages. Those wearing T-shirts with inscriptions are like

walking graffiti, communicating different messages about human social concerns.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Preamble

This chapter deals with the method and procedures involved in the analysis of T-

shirt inscriptions. This chapter covers sub-headings such as Research Design,

Population of the Study, Sampling Techniques, Instrumentation and Method of

Data Analysis. These subsections are discussed below:

3.1 Research Design

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This research attempts a descriptive analysis of T-shirt inscriptions under the

semantic fields of advertisement, education, politics, lifestyle, economy and

religion. George (207), says this design is chiefly concerned with finding,

describing and interpreting `what is'. It does not aim at discovering new

phenomenon but is concerned with conditions or relationship that exists; practices

that prevail; beliefs, point of view or attitude that are held; processes that are going

on; effects that are being felt; or trends that are developing. Descriptive research

involves title manipulation and control of confounding variables.

3.2 Population of the Study

The population of this research work is made up of people that wear T-Shirt

inscriptions on various semantic fields within Abuja especially in the higher

institutions available in Abuja such University of Abuja, Baze University, Turkish

Nile University, College of Education, Zuba, and University of Abuja. Although

the data samples were gotten from online majorly, those the researcher finds on the

street especially on university campuses in Abuja were also documented for use.

To manage the data, just some few samples of 66 inscriptions from the larger

population were used for analysis here.

3.3 Sampling Design and Procedure

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Samples are the portion of the population from which information are being

collected. While sampling procedure explains how the portion of the population

i.e. sample is obtained (George 207). Time and financial constraints would not

allow the researcher to gather more data from the majority of people wearing T-

Shirt inscriptions within Abuja. Thus, Random Sampling Technique was used to

select the needed ones from online platforms, and some few from people wearing

T-shirt inscriptions in school campuses. The selected criteria involves picking

those inscriptions that touch on the semantic fields of advertisement, politics,

education, lifestyle, economy and religion.

3.4 Instrumentation

To obtain the necessary information, the instruments used are online platforms and

social media pages of some brands. The researcher also visited school campuses to

document T-shirt inscriptions that meet the selection criteria, and within the

shortest possible time.

3.5 Method of Data Analysis

Content analysis is the method used for analyzing the select data. All the data

collected from online platforms and from individuals wearing T-shirts with

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inscriptions in school campuses within Abuja were described and discussed

critically for better interpretation.

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.0 Preamble

The data are analyzed in groups according to their semantic fields or topics. There

are no particular criteria for the selection of the number of samples in each group;

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the number was what was available and manageable at the time of the research.

The data reflect inscriptions covering various topics such as relationships, sex,

marriage, money, religion, politics, etc. However, the data have been grouped into

four broad semantic fields or themes such as: (i) social lifestyle, identity and

culture; (ii) religious belief and affiliation; (iii) economy and advertisement; and

(iv) political inscriptions.

4.1. Semantic field of social lifestyle, identity and culture

This semantic area covers inscriptions and messages that reflect the young people’s

redefinition of identity, life and social values and their reaction to culture and

traditional norms; their views about sex and sexuality, love and relationship and

moral virtues; it is also about how they attempt to deal with competition and

struggles for survival as well as their socio-cultural aspirations. Messages in this

group perform social functions such as information exchange and moral advice;

they also express emotions such as love and hate. Some of them are used as a form

of awareness creation, keeping records of events and dates, and the encouragement

of creativity and entertainment. Examples are:

(i) Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder

(ii) I am too sexy for this shirt

(iii) Jealousy is a disease, get well soon

(iv) Underneath this haughtiness, I’m only human

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 (v) Be nice to fat people, one day they might save your life

(vi) Yoruba boy, Igbo sense

(vii) I’m a role model, depends on who is watching

(viii) Hating me won’t make you pretty

(ix) I wish my grade will smoke weed and get high

(x) Make love not babies

(xi) Someone has to spend daddy’s money

(xii) Stare if you must

(xiii) Never trust a girl

(xiv) Me and you no dey for the same category

(xv) All rumors are true

(xvi) I’m tired of being told what to think

(xvii) True African

(xviii) Give youth a future

(xix) I Can’t keep calm it’s my birthday

The first sample “Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder” connotes that beauty is

relative as everybody perceives beauty differently. Thus, there is no single

yardstick for measuring beauty as one may be physically attractive (beautiful) but

may be repulsive in character or other standards. This teaches humility in

everyone.

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Sample two “I am too sexy for this shirt” connotes that the wearer of the T-shirt

expresses self-praise or perceives his/herself as more beautiful than even the

‘supposed beautiful’ T-shirt he/she may be putting on. This teaches self-praise and

builds the wearer’s confidence.

Sample three “Jealousy is a disease, get well soon” connotes the idea that those

who harbors jealousy are sick or diseased and require well-wish to get better or be

cured from their supposed sickness. This teaches that one should expunge jealousy

which many believe is a silent killer of those harboring this vice.

In sample four, “Underneath this haughtiness, I’m only human,” the inscription

connotes the idea that the T-shirt wearer is a mortal who is also prone to making

errors such as being haughty or proud. This teaches that everyone is capable of

possessing a vice because that’s what makes them human and not angels.

“Be nice to fat people, one day they might save your life” connotes that people

should not be mean to others due to their physical appearance because those whom

they look down on may be the ones to save their lives or render help someday. This

teaches that people should avoid discriminations as nobody knows who will help

them tomorrow. One’s enemy today may turn one’s helper or ally tomorrow.

“Yoruba boy, Igbo sense” connotes that the T-shirt wearer is a Yoruba boy who

possesses Igbo sense (smartness). By extension, the meaning in the inscription

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portrays the idea that the Igbo tribe has superior sense. This is in relation to the

Nigerian context where Igbos are perceived as ‘a tribe that likes to outsmart other

tribes’ especially in business dealings. Thus, the wearer is proud to inform people

that he shouldn’t be messed with when it comes to any business dealings.

“I’m a role model, depends on who is watching” connotes the idea that being a role

model is relative depending on the particular audience. By extension, a person’s

character is interpreted differently by different persons depending on what the

actor wants everybody to see. To one, he may be good, to another bad, and to

others both, etc. This teaches that people act differently under different social

conditions or situations – it all depends on those involved.

“Hating me won’t make you pretty” connotes that anybody who hates the T-shirt

wearer won’t gain anything like being pretty for hating the T-shirt wearer. This

means that hating people won’t add any gain to the hater, especially making them

beautiful. The inscription teaches that hatred for people has no reward or gain for

those possessing such a vice.

Sample eighteen “I wish my grade will smoke weed and get high” connotes that

the T-shirt wearer wishes that his/her grade could smoke weed and became higher

than where it currently was. By extension, the inscription means that weeds make

people ‘high’ or become intoxicated. Thus, if it is possible for academic grades to

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smoke, the T-shirt wearer would use this means to increase his grades. Such

inscriptions create a semantic wordplay that is not meant to be taking seriously – it

is only for making fun or as Nigerians would say: “catch cruise.”

Sample nineteen “Make love not babies” connotes that people should have sex but

avoid having babies. By extension, this inscription encourages people to enjoy

their love life without necessarily bringing children into the equation. Such

inscriptions are used by NGOs or health bodies that are campaigning against

unprotected sex among the youths, which has led to unwanted pregnancies or

abandoned babies in society.

“Someone has to spend daddy’s money” connotes the idea that somebody must

spend a father’s money. This may be the wife, children, concubines, friends,

extended relatives or a stranger. By extension, this inscription relates to the social

idea among women, especially young females who act as side chicks to married

men, that a man’s money is meant to be spent either by those who are related to

him legally (family members) or illegally (concubines).

“Stare if you must” connotes that anybody can stare at the T-shirt wearer if they

deem it necessary. By extension, the inscription points to the idea that people

should look at whatever catches their attention but only when it is inevitable. This

teaches that one must not stare casually or uninterestingly at people, especially

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attractive people but take note of their striking features. This encourages one to

make mental note of the faces that pass them by.

Sample twenty two “Never trust a girl” connotes that girls are not trustworthy. This

inscription, by extension, subscribes to the social idea especially among the males

that trusting a woman is at one’s own detriment/peril as women are unpredictable

in character. This also teaches men to love women with reservations.

“Me and you no dey for the same category” connotes that the T-shirt wearer is not

in the same social category with whoever is viewing the inscription. This is a self-

praise that builds confidence in the wearer. By extension, it means that people are

not in the same class and everyone must recognize their status in society and act

accordingly. For instance, not picking a fight or quarrel with someone who is at a

higher social strata because such a person is capable of using their social status to

oppress their opponents.

"All rumors are true" connotes a general statement that all rumors, without

exception, are true. However, this statement is logically contradictory since rumors

are typically unverified or unsubstantiated pieces of information. Therefore, this

sentence is likely intended as a sarcastic or ironic remark, suggesting that rumors

are often unreliable or false.

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"I'm tired of being told what to think" expresses the speaker's weariness or

frustration with being instructed or influenced regarding their thoughts or opinions.

It implies a desire for independence and autonomy in thinking, suggesting a

preference for forming one's own judgments rather than being subjected to external

influence. By extension, the inscription teaches people to be self-reliant in decision

making.

"True African" is a concise phrase that likely refers to someone or something that

embodies or represents the qualities, values, or culture associated with being

authentically African. The phrase may express a sense of pride, identity, or

admiration for African heritage and traditions. Such inscriptions are worn on T-

shirts that promote cultural, ethnic or national identities of the wearer especially in

a foreign or alien society. The inscription builds pride in the racial identity of the

wearer.

"Give youth a future" connotes a call to action, advocating for providing

opportunities and prospects to young people. It implies that the speaker believes

the younger generation deserves a positive outlook and should be offered the

means to build a promising future. It suggests a concern for the well-being and

development of young individuals.

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“I can’t keep calm it’s my birthday” connotes that it’s the speaker’s birthday and

he/she is very excited about it. It implies delight in celebrating one’s birthday and

the need to inform everyone to come celebrate with the celebrant.

4.2. Semantic Field of Religion

T-shirt inscriptions in this category are those that reflect religious beliefs and

practices of the wearer. They also suggest the individual’s perception of religion

and spirituality. Under the religious category, the messages reflect both the

Christian and Muslim faith, the two main religions in Nigeria. For examples:

Here's a semantic analysis of the given sentences:

(i) My God is not on twitter yet he has many followers

(ii) If God be for me, who can be against me

(iii) The lord is my shepherd

(iv) Allah is the way

(v) Covenant men of souls ministry

(vi) I am a son of David Oyedepo

(vii) God is able

(viii) Sango no fit face my God

(ix) 1cross+ 2 nails= 4given

(x) Allah has set me free

(xi) I’m God’s masterpiece

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 (xii) God first, etc.

Sample one “My God is not on Twitter yet he has many followers” suggests that

the person's deity or religious figure, referred to as "My God," does not have a

presence on the social media platform Twitter. However, despite not being on

Twitter, the person's God still has many followers. The sentence implies that the

followers of this deity are not necessarily connected to their presence or popularity

on Twitter. By extension, the inscription implicates that Twitter users have

followers but having ‘large’ followership is not necessarily connected to being on

Twitter as God’s popularity is not social media inclined. This teaches that God is

supreme and His popularity is not link to any social conditions dictated by man.

“If God be for me, who can be against me?” connotes a sense of confidence and

faith in the speaker's belief that if God is on their side or supports them, no one can

successfully oppose or go against them. Although it is a rhetorical question, the

inscription conveys the notion that having the support of a higher power provides

ultimate protection and strength. This teaches that people should seek God’s

approval rather than that of man.

“The Lord is my shepherd” expresses a biblical reference from Psalm 23:1, which

metaphorically depicts the relationship between God and a person as that of a

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shepherd and their sheep. It implies that the speaker sees God as their guide,

protector, and provider, taking care of their needs.

“Allah is the way” implies that Allah, the Islamic term for God, is the path or

means by which believers can find guidance, salvation, or the correct way of

living. It suggests that following Allah's teachings and commands leads to

righteousness and a fulfilled life. It also presupposes that any other choice will lead

to opposite results.

“I am a son of David Oyedepo” implies that the speaker considers themselves to be

a follower or member of the religious leader, David Oyedepo. It suggests a

personal connection or association with David Oyedepo, possibly presupposing

shared beliefs, teachings, or spiritual lineage. By extension, the inscription implies

pride in being connected to Oyedepo and this means that the speaker enjoys every

benefits of being Oyedepo’s son including spiritual coverage from satanic attacks.

“God is able” expresses the belief that God has the power, capability, and capacity

to accomplish anything. It signifies faith in God's omnipotence and the conviction

that God can overcome challenges, perform miracles, and fulfill His promises in

the speaker’s life. The inscription implies that people should trust God or put their

hope in Him for their needs.

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“Sango no fit face my God” seems to refer to the Yoruba deity, Sango, implying

that Sango is unable to confront or challenge the speaker's God. It conveys the idea

that the speaker's God is more powerful or superior to Sango. The inscription

presupposes, by extension, the idea that African gods are demonic and powerless

while the Western God is powerful or supreme.

“1cross + 2 nails = 4given” combines mathematical symbols with a religious

reference. It represents the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, where one cross and two

nails symbolize the crucifixion process. The equation suggests that through Jesus'

sacrifice on the cross, forgiveness (4given) is made possible.

“Allah has set me free” presupposes that the person believes that Allah, in the

Islamic context, has liberated or released them from something, whether it be a

spiritual burden, sin, or worldly troubles. It expresses gratitude for Allah's

intervention and deliverance.

“I'm God's masterpiece” connotes that the speaker sees themselves as a creation or

work of art crafted by God. It presupposes a positive self-image and acknowledges

that the speaker believes they have been skillfully and uniquely created by a higher

power. The inscription, by extension, encourages people to be confident in

themselves as they are created by a super creator. It discourages self-pity especially

by those who are undergoing life’s troubles.

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“God first” means that God should come first. It entails that people should put God

ahead of everything else. This references the biblical instruction to seek first God’s

kingdom and every other thing will be added. The inscription also presupposes that

there are people who do not put God first in their dealings. This writeup

encourages such people to do so.

4.3. Semantic field of Economy and Advertisements

The T-shirt inscriptions in this group seem to reveal the economic situation of the

country as well as reflect the economic system of production and management of

material resources. They also reveal what individuals think about money and

acquisition of wealth and their reactions to the prevalent economic situation of

Nigeria. Some of the T-shirts represent advert messages and slogans (e.g.

‘Glo...with pride,’ ‘Classic fitted wear,’ ‘Ribena blackcurrant’ etc.); many of them

are accompanied by company names, logos and trademarks. Some of the messages

and inscriptions in this group are listed below:

(i) Classic fitted wear

(ii) Fuck school, hustle hard

(iii) Stay fresh get money

(iv) Ama rep Nokia

(v) My money grows like grass

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 (vi) Tom tom…soothing relief

(vii) Money is the root of all evils

(viii) Me I want money ooo

(ix) Love and money

(x) Glo…with pride.

(xi) Pay your tax

(xii) Is it your money?

(xiii) 5 Alive berry blast fruit drink

(xiv) Christiana Fabre

(xv) Dolce and Gabbana

(xvi) Ribena blackcurrant

(xvii) Drink milk everyday. Peak

(xviii) We found love

“Classic fitted wear” appears to describe a style of clothing that is classic and well-

tailored to fit. The presupposition here is that the T-shirt is for classic people with

classic taste in fashion style.

“Fuck school, hustle hard” connotes a negative attitude towards formal education

and promotes the idea of prioritizing hard work and entrepreneurship instead. It

presupposes that success can be achieved outside the traditional educational

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system. The inscription undermines the value of education and implies that

academic pursuits are less important than financial gain.

“Stay fresh get money” connotes the idea that maintaining a stylish and up-to-date

appearance is important in order to attain financial success. It implies a connection

between personal style and financial prosperity. The inscription seems to promote

materialistic values and equate appearance with financial achievement. It also

presupposes that dressing stylishly will help one become financially achieved. The

meaning in this inscription also relates to the saying ‘dress the way you want to be

addressed’ or ‘first impression matters.’

“Ama rep Nokia” appears to indicate that the speaker is representing or supporting

the brand Nokia. This presupposes that others should also do same by patronizing

Nokia products. The inscription is simply an advertising medium for Nokia

company aimed at influencing buyers’ choices.

“My money grows like grass” employs a metaphor to suggest that the speaker's

wealth or income is increasing rapidly and abundantly, similar to the way grass

grows quickly. The meaning here is that it promotes a view of money as something

that effortlessly multiplies, potentially disregarding the need for hard work and

responsible financial management.

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“Tom tom...soothing relief” seems to be an advertising slogan for the product,

"Tom Tom." It presupposes that using the product provides a comforting and

calming sensation. The inscription is a marketing phrase aimed at influencing

buyers’ choices.

“Money is the root of all evils” appears to be a misquotation of a biblical verse.

The original quote is "For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil" (1

Timothy 6:10). This implicates that money is bad for people as it can make them to

perpetrate evil acts. The original verse emphasizes the love of money as the

problem, not money itself. This teaches people to be weary of pursing excess

money or not allowing the possession of money to influence their life’s choices

and pushing them into negative actions.

“Me I want money ooo” connotes the speaker needs money. The sentence

expresses the speaker's desire for money with an additional emphasis on the need

for money. The inscription presupposes that the speaker doesn’t have money at the

time of speaking; thus, the strong desire for money. The inscription also reflects a

strong focus on material wealth without providing any context or depth to the

motivations or values behind this desire.

“Love and money” This inscription seems to imply that love and money are related

or intertwined in some way. By social meaning, the sentence could be saying that

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loves goes with money as some Nigerians believe that there is no love without

financial backups. Perhaps, the more reason the musical icon, Davido sang that

“Love is sweet o…when money enter love is sweeter.” The inscription is a vague

statement that can have multiple meanings.

“Glo...with pride” appears to be a slogan for the telecommunication brand, Glo. Its

meaning implies that using or being associated with the brand evokes a sense of

pride. It can also mean for people to shine with pride. Whichever meaning, the

inscription is a marketing phrase aimed at influencing consumer choice.

“Pay your tax” is an imperative statement instructing someone to fulfill their tax

obligations. The inscription presupposes that some people have not paid their tax

and are encouraged to do so. It teaches the importance of meeting one's tax

responsibilities.

“Is it your money?” connotes a rhetorical question used to challenge someone's

involvement or opinion about the speaker's money. The reflected meaning could be

whether the speaker is spending someone else’s money that may warrant their

opinion or if it is someone’s money that the speaker used to purchase the T-shirt

he/she is wearing. The inscription presupposes that the speaker is spending some

money and someone is having an opinion about it. The question it may suggest

defensiveness or a desire to protect one's financial affairs.

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“5 Alive berry blast fruit drink” is an inscription that appears to be the name or

description of a specific fruit drink product called "5 Alive berry blast." The

referential meaning is the 5 Alive fruit juice product with varieties of tastes. The

inscription seems to be an advert aimed at drawing people’s attention to the

product.

“Dolce and Gabbana” refers to the fashion brand, Dolce & Gabbana. The

referential meaning lies in the fashion brand, Dolce & Gabbana. By extension, the

inscription may be an adverting strategy to draw fashion consumers’ attention to

the brand.

“Ribena blackcurrant” denotes a specific flavour or variant of the beverage brand,

Ribena, which features blackcurrant flavour. The inscription may presupposes that

Ribena has different flavours and blackcurrant is one of them. Again, the

inscription seems to be an advert aimed at influencing buyers’ choices.

“Drink milk every day. Peak” means that people should consume milk daily. It

gives a condition for the milk to be drank daily, which is Peak. The imperative

inscription is an advert for Peak Milk aimed at drawing buyers’ attention to the

dairy product.

“We found love” means that the speaker has found a partner in love. The

inscription presupposes that the T-shirt wearer was lacking love but he/she has

94
found one already. Such inscriptions are worn by couples or intending couples that

wear matching T-shirts as a way of announcing their new emotional status.

4.4. Semantic field of Politics

Political inscriptions in this group reflect the attitudes of the youth towards the

Nigerian political system. Some of the messages are skeptical of Nigeria’s

democracy; some contain outright condemnation of corruption in government.

However, while some T-shirt inscriptions mirror some sense of commitment and

dedication to some political ideals, others are merely criticizing. Examples of such

inscriptions are:

(i) Government must obey

(ii) Is this democracy?

(iii) Vote them out

(iv) The system is weak, we are the strong ones

(v) I want change

(vi) Rule of law

(vii) Kill corruption not Nigerians

(viii) Power for the people

(ix) We want free and fair election

(x) 2011 election will be credible

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 (xi) Divide the national Moi-Moi, share the national cake

(xii) I believe in democracy

(xiii) People oriented leadership

(xiv) Lawlessness and anarchy

(xv) President Jonathan leads

(xvi) EFCC I’M HERE

(xvii) Eko ooni baje oo

“Government must obey” connotes that the government has a responsibility to

adhere to rules, laws, and regulations of the state. The inscription presupposes that

government has not been obeying state laws. Thus, the writeup highlights the

importance of governmental accountability and adherence to the principles of good

governance.

“Is this democracy?” is a rhetorical question regarding the nature of the political

system in place. It suggests skepticism or doubt about whether the current situation

aligns with the principles and ideals of democracy. The semantic meaning here is

that it prompts critical examination and evaluation of the state of democracy.

“Vote them out” connotes an encouragement to vote or remove or replace current

political leaders or representatives. It presupposes dissatisfaction with the current

political officials and calls for a change through the electoral process. Such

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inscriptions emphasize the power of citizens to hold their elected officials

accountable.

“The system is weak, we are the strong ones” seems to suggest a perception of the

existing system as lacking strength or effectiveness. It implies that political power

lies with the people and that they possess the capability to bring about change or

improvements. The inscription teaches the importance of citizen empowerment and

activism.

“I want change” implies a desire for transformation or alteration from the current

state of affairs. It presupposes that the political system is not satisfactory leading to

discontent with the existing situation and a need for improvement. The inscription

reflects the yearning for progress and a call for reform.

“Rule of law” infers the principle that all individuals, including those in power,

should be subject to and abide by the law. Its meaning emphasizes the importance

of a legal framework that governs society – it underscores the significance of a just

and fair legal system.

“Kill corruption not Nigerians” is a call for action against corruption while

highlighting the need to protect innocent citizens. It emphasizes that the focus

should be on eradicating corruption rather than punishing or harming ordinary

people. The inscription presupposes that Nigerians have been killed in the past

97
instead of killing corruption. It also entails that corruption is a vice that should be

eradicated. The writeup encourages the need for targeted efforts against corruption

without causing harm to the general population.

“Power for the people” implies that power should reside with the citizens rather

than being concentrated in the hands of a few. It advocates for democratic

governance and empowerment of the people. It presupposes that power has not

been given to the people, thus, the inscription emphasizes the importance of

participatory and inclusive decision-making processes.

“We want free and fair elections” means that the speaker desires elections that are

conducted without bias, manipulation, or unfair practices. It presupposes that past

elections have not been free and fair. Thus, it expresses the importance of ensuring

a level playing field and equal opportunities for all candidates, and underscores the

need for transparent and accountable electoral processes.

“2011 election will be credible” references a specific election year (2011) and

suggests an expectation or hope that the election will be conducted in a trustworthy

and reliable manner. The inscription presupposes that elections prior to 2011 have

not been credible. Thus, it reflects the desire for electoral integrity and the belief in

the credibility of the electoral process.

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“Divide the national Moi-Moi, share the national cake” implies the idea of

equitable distribution of resources or benefits. It suggests that national resources

should be shared among all citizens, rather than being concentrated in the hands of

a few. The inscription highlights the importance of fair resource allocation and

socio-economic equality.

“I believe in democracy” connotes faith in democracy. It seems to express personal

support for the democratic system of governance. By extension, it implies a belief

in the principles of democracy, such as popular participation, representation, and

respect for individual rights. The inscription has a reflective meaning directed at a

positive stance towards democratic ideals.

“People-oriented leadership” refers to a style of leadership that prioritizes the

welfare, needs, and aspirations of the people. It implies a focus on serving the

interests of the citizens and promoting their well-being. The inscription is a

political slogan that highlights the importance of leadership that is responsive to

the concerns of the people. The writeup also presupposes that there is a less

people-oriented leadership too.

“Lawlessness and anarchy” implies a situation characterized by a lack of adherence

to laws and a breakdown of order. It suggests chaos, disorder, and the absence of a

functioning legal framework. The inscription uses entailment to draw the

99
connection between lawlessness and anarchy as it implies the negative

consequences of lawlessness and the need for a stable and lawful society.

“Jonathan we know” connotes that the speaker knows Jonathan. It is a reference to

Nigeria’s president Goodluck Jonathan. The speaker shows support or solidarity to

the person of Jonathan as the popular choice. It also presupposes that the speaker

does not support any other political candidate other than Jonathan.

“EFCC I’M HERE” implies that the speaker is available for the commission,

EFCC to interrogate him/her. It may also presuppose that the speaker is wanted by

the commission to answer to some allegations of financial mismanagement, and

he/she has announced their readiness and availability to engage the commission.

“Eko ooni baje oo” means that Lagos (Eko) will not go down or be destroyed. The

inscription carries a political connotation that Lagos is the pride of the Yoruba race

and nothing will bring it down.

From the above, T-shirt messages appear not particularly unique to fashion or T-

shirts. Many of the messages are familiar social slogans, clichés, and traditional

sayings. This suggests that the T-shirt designers and message writers might have

culled many of the messages from familiar sources like the Bible, famous quotes,

literary works, the mass media or the Internet. For example, ‘beauty is in the eyes

of the beholder,’ ‘capitalism,’ or ‘the Lord is my Shepherd,’ are certainly not

100
unique to T-shirts or fashion outlet and have been used in different types of

contexts. What T-shirt message writers have done is re-contextualize these

messages for their new audiences. The audience for the messages is everyone who

cares to read them and not just the person wearing the T-shirt. The political

messages are probably directed at public officeholders or some political groups.

4.5. Linguistic and Stylistic Features of T-shirt Inscriptions

T-shirt inscriptions may contain just one word with accompanying graphic art. But

the data for this study shows that the messages are mainly phrases and clauses (or

simple sentences). Slogans are often structured as noun phrases e.g. rule of law,

love and money, true African, Ribenna Blackcurrant, etc. Most of these fall under

the business category. This is to be expected because business and political

messages are often incisive and structured to persuade or influence. The religious

and social inscriptions are more explanatory, and frequently occur as simple

clauses or sentences. Religious messages, for instance, make claims and assertions

such as ‘Allah has set me free,’ or ‘I am God’s masterpiece’; hence they are bound

to be expressive and written as full sentences. Some of the inscriptions and

messages are verb phrases such as those that make imperative statements like ‘vote

them out ’or‘... divide the national cake’, etc. The least frequent sentence structures

are interrogatives. And when they are used, they are not addressed to anyone in

101
particular. They are more like rhetorical questions e.g. ‘Is it your money?’ ‘Is this

democracy?’. These questions carry reflective meanings and presuppose bitterness,

anger or frustration. In fact, ‘Is this your money’ carries a social meaning of an

emerging discursive resistance to political corruption in Nigeria among the youth;

that is the question actually addresses politicians who have often been accused of

looting the national treasury.

The inscriptions used in this research shows that declarative statements occur more

frequently in than imperative and interrogative statements. This implies that the T-

shirt wearers (like producers of graffiti) have a strong need to express themselves

aggressively or powerfully, and find in the T-shirt the medium to do so.

Since the language of the T-shirts is English, ‘loan words’ that is ‘words other than

English’ are common with T-shirt inscriptions. They occur in T-shirt messages to

express words or ideas that lack English, like proper names such as names for God

or a deity, e.g. ‘Allah,’ ‘Sango’; names of individuals e.g. ‘David Oyedepo’;

names of ethnic groups, e.g. ‘Yoruba’, ‘Igbo;’ and the name of a local food, e.g.

‘moi-moi.’ All these give the messages a contextual and cultural meaning. It also

shows that not all of the T-shirts were produced abroad and imported to Africa.

Nigerian Pidgin English features in T-shirt inscriptions. Due to the important role

of Pidgin English in bridging language gaps among the various ethnic groups in

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Nigeria, it is not surprising that some T-shirt inscriptions appear in the Nigerian

Pidgin. Some examples from the data are:

(i) You too dey bless me oo (You too bless me)

(ii) reduce my wahala (reduce my trouble)

(iii) Me I want money ooo

(iv) U know say money no be problem (you know money is not the

problem)

(v) Me and you no dey for the same category (You and I are not in the

same social category)

The style of T-shirt inscriptions is somewhat similar to the language style of

Computer- Mediated Communication (CMC), which according to Crystal (2011)

combines features of speech exchange and written communication. For instance,

some of the words and constructions are characteristic of short forms (e.g. ‘Ama

rep Nokia’ or ‘U know say...’); numeric figures (e.g. ‘5 Alive berry...’, or

‘1cross+2nails = 4given’) as well as correct simple sentences. Some of the

messages are slang (e.g. ‘I got Jesus swag’). An interesting equation of the

Christian ‘salvation message’ is given as ‘1 cross (one cross) + 2 nails (the two

nails of Christ in his crucifixion) = 4given (equals forgiven, i.e. the crucifixion of

Jesus Christ secures forgiveness). This is the type of linguistic creativity that is

common on Facebook, Twitter, in text messages and in online communication.

103
Again, this is not surprising, since the creative use of language in CMC and that of

fashion discourse (e.g. T-shirt inscriptions) are associated with the same people

(i.e. the youth).

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 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary of Findings

This research on the semantics of T-shirt inscriptions has discussed the meanings

that go with different T-shirt inscriptions worn by people in Abuja. The study

aimed to achieve three objectives such as examining the various meanings that go

with T-shirt inscriptions, discussing the linguistic features of T-shirt inscriptions

and describing the stylistic characteristics of T-shirt inscriptions. Using secondary

data, the study was able to achieve the objectives it set out to do.

The work is divided into five chapters with the first chapter providing a general

background to the study while chapter two reviews literatures on semantics. The

third chapter provides the research methodology and chapter four discussed the

data for the study. The final chapter summarizes the findings and concludes the

study while drawing recommendations.

From the discussion on the semantics of T-shirt inscriptions, the following findings

are made:

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i. On the semantic level, T-shirt inscriptions contain various semantic

meanings like connotative, affective and social/stylistic meaning.

ii. T-shirt inscriptions may contain just one word with accompanying graphic

art. But the data for this study shows that the messages are mainly phrases

and clauses (or simple sentences). e.g. rule of law, love and money, true

African, etc.

iii. Political inscriptions convey multiple meanings and are ambiguous.

iv. The religious and social inscriptions are more explanatory, and frequently

occur as simple clauses or sentences e.g. ‘Allah has set me free’ or ‘I am

God’s masterpiece.’

v. Some of the inscriptions are verb phrases such as those that make imperative

statements like ‘vote them out,’ etc.

vi. There are also inscriptions that are interrogatives or pose rhetorical questions

for critical thinking e.g. Is it your money? And when they are used, they are

not addressed to anyone in particular.

vii. The inscriptions used in this research shows that declarative statements

occur more frequently than imperative and interrogative statements. This

implies that the T-shirt wearers have a strong need to express themselves

aggressively or powerfully.

106
viii. Loan words are common with T-shirt inscriptions e.g. ‘Allah,’ ‘Sango’;

‘moi-moi’ etc.

ix. Nigerian Pidgin English features in T-shirt inscriptions e.g. Me I want

money ooo.

x. The style of T-shirt inscriptions is somewhat similar to the language style of

Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) i.e. the use of numeric figures

(e.g. ‘5 Alive berry...’, or ‘1cross+2nails = 4given’)

5.2 Conclusion

Since the wearing of T-Shirts with inscriptions serves various purposes in human

communication, it is clear from this research that inscriptions of T-shirts are

generally informative, expressive and instructive. Emphasis should be made for

more production and wide usage by people. Also, producers of such T-Shirts are

advised to produce them using high quality materials to ensure durability.

5.3 Recommendations

This research examined the semantics of T-shirt inscriptions, other fields like

pragmatic, discourse, stylistics and grammar should be applied to the analysis of T-

shirt inscriptions for a holistic understanding of the subject matter.

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Parents, teachers and regulated bodies should also monitor the wearing of T-Shirts

with inscriptions used by people especially students if they express outrageous or

senseless inscriptions like ‘I’m gay’ or messages that can promote violence among

the youths. Lastly, a regulated body should be instituted by the government to

ensure production of high-quality T-Shirt inscriptions for people not to be done by

non-experts but professionals in that field.

5.4 Contribution to Knowledge

Previous studies on T-shirt inscriptions focused on the graphology and stylistics of

the insignia. This research adds to the existing body of knowledge by examining T-

shirt inscriptions from the perspective of semantics, thereby contributing to the

literature. Also, the findings from this research will serve as foundation for further

studies into the study of semantics of T-shirt inscriptions.

108
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 APPENDIX

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Message: ‘I’m tired of being told what to think.’

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Message: ‘we found love.’

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