First Indochina War

Ed. Oğuzhan Yılmaz

Contents

1 French Indochina 1
1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 First French interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Vietnamese rebellions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.5 Franco-Siamese war (1893) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.6 Further encroachments on Siam (1904–07) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.7 Yên Bái mutiny (1930) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.8 French-Thai War (1940–41) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.9 World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.10 First Indochina War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.11 Geneva Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Viet Minh 10
2.1 World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 First Indochina War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 North Vietnam and the end of the Việt Minh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Khmer Việt Minh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 First Indochina War 13

3.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.1.1 Japanese forces surrender (August 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

i
ii CONTENTS

3.2 Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.1 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.2 1947 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.3 1948 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.4 1949 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.5 1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.6 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.7 1952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2.8 1953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.9 1954 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 Ethnic minorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Geneva Conference and Partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.5 Ho Chi Minh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.6 French domestic situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.7 War crimes and re-education camps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.8 French Union involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.9 Foreign involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.9.1 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.9.2 Soviet Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.9.3 Japanese volunteers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.9.4 USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.10 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.12 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4 Geneva Conference (1954) 33

4.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.1.1 Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.1.2 Indochina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2 On the Korean question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3 On Indochina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4 Geneva Accords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.5 Reactions to the Geneva Accords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.6 Post declaration events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

5 Operation Passage to Freedom 41

CONTENTS iii

5.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.2 Evacuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.3 Propaganda campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.4 Communist prevention of emigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.5 Media and public relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.6 Social integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.7 Di culties and criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

6 Ho Chi Minh 54
6.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.1.1 First sojourn in France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.1.2 In the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.1.3 In the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.2 Political education in France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.3 In the Soviet Union and China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.4 Independence movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.4.1 Birth of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.5 Becoming president and Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.6 Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.7 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.8 Legacy and personality cult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

7 French Union 67
7.1 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.3 Withdrawals from the French Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.7.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.7.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.7.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Chapter 1
French Indochina
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shown only in preview).
French Indochina (previously spelled as French
Indochina in 1891 (from Le Monde illustré).
1. Panorama of Lac-Kaï.
2. Yun-nan, in the quay of Hanoi.
3. Flooded street of Hanoi.
4. Landing stage of Hanoi
France–Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th cen-
Indo-China)* [1] (French: Indochine française; Khmer: tury with the mission of the Jesuit missionary Alexandre
1
សហាពឥណឌូចិន; Vietnamese: Đông Dương thuộc
Pháp, pronounced [ɗoŋm zɰəŋ tʰuə̀ k fǎp], frequently
abbreviated to Đông Pháp; Lao: ຝຣັ່ງແຫຼັມອິນດູຈີນ;
Cantonese: 法 屬 印 度 支 那; faat3 suk6 jan3 dou6
zi1 naa5 ), o cially known as the Indochinese Union
(Union indochinoise)* [2] after 1887 and the Indochinese
Federation (Fédération indochinoise) after 1947, was a
grouping of French colonial territories in Southeast Asia.
A grouping of the three Vietnamese regions of Tonkin
(north), Annam (centre), and Cochinchina (south) with
Cambodia was formed in 1887. Laos was added in
1893 and the leased Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan
in 1898. The capital was moved from Saigon (in
Cochinchina) to Hanoi (Tonkin) in 1902 and again to
Da Lat (Annam) in 1939. In 1945 it was moved back
to Hanoi.
After the Fall of France during World War II, the colony
was administered by the Vichy government and was un-
der Japanese occupation until March 1945, when the
Japanese overthrew the colonial regime. Beginning in
May 1941, the Viet Minh, a communist army led by Hồ
Chí Minh, began a revolt against the Japanese. In Au-
gust 1945 they declared Vietnamese independence and
extended the war, known as the First Indochina War,
against France.
In Saigon, the anti-Communist State of Vietnam, led by
former Emperor Bảo Đại, was granted independence in
1949. On 9 November 1953, the Kingdom of Laos and
the Kingdom of Cambodia became independent. Follow-
ing the Geneva Accord of 1954, the French evacuated
Vietnam and French Indochina came to an end.
1.1 History
1.1.1 First French interventions
Main articles: France–Vietnam relations and French
assistance to Nguyễn Ánh
2 CHAPTER 1. FRENCH INDOCHINA

de Rhodes. At this time, Vietnam was only just begin- fended city of Saigon on 18 February 1859. On 13 April
ning to occupy the Mekong Delta, former territory of the 1862, the Vietnamese government was forced to cede the
Indianised kingdom of Champa which they had defeated three provinces of Biên Hòa, Gia Định and Định Tường
in 1471.* [3] to France. De Genouilly was criticised for his actions and
European involvement in Vietnam was con ned to trade was replaced by Admiral Page in November 1859, with
during the 18th century. In 1787, Pierre Pigneau de Be- instructions to obtain a treaty protecting the Catholic
*
faith
haine, a French Catholic priest, petitioned the French in Vietnam, but refrain from territorial gains. [4]
government and organised French military volunteers to French policy four years later saw a reversal, with the
aid Nguyễn Ánh in retaking lands his family lost to the French continuing to accumulate territory. In 1862,
Tây Sơn. Pigneau died in Vietnam but his troops fought France obtained concessions from Emperor Tự Đức, ced-
on until 1802 in the French assistance to Nguyễn Ánh. ing three treaty ports in Annam and Tonkin, and all of
Cochinchina, the latter being formally declared a French
territory in 1864. In 1867 the provinces of Châu Đốc,
1.1.2 19th century Hà Tiên and Vĩnh Long were added to French-controlled
territory.
Main article: Cochinchina Campaign
See also: French Cochinchina and French protectorate In 1863, the Cambodian king Norodom had requested the
of Cambodia establishment of a French protectorate over his country.
In 1867, Siam (modern Thailand) renounced suzerainty
over Cambodia and o cially recognised the 1863 French
France was heavily involved in Vietnam in the 19th cen- protectorate on Cambodia, in exchange for the control of
tury; protecting the work of the Paris Foreign Missions Battambang and Siem Reap provinces which o cially be-
Society in the country was often presented as a justi - came part of Thailand. (These provinces would be ceded
cation. For its part, the Nguyễndynasty increasingly saw back to Cambodia by a border treaty between France and
Catholic missionaries as a political threat; courtesans, for Siam in 1906).
example, an in uential faction in the dynastic system,
feared for their status in a society in uenced by an in-
sistence on monogamy. 1.1.3 Establishment
In 1858, the brief period of uni cation under the Nguyễn
dynasty ended with a successful attack on Da Nang by
French Admiral Charles Rigault de Genouilly under the
orders of Napoleon III. Diplomat Charles de Montigny's
mission having failed, Genouilly's mission was to stop at-
tempts to expel Catholic missionaries. His orders were to
stop the persecution of missionaries and assure the unim-
peded propagation of the faith.* [4]

Palace of the Governor-General (Norodom Palace) in Saigon,

about 1875

In September 1858, fourteen French gunships, 3,000 men
and 300 Filipino troops provided by the Spanish* [5] at-
tacked the port of Tourane (present day Da Nang), caus-
ing signi cant damage and occupying the city. After a
few months, Rigault had to leave the city due to supply
issues and illnesses.* [4]
Sailing south, de Genouilly then captured the poorly de-
French marine infantrymen in Tonkin, 1884
Main article: Tonkin campaign
See also: Annam (French protectorate), Tonkin
(French protectorate), French protectorate of Laos, and
Guangzhouwan
1.1. HISTORY
The expansion of French Indochina (blue).
France obtained control over northern Vietnam following
its victory over China in the Sino-French War (1884–85).
French Indochina was formed on 17 October 1887 from 1.1.6 Further encroachments on Siam
Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina (which together form mod-
ern Vietnam) and the Kingdom of Cambodia; Laos was
added after the Franco-Siamese War in 1893.
The federation lasted until 21 July 1954. In the four
protectorates, the French formally left the local rulers in
power, who were the Emperors of Vietnam, Kings of
Cambodia, and Kings of Luang Prabang, but in fact gath-
ered all powers in their hands, the local rulers acting only
as gureheads.
1.1.4 Vietnamese rebellions
French troops landed in Vietnam in 1858 and by the mid-
1880s they had established a rm grip over the northern
region. From 1885 to 1895, Phan Đình Phùng led a re-
bellion against the colonising power. Nationalist senti-
ments intensi ed in Vietnam, especially during and after
World War I, but all the uprisings and tentative e orts
failed to obtain any concessions from the French over-
seers.
3
1.1.5 Franco-Siamese war (1893)
Main article: Franco-Siamese War
Territorial con ict in the Indochinese peninsula for the
Siamese army in the disputed territory of Laos in 1893.
expansion of French Indochina led to the Franco-Siamese
War of 1893. In 1893 the French authorities in Indochina
used border disputes, followed by the Paknam naval inci-
dent, to provoke a crisis. French gunboats appeared at
Bangkok, and demanded the cession of Lao territories
east of the Mekong River.
King Chulalongkorn appealed to the British, but the
British minister told the King to settle on whatever
terms he could get, and he had no choice but to com-
ply. Britain's only gesture was an agreement with France
guaranteeing the integrity of the rest of Siam. In ex-
change, Siam had to give up its claim to the Thai-speaking
Shanregion of north-eastern Burma to the British, and
cede Laos to France.
(1904–07)
The French, however, continued to pressure Siam, and
in 1906–07 they manufactured another crisis . This time
Siam had to concede French control of territory on the
west bank of the Mekong opposite Luang Prabang and
around Champasak in southern Laos, as well as west-
ern Cambodia. France also occupied the western part of
Chantaburi.
In 1904, to get back Chantaburi Siam had to give Trat to
French Indochina. Trat became part of Thailand again
on 23 March 1907 in exchange for many areas east of the
Mekong like Battambang, Siam Nakhon and Sisophon.
In the 1930s, Siam engaged France in a series of talks
concerning the repatriation of Siamese provinces held by
the French. In 1938, under the Front Populaire adminis-
tration in Paris, France had agreed to repatriate Angkor
Wat, Angkor Thom, Siem Reap, Siem Pang and the as-
sociated provinces (approximately 13) to Siam. Mean-
while, Siam took over control of those areas, in antic-
ipation of the upcoming treaty. Signatories from each
4 CHAPTER 1. FRENCH INDOCHINA

country were dispatched to Tokyo to sign the treaty repa-

triating the lost provinces.

1.1.7 Yên Bái mutiny (1930)

Further information: Yên Bái mutiny

On 10 February 1930, there was an uprising by Viet-

namese soldiers in the French colonial army's Yên Bái
garrison. The Yên Báimutiny was sponsored by the Việt
Nam ốc Dân Đảng (VNQDĐ). The VNQDĐ was the
Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The attack was the largest
disturbance brewed up by the Cần Vương monarchist
restoration movement of the late 19th century.
The aim of the revolt was to inspire a wider uprising
among the general populace in an attempt to overthrow
the colonial authority. The VNQDĐ had previously at-
tempted to engage in clandestine activities to undermine
French rule, but increasing French scrutiny of their activ-
ities led to their leadership group taking the risk of stag-
ing a large scale military attack in the Red River Delta in
northern Vietnam.

Occupation of Trat by French troops in 1904. 1.1.8 French-Thai War (1940–41)

Main article: Franco-Thai War

During World War II, Thailand took the opportunity of

French weaknesses to reclaim previously lost territories,
resulting in the Franco-Thai War between October 1940
and 9 May 1941. The Thai forces generally did well on
the ground, but Thai objectives in the war were limited.
In January, Vichy French naval forces decisively defeated
Thai naval forces in the Battle of Ko Chang. The war
ended in May at the instigation of the Japanese, with the
French forced to concede territorial gains for Thailand.

1.1.9 World War II

Main articles: French Indochina in World War II and

1940–46 in the Vietnam War
In September 1940, during World War II, the newly cre-
ated regime of Vichy France granted Japan's demands for
military access to Tonkin following the Japanese occupa-
tion of French Indochina, which lasted until the end of the
Paci c War. This allowed Japan better access to China
in the Second Sino-Japanese War against the forces of
Chiang Kai-shek, but it was also part of Japan's strategy
for dominion over the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
Sphere.
French Indochina in 1930.
Thailand took this opportunity of weakness to reclaim
previously lost territories, resulting in the Franco-Thai
War between October 1940 and 9 May 1941.
1.1. HISTORY 5

shek if he wanted Indochina, to which Chiang Kai-shek

replied: “Under no circumstances!"* [6]

Members of the 1st Foreign Parachute Heavy Mortar Company

during the Indochina War.

After the war, 200,000 Chinese troops under General

Lu Han sent by Chiang Kai-shek invaded northern In-
dochina north of the 16th parallel to accept the surren-
der of Japanese occupying forces, and remained there
until 1946.* [7] The Chinese used the VNQDĐ, the Viet-
namese branch of the Chinese Kuomintang, to increase
their in uence in Indochina and put pressure on their op-
ponents.* [8]
Chiang Kai-shek threatened the French with war in re-
A propaganda painting in Hanoi, 1942.
sponse to manoeuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh
against each other, forcing them to come to a peace
On 9 March 1945, with France liberated, Germany in agreement, and in February 1946 he also forced the
retreat, and the United States ascendant in the Paci c, French to surrender all of their concessions in China
Japan decided to take complete control of Indochina. and renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange
On 8 April, the Japanese pressured Lao Crown Prince for withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing
Sisavang Vatthana to declare the independence of Laos, French troops to reoccupy the region starting in March
then launched the Second French Indochina Campaign. 1946.* [9]* [10]* [11]* [12]
The Japanese kept power in Indochina until the news of After persuading Emperor Bảo Đại to abdicate in his
their government's surrender came through in August. favour, on 2 September 1945 President Ho Chi Minh
declared independence for the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam. But before September's end, a force of British
1.1.10 First Indochina War and Free French soldiers, along with captured Japanese
troops, restored French control. Bitter ghting ensued
Main article: First Indochina War in the First Indochina War. In 1950 Ho again declared
an independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam, which
After the World War, France petitioned for the nulli ca- was recognised by the fellow Communist governments
tion of the 1938 Franco-Siamese Treaty and attempted of China and the Soviet Union. Fighting lasted until
to reassert itself in the region, but came into con ict May 1954, when the Viet Minh won the decisive victory
with the Viet Minh, a coalition of Communist and Viet- against French forces at the gruelling Battle of Điện Biên
namese nationalists led by Hồ Chí Minh, founder of the Phủ.
Indochinese Communist Party. During World War II, the
United States had supported the Viet Minh in resistance
1.1.11 Geneva Agreements
against the Japanese; the group had been in control of the
countryside since the French gave way in March 1945. On 27 April 1954, the Geneva Conference produced the
American President Roosevelt and General Stilwell pri- Geneva Agreements between North Vietnam and France.
vately made it adamantly clear that the French were not Provisions included supporting the territorial integrity
to reacquire French Indochina after the war was over. He and sovereignty of Indochina, granting it independence
told Secretary of State Cordell Hull the Indochinese were from France, declaring the cessation of hostilities and
worse o under the French rule of nearly 100 years than foreign involvement in internal Indochina a airs, and de-
they were at the beginning. Roosevelt asked Chiang Kai- lineating northern and southern zones into which oppos-
6 CHAPTER 1. FRENCH INDOCHINA

ral in a 1913 estimate, although urbanisation did slowly

grow over the course of French rule.* [13]
The principal religion in French Indochina was
Buddhism, with MahayanaBuddhism in uenced by
Confucianism more dominant in Vietnam, while
TheravādaBuddhism was more widespread in Laos and
Cambodia. In addition, active Catholic missionaries
were widespread throughout Indochina and roughly 10%
of Tonkin's population identi ed as Catholic by the end
of French rule. Cao Đài's origins began during this
period as well.

Indochina in 1954.

ing troops were to withdraw. The Agreements mandated

uni cation on the basis of internationally supervised free
elections to be held in July 1956.* [3]
It was at this conference that France relinquished any
claim to territory in the Indochinese peninsula. The
United States and South Vietnam rejected the Geneva
Accords and never signed. South Vietnamese leader
Diem rejected the idea of nationwide election as pro-
posed in the agreement, saying that a free election was im-
possible in the communist North and that his government
was not bound by the Geneva Accords. France did with-
draw, turning the north over to the Communists while the
Bảo Đại regime, with American support, kept control of
the South.
The events of 1954 marked the beginnings of serious
United States involvement in Vietnam and the ensuing The subdivisions of French Indochina.
Vietnam War. Laos and Cambodia also became inde-
pendent in 1954, but were both drawn into the Vietnam
Unlike Algeria, French settlement in Indochina did not
War.
occur at a grand scale. By 1940, only about 34,000
French civilians lived in French Indochina, along with a
smaller number of French military personnel and govern-
1.2 Population ment workers. The principal reasons why French settle-
ment did not grow in a manner similar to that in French
The Vietnamese, Lao and Khmer ethnic groups formed North Africa (which had a population of over 1 mil-
the majority of their respective colony's populations. Mi- lion French civilians) were because French Indochina was
nority groups such as the Muong, Tay, Chams, and Jarai, seen as a colonie d'exploitation économique (economic
were collectively known as Montagnards and resided colony) rather than a colonie de peuplement (settlement
principally in the mountain regions of Indochina. Ethnic colony helping Metropolitan France from being overpop-
Han Chinese were largely concentrated in major cities, ulated), and because Indochina was distant from France
especially in Southern Vietnam and Cambodia, where itself.
they became heavily involved in trade and commerce. During French colonial rule, the French language was
Around 95% of French Indochina's population was ru- the principal language of education, government, trade,
1.3. ECONOMY 7

and media and French was widely introduced to the gen- resulted in an increase in investment in the colony by var-
eral population. French became widespread among ur- ious rms such as Michelin. With the growing number
ban and semi-urban populations and became the principal of investments in the colony's mines and rubber, tea and
language of the elite and educated. This was most notable co ee plantations, French Indochina began to industri-
in the colonies of Tonkin and Cochinchina (Northern and alise as factories opened in the colony. These new facto-
Southern Vietnam respectively), where French in uence ries produced textiles, cigarettes, beer and cement which
was most heavy, while Annam, Laos and Cambodia were were then exported throughout the French Empire.
less in uenced by French education.* [14]
Despite the dominance of the French language, local pop-
ulations still largely spoke their native languages. Af- 1.3.1 Infrastructure
ter French rule ended, the French language was still
largely used among the new governments (with the ex-
ception of North Vietnam) but since then English, in-
creasingly taught in schools across the country, has mas-
sively replaced French as the second language. Today,
less than 0.5% of the population of Vietnam can speak
French.* [14]

1.3 Economy
French Indochina was designated as a colonie
d'exploitation (colony of economic exploitation) by
the French government. Funding for the colonial Paul Doumer Bridge, now Long BiênBridge
government came by means of taxes on locals and the
French government established a near monopoly on
the trade of opium, salt and rice alcohol. The French
administration established quotas of consumption for
each Vietnamese village, thereby compelling villagers
to purchase and consume set amounts of monopolised
goods, including alcohol and opium.* [15] The trade of
those three products formed about 44% of the colonial
government's budget in 1920 but declined to 20% by
1930 as the colony began to economically diversify.
The colony's principal bank was the Banque de
l'Indochine, established in 1875 and was responsible for
minting the colony's currency, the Indochinese piastre.
Indochina was the second most invested-in French colony
by 1940 after Algeria, with investments totalling up to 6.7 Musée Louis Finot in Hanoi, built by Ernest Hébrard in 1932,
million francs. now National Museum of Vietnamese History
Beginning in the 1930s, France began to exploit the re-
gion for its natural resources and to economically diver- When French Indochina was viewed as an economically
sify the colony. Cochinchina, Annam and Tonkin (en- important colony for France, the French government set
compassing modern-day Vietnam) became a source of a goal to improve the transport and communications net-
tea, rice, co ee, pepper, coal, zinc and tin, while Cambo-works in the colony. Saigon became a principal port
dia became a centre for rice and pepper crops. Only Laos in Southeast Asia and rivalled the British port of Singa-
was seen initially as an economically unviable colony, al-pore as the region's busiest commercial centre. By 1937
though timber was harvested at a small scale from there. Saigon was the sixth busiest port in the entire French Em-
At the turn of the 20th century, the growing automo- pire.
bile industry in France resulted in the growth of the In 1936, the Trans-Indochinoisrailway linking Hanoi and
rubber industry in French Indochina, and plantations Saigon opened. Further improvements in the colony's
were built throughout the colony, especially in Annam transport infrastructures led to easier travel between
and Cochinchina. France soon became a leading pro- France and Indochina. By 1939, it took no more than
ducer of rubber through its Indochina colony and Indochi- a month by ship to travel from Marseille to Saigon and
nese rubber became prized in the industrialised world. around ve days by aeroplane from Paris to Saigon. Un-
The success of rubber plantations in French Indochina derwater telegraph cables were installed in 1921.
8 CHAPTER 1. FRENCH INDOCHINA
French settlers further added their in uence on the colony [11] Elizabeth Jane Errington (1990). The Vietnam War as his-
by constructing buildings in the form of Beaux-Arts and
added French-in uenced landmarks such as the Hanoi
Opera House and Saigon Notre-Dame Basilica. The
French colonists also built a number of cities and towns
[12] “The Vietnam War Seeds of Con ict 1945–1960”. The
in Indochina which served various purposes from trad-
ing outposts to resort towns. The most notable examples
include Đà Lạt in southern Vietnam and Pakse in Laos. [13] Le Vietnam compte à lui seul cinquante quatre ethnies,
1.4 See also
• East Indies
• French protectorate of Laos
• List of Governors-General of French Indochina
• Political administration of French Indochina
• List of French possessions and colonies
1.5 Notes
[1] While both 'Indo-China' and 'Indochina' can be found
in contemporary English-language sources, 'Indo-China'
is the most commonly used spelling (even though
'Indochine', instead of 'Indo-Chine', was commonly used
in French); contemporary o cial publications also adopt
the spelling of 'Indo-China'.
[2] Decree of 17 October 1887.
[3] Kahin, George McTurnin; Lewis, John W. (1967). The
United States in Vietnam: An analysis in depth of the his-
tory of America's involvement in Vietnam. Delta Books.
[4] Tucker, Spencer C. (1999). Vietnam (Google Books).
University Press of Kentucky. p. 29. ISBN 0-8131-0966-
3.
[5] Chapuis, Oscar (1995). A History of Vietnam: From Hong
Bang to Tu Duc (Google Books). Greenwood Publishing
Group. p. 195. ISBN 0-313-29622-7.
[6] Barbara Wertheim Tuchman (1985). The march of folly:
from Troy to Vietnam. Random House. p. 235. ISBN
0-345-30823-9. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
[7] Larry H. Addington (2000). America's war in Vietnam: a
short narrative history. Indiana University Press. p. 30.
ISBN 0-253-21360-6. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
[8] Peter Neville (2007). Britain in Vietnam: prelude to dis-
aster, 1945–6. Psychology Press. p. 119. ISBN 0-415-
35848-5. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
[9] Van Nguyen Duong (2008). The tragedy of the Vietnam
War: a South Vietnamese o cer's analysis. McFarland. p.
21. ISBN 0-7864-3285-3. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
[10] Stein Tffinnesson (2010). Vietnam 1946: how the war be-
gan. University of California Press. p. 41. ISBN 0-520-
25602-6. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
tory: edited by Elizabeth Jane Errington and B.J.C. McK-
ercher. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 63. ISBN 0-
275-93560-4. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
History Place. 1999. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
présentées au Musée Ethnographique de Hanoi.
[14] Approximately 100,000 people.
“Vietnam”.
L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde (in French).
[15] Peters, Erica (2012). Appetites and Aspirations in Viet-
nam. AltaMira Press.
1.6 References
• Brocheux, Pierre, and Daniel Hemery. Indochina:
An Ambiguous Colonization, 1858–1954 (University
of California Press; 2010) 490 pages; a history of
French Indochina.
• Chandler, David (2007). A History of Cambodia
(4th ed.). Boulder, Colorado:: Westview Press.
ISBN 0-8133-4363-1.
• Duiker, William (1976). The Rise of Nationalism
in Vietnam, 1900-1941. Ithaca, New York: Cornell
University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0951-9.
• Edwards, Penny (2007). Cambodge: The Cultivation
of a Nation, 1860–1945. Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2923-9.
• Evans, Grant (2002). A Short History of Laos.
Crow's Nest, Australia: Allen and Unwin. ASIN
B000MBU21O.
• Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2012). Vietnam
Past and Present: The North (History of French
colonialism in Tonkin). Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti
Books. ASIN B006DCCM9Q.
• Marr, David (1971). Vietnamese Anticolonialism,
1885–1925. Berkeley: University of California
Press. ISBN 0-520-01813-3.
• Marr, David (1982). Vietnamese Tradition on Trial,
1920–1945. Berkeley: University of California
Press. ISBN 0-520-04180-1.
• Marr, David (1995). Vietnam 1945: The Quest for
Power. Berkeley: University of California Press.
ISBN 0-520-07833-0.
• McLeod, Mark (1991). The Vietnamese Response
to French Intervention, 1862–1874. New York:
Praeger. ISBN 0-275-93562-0.
1.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 9

• Murray, Martin J. (1980). The Development of Cap-

italism in Colonial Indochina (1870–1940). Berke-
ley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-
04000-7.
• Osborne, Milton (1969). The French Presence in
Cochinchina and Cambodia: Rule and Response
(1859–1905). Ithaca, New York: Cornell Univer-
sity Press. ASIN B000K13QGO.
• Perkins, Mandaley (2006). Hanoi, Adieu: A bitter-
sweet memoir of French Indochina. Sydney: Harper
Perennial. ISBN 978-0-7322-8197-7.

• Stuart-Fox, Martin (1997). A History of Laos.

Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-59235-6.

• Tarling, Nicholas (2001). Imperialism in Southeast

Asia: “A Fleeting, Passing Phase”. London and
New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23289-9.
• Tully, John (2003). France on the Mekong: A His-
tory of the Protectorate in Cambodia, 1863–1953.
Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America.
ISBN 0-7618-2431-6.
• Woodside, Alexander (1976). Community and Rev-
olution in Modern Vietnam. Boston: Houghton Mif-
in. ISBN 0-395-20367-8.

• Zinoman, Peter (2001). The Colonial Bastille: A

History of Imprisonment in Vietnam, 1862–1940.
Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-
520-22412-4.

1.7 External links

• (English) (French) The Colonization of Indochina,
from around 1892

• (English) (French) Indochina, a tourism book pub-

lished in 1910

Coordinates: 21°02′00″N 105°51′00″E / 21.0333°N

105.8500°E
Chapter 2

Viet Minh

campaign against the Japanese. As of the end of 1944, the

Việt Minh claimed a membership of 500,000, of which
200,000 were in Tonkin, 150,000 in Annam, and 150,000
in Cochinchina. Due to their opposition to the Japanese,
the Việt Minh received funding from the United States,
the Soviet Union and the Republic of China . When Japan
surrendered in August 1945, the Japanese handed over
control of some public buildings and weapons requisi-
tioned from the French army to the Việt Minh, now led by
Hồ Chí Minh, after turning in the Vietnamese nationalist
leaders of the Việt Minh to the French colonialists. The
Việt Minh also recruited more than 600 of the Japanese
soldiers, who fought in the war against France until 1954.
The Vi t Minh ag.
After the nationalist organizations proclaimed the inde-
pendence of Việt Nam, Hồ proclaimed the Democratic
Việt Minh (Vietnamese: [vìəˀt mɨn]; abbreviated from Republic of Vietnam on September 2, 1945.
Vi t Nam вộc Lập вồng Minh Hội, English “League
for the Independence of Vietnam”) was a national
independence coalition formed at Pác Bó on May 19,
1941. The Vi t Nam вộc Lập вồng Minh Hội had previ- 2.2 First Indochina War
ously formed in Nanjing, China, at some point between
August 1935 and early 1936 when the non-communist Main articles: War in Vietnam (1945–46) and First
Vietnamese Nationalist or other Vietnamese national- Indochina War
ist parties formed an anti-imperialist united front. This
organization soon lapsed into inactivity, only to be re-
However, within days, the Chinese Kuomintang (Nation-
vived by the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP) and
alist) Army arrived in Vietnam to supervise the repatria-
Hồ Chí Minh in 1941.* [1] The Việt Minh established it-
tion of the Japanese Imperial Army. The Democratic Re-
self as the only organized anti-French and anti-Japanese
public of Vietnam therefore existed only in theory and ef-
resistance group.* [2] The Việt Minh initially formed to
fectively controlled no territory. A few months later, the
seek independence for Vietnam from the French Em-
Chinese, Vietnamese and French came to a three-way un-
pire. The United States supported France. When the
derstanding. The French gave up certain rights in China,
Japanese occupation began, the Việt Minh opposed Japan
the Việt Minh agreed to the return of the French in ex-
with support from the United States and the Republic of
change for promises of independence within the French
China. After World War II, the Việt Minh opposed the
Union, and the Chinese agreed to leave. Negotiations
re-occupation of Vietnam by France and later opposed
between the French and Việt Minh broke down quickly.
South Vietnam and the United States in the Vietnam War.
What followed was nearly ten years of war against France.
This was known as the First Indochina War or, to the
Vietnamese, the French War.
2.1 World War II
The Việt Minh, who were short on modern military
knowledge, created a military school in Quảng Ngãi
See also: French Indochina in World War II, Japanese Province in June 1946. More than 400 Vietnamese were
coup d'état in French Indochina, and August Revolution trained by Japanese defectors in this school. These sol-
diers were considered to be students of the Japanese.
During World War II, Japan occupied French Indochina. Later, some of them fought as generals against the United
As well as ghting the French, the Việt Minh started a States in the Vietnam War or, to the Vietnamese, the

10
2.4. KHMER VI T MINH 11

American War. and declare himself the president of the Republic of Viet-
French General Jean-Étienne Valluy quickly pushed the nam.
Việt Minh out of Hanoi. His French infantry with ar- When the elections failed to occur, Việt Minh cadres
mored units went through Hanoi, ghting small battles who stayed behind in South Vietnam were activated and
against isolated Việt Minh groups. The French encircled started to ght the government. North Vietnam also oc-
the Việt Minh base, Việt Bắc, in 1947, but failed to defeat cupied portions of Laos to assist in supplying the National
the Việt Minh forces, and had to retreat soon after. The Liberation Front (Viet Cong) in South Vietnam. The war
campaign is now widely considered a Việt Minh victory gradually escalated into the Second Indochina War, more
over the well-equipped French force. commonly known as the“Vietnam War”in the West and
The Việt Minh continued ghting against the French until the “American War”in Vietnam.
1949, when the border of China and Vietnam was linked
together as a result of the campaign called Chiến dịch Biên
giới (“Borderland Campaign”). The newly communist 2.4 Khmer Việt Minh
People's Republic of China gave the Việt Minh both shel-
tered bases and heavy weapons with which to ght the The Khmer Việt Minh were the 3,000 to 5,000
French. With the additional weapons, the Việt Minh were Cambodian communist cadres, left-wing members of the
able to take control over many rural areas of the coun- Khmer Issarak movement regrouped in the United Is-
try. Soon after that, they began to advance towards the sarak Front after 1950, most of whom lived in exile in
French-occupied areas. North Vietnam after the 1954 Geneva Conference. It
was a derogatory term used by Norodom Sihanouk, dis-
missing the Cambodian leftists who had been organiz-
2.3 North Vietnam and the end of ing pro-independence agitations in alliance with the Viet-
namese.* [6] Sihanouk’s public criticism and mockery
the Việt Minh of the Khmer Việt Minh had the damaging e ect of in-
creasing the power of the hardline, anti-Vietnamese, but
Following their defeat at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ, the also anti-monarchist, members of the Communist Party
*
French began negotiations to leave Vietnam. As a result of Kampuchea (CPK), led by Pol Pot. [7]
of peace accords worked out at the Geneva Conference The Khmer Việt Minh were instrumental in the foun-
in Geneva, Switzerland, Vietnam was divided into North dation of the Cambodian Salvation Front (FUNSK) in
Vietnam and South Vietnam at the 17th Parallel as a tem- 1978. The FUNSK invaded Cambodia along with the
porary measure until unifying elections could take place Vietnamese Army and overthrew the Democratic Kam-
in 1956. Transfer of civil administration of North Viet- puchea Pol Pot state. Many of the Khmer Việt Minh
nam to the Việt Minh was given on October 11, 1954. Hồ had married Vietnamese women during their long exile
Chí Minh was appointed Prime Minister of North Viet- in Vietnam.* [8]
nam, which would be run as a socialist state. Ngô Đình
Diệm, who was previously appointed Prime Minister of
South Vietnam by Emperor Bảo Đại, eventually assumed 2.5 Note
control of South Vietnam.
The Geneva Accords promised elections in 1956 to deter- The Vi t Nam вộc Lập вồng Minh Hội must not be con-
mine a national government for a united Vietnam. Nei- fused with the Vi t Nam Cách Mạng вồng Minh Hội
ther the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm’ (League for the Vietnamese Revolution, abbreviated as
s State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Vi t Cách) which was founded by Nguyễn Hai Than and
Conference. With respect to the question of reuni ca- Hồ Ngoc Lam, and which later joined the Vietnamese
tion, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected National Coalition in 1946.
strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when
the French accepted the proposal of Việt Minh delegate
Phạm Văn Đồng,* [3] who proposed that Vietnam even- 2.6 See also
tually be united by elections under the supervision of“lo-
cal commissions”.* [4] The United States countered with
• Viet Cong
what became known as the “American Plan”, with the
support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom.* [5] • Pathet Lao
It provided for uni cation elections under the supervision
• History of Vietnam
of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet del-
egation.* [5] From his home in France, Vietnamese Em- • August Revolution
peror Bảo Đại appointed Ngô Đình Diệm as Prime Min-
• Communist Party of Vietnam
ister of South Vietnam. With American support, in 1955
Diệm used a referendum to remove the former Emperor • History of the Communist Party of Vietnam
12 CHAPTER 2. VIET MINH

2.7 References
[1] NGUYEN, Sai D. “The National Flag of Viet Nam.”
(PDF). Vpac-usa.org. pp. 212–3. Retrieved 4 January
2015.

[2] H., Hunt, Michael. The world transformed : 1945 to

the present. p. 124. ISBN 9780199371020. OCLC
907585907.

[3] The Pentagon Papers (1971), Beacon Press, vol. 3, p. 134.

[4] The Pentagon Papers (1971), Beacon Press, vol. 3, p. 119.

[5] The Pentagon Papers (1971), Beacon Press, vol. 3, p. 140.

[6] “Library of Congress / Federal Research Division / Coun-

try Studies / Area Handbook Series / Cambodia / Ap-
pendix B”. Lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved 4 January 2015.

[7] Ben Kiernan. How Pol Pot came to power, Yale University
Press, 2004, p.227

[8] Margaret Slocomb, The People's Republic of Kampuchea,

1979-1989: The revolution after Pol Pot ISBN 978-974-
9575-34-5

• Collection of O cial Documents on Vietnam His-

tory
• Vietnamese Declaration of Independence
 Chapter 3
First Indochina War
“Indochina War”redirects here. For other uses, see
Indochina Wars.
The First Indochina War (generally known as the In-
dochina War in France, and as the Anti-French Resis-
tance War in Vietnam) began in French Indochina on 19
December 1946 and lasted until 1 August 1954. Fight-
ing between French forces and their Viet Minh opponents
in the South dated from September 1945. The con ict
pitted a range of forces, including the French Union's
French Far East Expeditionary Corps, led by France and
supported by Emperor Bảo Đại's Vietnamese National
Army against the Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh and
its People's Army of Vietnam led by Vo Nguyen Giap.
Most of the ghting took place in Tonkin in Southern
Vietnam, although the con ict engulfed the entire country
and also extended into the neighboring French Indochina
protectorates of Laos and Cambodia.
At the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, the Combined
Chiefs of Sta decided that Indochina south of latitude
16° North was to be included in the Southeast Asia
Command under British Admiral Mountbatten. Japanese
forces located south of that line surrendered to him and
those to the north surrendered to Generalissimo Chiang
Kai-shek. In September 1945, Chinese forces entered
Tonkin and a small British task force landed at Saigon.
The Chinese accepted the Vietnamese government under
Ho Chi Minh, then in power in Hanoi. The British re-
fused to do likewise in Saigon, and deferred to the French
there from the outset, against the ostensible support of
the Viet Minh authorities by American OSS represen-
tatives. On V-J Day, September 2, Ho Chi Minh had
proclaimed in Hanoi the establishment of the Democratic
Republic of Vietnam (DRV). The DRV ruled as the only
civil government in all of Vietnam for a period of about
20 days, after the abdication of Emperor Bảo Đại, who
had governed under Japanese rule and thus was consid-
ered a “Japanese puppet”by the Viet Minh. On 23
September 1945, with the knowledge of the British Com-
mander in Saigon, French forces overthrew the local DRV
government, and declared French authority restored in
Cochinchina. Guerrilla warfare began around Saigon im-
mediately.* [22]
13
The rst few years of the war involved a low-level rural
insurgency against the French. However, after the Chi-
nese communists reached the northern border of Vietnam
in 1949, the con ict turned into a conventional war be-
tween two armies equipped with modern weapons sup-
plied by the United States and the Soviet Union.* [23]
French Union forces included colonial troops from the
whole former empire (Moroccan, Algerian, Tunisian,
Laotian, Cambodian, and Vietnamese ethnic minorities),
French professional troops and units of the French For-
eign Legion. The use of metropolitan recruits was forbid-
den by the government to prevent the war from becoming
even more unpopular at home. It was called the “dirty
war”(la sale guerre) by leftists in France.* [24]
The strategy of pushing the Viet Minh into attacking well-
defended bases in remote parts of the country at the end
of their logistical trails was validated at the Battle of Nà
Sản. However, this base was relatively weak because of
a lack of concrete and steel. French e orts were made
more di cult due to the limited usefulness of armored
tanks in a jungle environment, lack of strong air forces
for air cover and carpet bombing, and use of foreign re-
cruits from other French colonies (mainly from Algeria,
Morocco and even Vietnam), caused by the unpopularity
of this war in France which proscribed the use of regular
French recruits. On the other hand, Vff Nguyên Giáp used
e cient and novel tactics of direct re artillery, convoy
ambushes and amassed anti-aircraft guns to impede land
or air supply deliveries together with a strategy based on
recruiting a sizable regular army facilitated by wide pop-
ular support, a guerrilla warfare doctrine and instruction
developed in China and the use of simple and reliable war
material provided by the Soviet Union. This combination
proved fatal for this base defenses, culminating in a deci-
sive French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu.* [25]
At the International Geneva Conference on July 21, 1954
the new socialist French government and the Viet Minh
made an agreement that was denounced by the State of
Vietnam and by the United States, but which e ectively
gave the Viet Minh control of North Vietnam above the
17th parallel. The south continued under Emperor Bảo
Đại. A year later, Bảo Đại would be deposed by his prime
minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, creating the Republic of Viet-
nam. Soon an insurgency, backed by the North, devel-
14 CHAPTER 3. FIRST INDOCHINA WAR

oped against Diệm's government. The con ict gradually Quang Phục Hội movement in Guangzhou. From 1914
escalated into the Vietnam War.
3.1 Background
Further information: Vietnam Expedition, Franco-Thai
War, Second French Indochina Campaign, Empire of
Vietnam, August Revolution, Vietnamese Famine of
1945, Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic
Republic of Vietnam, French Far East Expeditionary
Corps, War in Vietnam (1945–46), 1940–46 in the Viet-
nam War, and 1947–50 in the Vietnam War
Vietnam was absorbed into French Indochina in stages
to 1917, he was imprisoned by Yuan Shikai's counter-
revolutionary government. In 1925, he was captured by
French agents in Shanghai and spirited to Vietnam. Due
to his popularity, Châu was spared from execution and
placed under house arrest until his death in 1940.
In September 1940, shortly after Phan Bội Châu's death,
Japan launched its invasion of French Indochina, mirror-
ing its ally Germany's conquest of metropolitan France.
Keeping the French colonial administration, the Japanese
ruled from behind the scenes in a parallel of Vichy
France. As far as Vietnamese nationalists were con-
cerned, this was a double-puppet government. Emperor
Bảo Đại collaborated with the Japanese, just as he had
with the French, ensuring his lifestyle could continue.
From October 1940 to May 1941, during the Franco-
Thai War, the Vichy French in Indochina were involved
with defending their colony in a border con ict which
saw the forces of Thailand invade, while the Japanese sat
on the sidelines. Thai military successes were limited to
the Cambodian border area, and in January 1941 Vichy
France's modern naval forces soundly defeated the infe-
rior Thai naval forces in the Battle of Ko Chang. The war
ended in May, with the French agreeing to minor territo-
rial revisions which restored formerly Thai areas to Thai-
land.
In March 1945, Japan launched the Second French In-
dochina Campaign and ousted the Vichy French and
formally installed Emperor Bảo Đại in the short-lived
Empire of Vietnam.

3.1.1 Japanese forces surrender (August

1945)

French Indochina (1913)

between 1858 and 1887. Nationalism grew until World

War II provided a break in French control. Early Viet-
namese resistance centered on the intellectual Phan Bội
Châu. Châu looked to Japan, which had modernized
and was one of the few Asian nations to successfully
resist European colonization. With Prince Cường Để,
Châu started two organizations in Japan, the Duy Tân hội
(Modernistic Association) and Vietnam Cong Hien Hoi.
Japanese troops lay down their arms to British troops in a cere-
Due to French pressure, Japan deported Phan Bội Châu mony in Saigon (1945).
to China. Witnessing Sun Yat-sen's 1911 nationalist rev-
olution, Châu was inspired to commence the Viet Nam On August 22, 1945, OSS agents Archimedes Patti and
3.1. BACKGROUND 15

In mid-September 1945, 200,000 troops of the Chinese

1st Army arrived in what would become North Vietnam
(Indochina above the 16th parallel). They had been sent
by Chiang Kai-shek under General Lu Han to accept the
surrender of Japanese forces occupying that area which
had been designated to Chiang Kai-Shek under Supreme
Commander for the Allied Powers “General Order no.
One”.* [33]* [34] The Chinese forces remained there until
1946* [35] and initially kept the French Colonial soldiers
interned with the acquiescence of the Americans.* [27]
The Chinese used the VNQDĐ, the Vietnamese branch
of the Chinese Kuomintang, to increase their in uence in
Indochina and put pressure on their opponents.* [36]
Commander of the C.L.I. (Corps Léger d'Intervention) in In- Chiang Kai-shek threatened the French with war in re-
dochina after the surrender of Japan. sponse to manoeuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh
against each other, forcing them to come to a peace
agreement, and in February 1946 he also forced the
French to surrender all of their concessions in China
Carleton B. Swift Jr. arrived in Hanoi on a mercy mis-
and renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange
sion to liberate allied POWs and were accompanied by
for withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing
Jean Sainteny, a French government o cial.* [26] The
French troops to reoccupy the region starting in March
Japanese forces informally surrendered (the o cial sur-
1946.* [37]* [38]* [39]* [40]
render was to take place on September 2, 1945, in Tokyo
Bay), but being the only force capable of maintaining Ho Chi Minh was able to persuade Emperor Bảo Đại to
law and order, the Japanese Imperial Army remained in abdicate on August 25, 1945. Bảo Đại was appointed
power while keeping French colonial troops and Sainteny “supreme advisor”to the new Vietminh-led government
detained.* [27] in Hanoi, which asserted independence on September 2.
Deliberately borrowing from the Declaration of Indepen-
Japanese forces allowed the Viet Minh and other national-
dence of the United States of America, Ho Chi Minh pro-
ist groups to take over public buildings and weapons with-
claimed on September 2:
out resistance, which began the August Revolution. Af-
ter their defeat, the Japanese Army gave weapons to the
Viet Minh. In order to further help the nationalists, the “We hold the truth that all men are created
Japanese kept Vichy French o cials and military o cers equal, that they are endowed by their Creator
imprisoned for a month after the surrender. OSS o cers with certain unalienable rights, among them
met repeatedly with Ho Chi Minh and other Viet Minh life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.”* [41]
o cers during this period and on September 2, 1945, Ho
Chi Minh declared independence from France for Viet- With the fall of the short-lived Japanese colony of the
nam.* [28] Empire of Vietnam, the Provisional Government of the
French Republic wanted to restore its colonial rule in
The Viet Minh had recruited more than 600 Japanese
French Indochina as the nal step of the Liberation of
soldiers and given them roles to train or command Viet- France. An armistice was signed between Japan and
namese soldiers.* [29]* [30]
the United States on August 20, 1945. CEFEO Expedi-
In September 1945, Ho Chi Minh claimed in a speech tionary Corps leader General Leclerc signed the armistice
that, due to a combination of ruthless Japanese exploita- with Japan on board the USS Missouri on behalf of
tion and poor weather, a famine occurred in which ap- France, on September 2.
proximately two million Vietnamese died. The Viet Minh On September 13, 1945, a Franco-British task force
arranged a relief e ort in the north and won wide support landed in Java, main island of the Dutch East Indies (for
there as a result. which independence was being sought by Sukarno), and
American President Franklin D. Roosevelt and General Saigon, capital of Cochinchina (southern part of French
Joseph Stilwell privately made it adamantly clear that the Indochina), both being occupied by the Japanese and
French were not to reacquire French Indochina (mod- ruled by Field Marshal Hisaichi Terauchi, Commander-
ern day Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos) after the war in-Chief of Japan's Southern Expeditionary Army Group
was over. Roosevelt o ered Chiang Kai-shek to place based in Saigon.* [42] Allied troops in Saigon were
all of Indochina under Chinese rule. Chiang Kai-shek an airborne detachment, two British companies of the
supposedly replied: “Under no circumstances!"* [31] Indian 20th Infantry Division and the French 5th Colo-
Roosevelt died shortly thereafter and U.S. resistance to nial Infantry Regiment, with British General Sir Douglas
French rule weakened, eventually capitulating to intense Gracey as supreme commander. The latter proclaimed
pressure from Charles de Gaulle.* [32] martial law on September 21. The following night the
16 CHAPTER 3. FIRST INDOCHINA WAR

Franco-British troops took control of Saigon.* [43] ernment and the French.* [44] On November 23, 1946,
Almost immediately afterward, the Chinese Govern- the French eet began a naval bombardment of the Viet-
ment, as agreed to at the Potsdam Conference, occupied namese sections of the city that killed over 6,000 Viet-
French Indochina as far south as the 16th parallel in or- namese civilians in one afternoon.* [45]* [46]* [47] The
der to supervise the disarming and repatriation of the Viet Minh quickly agreed to a cease- re and left the cities.
Japanese Army. This e ectively ended Ho Chi Minh's This is known as the Haiphong incident.
nominal government in Hanoi. There was never any intention among the Vietnamese to
On October 9, 1945, General Leclerc arrived in Saigon, give up, as General Vff Nguyên Giáp soon brought up
accompanied by French Colonel Massu's March Group 30,000 men to attack the city. Although the French were
(Groupement de marche). Leclerc's primary objectives outnumbered, their superior weaponry and naval support
were to restore public order in south Vietnam and to mil- made any Viet Minh attack unsuccessful. In December,
itarize Tonkin (north Vietnam). Secondary objectives hostilities also broke out in Hanoi between the Viet Minh
were to wait for French backup in view to take back and the French, and Ho Chi Minh was forced to evacuate
Chinese-occupied Hanoi, then to negotiate with the Viet the capital in favor of remote mountain areas. Guerrilla
Minh o cials.* [43] warfare ensued, with the French controlling most of the
country except far- ung areas.

3.2 Timeline 3.2.2 1947

3.2.1 1946 In 1947, General Vff Nguyên Giáp retreated his command

to Tan Trao deep in the hills of Tuyên Quang Province.
The French sent military expeditions to attack his bases,
but Giap refused to meet them head-on in battle. Wher-
ever the French troops went, the Viet Minh disappeared.
Late in the year the French launched Operation Lea to
take out the Viet Minh communications center at Bắc
Kạn. They failed to capture Ho Chi Minh and his key
lieutenants as intended. The French claimed 9,000 Viet
Minh soldiers KIA during the campaign which, if true,
would represent a major blow for the insurgency.

Ho Chi Minh and Marius Moutet shaking hands after signing
modus vivendi 1946 after Fontainebleau Agreements
3.2.3 1948
In 1948, France started looking for means of opposing the
Viet Minh politically, with an alternative government in
Saigon. They began negotiations with the former emperor
Bảo Đại to lead an“autonomous”government within the
French Union of nations, the State of Vietnam. Two years
before, the French had refused Ho's proposal of a similar
status, albeit with some restrictions on French power and
the latter's eventual withdrawal from Vietnam.
However, they were willing to give it to Bảo Đại as he
had freely collaborated with French rule of Vietnam in
the past and was in no position to seriously negotiate or
impose demands (Bảo Đại had no military of his own, but
soon he would have one).

3.2.4 1949
In 1949, France o cially recognized the“independence”
"Envoys probe Indo-China rebellion" (January 16, 1947), of the State of Vietnam as an associated state within the
Universal Newsreel French Union under Bảo Đại. However, France still con-
trolled all foreign relations and every defense issue as
Fighting broke out in Haiphong after a con ict of interest Vietnam was only nominally an independent state within
in import duty at the port between the Viet Minh gov- the French Union. The Viet Minh quickly denounced the
3.2. TIMELINE 17

(3 November 1950)
Areas in which Communist-led rebels
are challenging government authority.

Areas in which Communist-instigated

guerilla attacks have recently occurred.

Lai Chau
Moncay
gtung Hanoi
Haiphong Hon Gay

L
HAINAN

Dong Hoi
O
French Marine commandos wade ashore o the Annam coast
Hué

Tourane
T H A I L A N D S
government and stated that they wanted “real indepen- Quang Ngai

dence, not Bảo Đại independence”. Later on, as a con-

cession to this new government and a way to increase M Qui Nhon

their numbers, France agreed to the formation of the

BANGKOK

Vietnamese National Army to be commanded by Viet- C A M B O D I A

namese o cers. Nha Trang

Dalat
PNOMPENH

These troops were used mostly to garrison quiet sectors so SAIGON

French forces would be available for combat. Private Cao
Đài, Hòa Hảo and the Bình Xuyên gangster armies were
used in the same way. The Vietnamese Communists in
return obtained outside support in 1949 when Chairman
Mao Zedong succeeded in taking control of China by de-
feating the Kuomintang, thus gaining a major political A map of dissident activities in Indochina in 1950
ally and supply area just across the border. In the same
year, the French also granted independence (within the
framework of the French Union) to the other two nations By the time the remains of the garrisons reached the
in Indochina, the Kingdoms of Laos and Cambodia. safety of the Red River Delta, 4,800 French troops had
been killed, captured or missing in action and 2,000
The United States began to give military aid to France in wounded out of a total garrison force of over 10,000.
the form of weaponry and military observers. Chinese Also lost were 13 artillery pieces, 125 mortars, 450
assistance to the Viet Minh began after the communist trucks, 940 machine guns, 1,200 submachine guns and
victory in China. Giap re-organized his local irregular 8,000 ri es destroyed or captured during the ghting.
forces into ve full conventional infantry divisions, the China and the Soviet Union recognized Ho Chi Minh
304th, 308th, 312th, 316th and the 320th. The war be- as the legitimate ruler of Vietnam and sent him more
gan to intensify when Giap went on the o ensive, attack- and more supplies and material aid. The year 1950 also
ing isolated French bases along the Chinese border. marked the rst time that napalm was ever used in Viet-
nam (this type of weapon was supplied by the U.S. for the
use of the French Aéronavale at the time).
3.2.5 1950 The military situation improved for France when its new
commander, General Jean Marie de Lattre de Tassigny,
In February 1950, Giap seized the vulnerable 150-strong
built a forti ed line from Hanoi to the Gulf of Tonkin,
French garrison at Lai Khê in Tonkin just south of the
across the Red River Delta, to hold the Viet Minh in place
border with China. Major general Thái attacked Đông
and use his troops to smash them against this barricade,
Khê on September 15.* [48] Đông Khê fell on September
which became known as the De Lattre Line. This led to
18, and Cao Bằng nally fell on October 3.
a period of success for the French.
Lạng Sơn, with its 4,000-strong French Foreign Legion
garrison, was attacked immediately after. The retreating
French on Route 4, together with the relief force coming 3.2.6 1951
from That Khe, were attacked all the way by ambushing
Viet Minh forces. The French air-dropped a paratroop On January 13, 1951, Giáp moved the 308th and 312th
battalion south of Cao Bằng to act as diversion only to Divisions, made up of over 20,000 men, to attack Vгnh
see it quickly surrounded and destroyed. On October 17, Yên, 20 miles (32 km) northwest of Hanoi, which was
Lạng Sơn, after a week of intense ghting, nally fell. manned by the 6,000-strong 9th Foreign Legion Brigade.
18 CHAPTER 3. FIRST INDOCHINA WAR

government, even within the party. However, any ben-

e t this may have reaped for France was negated by the
increasing domestic opposition to the war in France.
On July 31, French General Charles Chanson was as-
sassinated during a propaganda suicide attack at Sa Đéc
in South Vietnam that was blamed on the Viet Minh al-
though it was argued in some quarters that Cao Đài na-
tionalist Trình Minh Thế could have been involved in its
planning.
On November 14, 1951, the French seized Hòa Bình, 25
miles (40 km) west of the De Lattre Line, by a parachute
drop and extended their perimeter.

3.2.7 1952

General Trình Minh Thế

The Viet Minh entered a trap. Caught for the rst time
in the open and actually forced to ght the French head-
on, without the ability to quickly hide and retreat, they
were mown down by concentrated French artillery and
machine gun re. By January 16, the Battle of Vгnh Yên French foreign airborne 1st BEP ring with a FM 24/29 light
ended as Giáp was forced to withdraw, with over 6,000 machine gun during an ambush (1952).
of his troops killed, 8,000 wounded and 500 captured.
On March 23, Giáp tried again, launching an attack In January, General de Lattre fell ill from cancer and had
against Mạo Khê, 20 miles (32 km) north of Haiphong. to return to France for treatment. He died there shortly
The 316th Division, composed of 11,000 men, with the thereafter and was replaced by General Raoul Salan as the
partly rebuilt 308th and 312th Divisions in reserve, went overall commander of French forces in Indochina. Viet
forward and were beaten in bitter hand-to-hand ght- Minh launched attacks on Hòa Bình, forcing the French
ing against French troops. Giap, having lost over 3,000 to withdraw back to their main positions on the De Lattre
(French estimation) / ~500 (Viet Minh information) dead line by February 22, 1952. Each side lost nearly 5,000
and wounded by March 28, withdrew. men in this campaign, and it showed that the war was far
from over.
Giáp launched yet another attack, the Battle of the Day
River, on May 29 with the 304th Division at Phủ Lý, the Throughout the war theater, the Viet Minh cut French
308th Division at Ninh Bình, and the main attack deliv- supply lines and began to seriously wear down the resolve
ered by the 320th Division at Phat Diem south of Hanoi. of the French forces. There were continued raids, skir-
The attacks fared no better and the three divisions lost mishes and guerrilla attacks, but through most of the rest
heavily. Taking advantage of this, de Lattre mounted of the year each side withdrew to prepare itself for larger
his countero ensive against the demoralized Viet Minh, operations. Starting on October 2, the Battle of Nà Sản
driving them back into the jungle and eliminating the en- saw the rst use of the French commanders’"hedgehog"
emy pockets in the Red River Delta by June 18, costing tactics, consisting in setting up well-defended outposts to
the Viet Minh over 10,000 killed.* [49] get the Viet Minh out of the jungle and force them to ght
Every e ort by Vff Nguyên Giáp to break the De Lattre conventional battles instead of using guerrilla tactics.
Line failed, and every attack he made was answered by On October 17, 1952, Giáp launched attacks against the
a French counter-attack that destroyed his forces. Viet French garrisons along Nghгa Lộ, northwest of Hanoi,
Minh casualties rose alarmingly during this period, lead- and overran much of the Black River valley, except for
ing some to question the leadership of the Communist the air eld of Nà Sản where a strong French garrison en-
3.2. TIMELINE 19

trenched. Giáp by now had control over most of Tonkin was a stalemate.
beyond the De Lattre line. Raoul Salan, seeing the sit- Navarre, in response to the Viet Minh attacking Laos,
uation as critical, launched Operation Lorraine along the concluded that “hedgehog”centers of defense were the
Clear River to force Giáp to relieve pressure on the Nghгa best plan. Looking at a map of the area, Navarre chose
Lộ outposts. the small town of Điện Biên Phủ, located about 10 miles
On October 29, 1952, in the largest operation in In- (16 km) north of the Lao border and 175 miles (282 km)
dochina to date, 30,000 French Union soldiers moved out west of Hanoi as a target to block the Viet Minh from
from the De Lattre line to attack the Viet Minh supply invading Laos. Điện Biên Phủ had a number of advan-
dumps at Phú Yên. Salan took Phú Thọ on November 5, tages: it was on a Viet Minh supply route into Laos on the
and Phu Doan on November 9 by a parachute drop, and Nam Yum River, it had an old airstrip for supply, and it
nally Phú Yên on November 13. Giáp at rst did not was situated in the Tai hills where the Tai tribesmen, still
react to the French o ensive. He planned to wait until loyal to the French, operated.
their supply lines were overextended and then cut them Operation Castor was launched on November 20, 1953,
o from the Red River Delta. with 1,800 men of the French 1st and 2nd Airborne Bat-
Salan correctly guessed what the Viet Minh were up to talions dropping into the valley of Điện Biên Phủ and
and cancelled the operation on November 14, beginning sweeping aside the local Viet Minh garrison. The para-
to withdraw back to the De Lattre Line. The only ma- troopers gained control of a heart-shaped valley 12 miles
jor ghting during the operation came during the with- (19 km) long and 8 miles (13 km) wide surrounded by
drawal, when the Viet Minh ambushed the French col- heavily wooded hills. Encountering little opposition, the
umn at Chan Muong on November 17. The road was French and Tai units operating from Lai Châu to the north
cleared after a bayonet charge by the Indochinese March patrolled the hills.
Battalion, and the withdrawal could continue. The French
The operation was a tactical success for the French. How-
lost around 1,200 men during the whole operation, most ever, Giáp, seeing the weakness of the French position,
of them during the Chan Muong ambush. The operation
started moving most of his forces from the De Lattre line
was partially successful, proving that the French could to Điện Biên Phủ. By mid-December, most of the French
strike out at targets outside the De Lattre Line. How-
and Tai patrols in the hills around the town were wiped
ever, it failed to divert the Viet Minh o ensive or seri- out by Viet Minh ambushes. The ght for control of this
ously damage its logistical network.
position would be the longest and hardest battle for the
French Far East Expeditionary Corps and would be re-
3.2.8 1953 membered by the veterans as “57 Days of Hell”.

3.2.9 1954

By 1954, despite o cial propaganda presenting the war

as a "crusade against communism",* [50]* [51] the war in
Indochina was still growing unpopular with the French
public. The political stagnation of the Fourth Republic
meant that France was unable to extract itself from the
con ict. The United States initially sought to remain neu-
tral, viewing the con ict as chie y a decolonization war.
The Battle of Dien Bien Phu occurred in 1954 between
Viet Minh forces under Vff Nguyên Giáp, supported by
China and the Soviet Union, and the French Union's
A Bearcat naval ghter aircraft of the Aéronavale drops napalm
on Viet Minh Division 320th's artillery during Operation Mou-
French Far East Expeditionary Corps, supported by US
ette (November 1953) nancing and Indochinese allies. The battle was fought
near the village of Điện Biên Phủ in northern Vietnam
On April 9, 1953, Giáp, after having failed repeatedly in and became the last major battle between the French and
direct attacks on French positions in Vietnam, changed the Vietnamese in the First Indochina War.
strategy and began to pressure the French by invading The battle began on March 13 when a preemptive Viet
Laos, surrounding and defeating several French outposts Minh attack surprised the French with heavy artillery.
such as Muong Khoua. In May, General Henri Navarre The artillery damaged both the main and secondary air-
replaced Salan as supreme commander of French forces elds that the French were using to y in supplies. The
in Indochina. He reported to the French government "... only road into Điện Biên Phủ, already di cult to traverse,
that there was no possibility of winning the war in Indo- was also knocked out by Viet Minh forces. With French
China,”saying that the best the French could hope for supply lines interrupted, the French position became un-
20 CHAPTER 3. FIRST INDOCHINA WAR

VOLKSREPUBLIK CHINA gan to hammer the outpost with newly supplied Soviet
Katyusha rockets and other weaponry provided by Com-
munist allies.
Yen Bai
Dien Bien Phu The nal fall took two days, May 6 and 7, during which
BURMA Hanoi

Hai Phong the French fought on but were eventually overrun by a

Samneua
Ninh Binh huge frontal assault. General Cogny, based in Hanoi, or-
Luang Prabang
dered General de Castries, who was commanding the out-
Vinh post, to cease re at 5:30 pm and to destroy all materiél
(weapons, transmissions, etc.) to deny their use to the en-
Vientiane
emy. A formal order was given to not use the white ag
Hue so that the action would be considered a cease re instead
Tourane
of a surrender. Much of the ghting ended on May 7;
THAILAND
however, the cease re was not respected on Isabelle, the
isolated southern position, where the battle lasted until
Binh Dinh
May 8, 1:00 am.* [52]
Siem Reap
At least 2,200 members of the 20,000-strong French
forces died, and another 1,729 were reported missing af-
Da Lat
Nha Trang ter the battle, and 11,721 were captured. Of the 50,000 or
Phnom Penh so Vietnamese soldiers thought to be involved, there were
Indochinakrieg
My Tho
Saigon an estimated 4,800 to 8,000 killed and another 9,000–
15,000 wounded. The prisoners taken at Điện Biên Phủ
Erster Indochinakrieg, Anfang 1954
Can Tho
unter französischer Kontrolle

were the greatest number the Viet Minh had ever cap-
unter Kontrolle der Viet Minh Rach Gia
Gebiete der Guerillakämpfe
Französisch-Indochina
Grenzen innerhalb Indochinas tured: one-third of the total captured during the entire
autonome Gebiete Südviet-
nam und Pays Montagnard war.
One month after Điện Biên Phủ, the composite Groupe
Map of the war in 1954. Orange = Areas under Viet Minh con-
Mobile 100 (GM100) of the French Union forces evac-
trol. Purple = Areas under French control. White-dotted hatch
= Areas of Viet Minh guerilla encampment and ghting.
uated the An Khê outpost and was ambushed by a larger
Viet Minh force at the Battle of Mang Yang Pass from
June 24 to July 17. At the same time, Giap launched
some o ensives against the delta, but they all failed. The
Viet Minh victory at Điện Biên Phủ heavily in uenced
the outcome of the 1954 Geneva accords that took place
on July 21. In August Operation Passage to Freedom be-
gan, consisting of the evacuation of Catholic and loyalist
Vietnamese civilians from communist North Vietnamese
persecution.

3.3 Ethnic minorities

The French were backed by the Nung minority while Viet
Minh were backed by the Tay minority.* [53]

3.4 Geneva Conference and Parti-

Franco-Vietnamese medics treating a wounded Viet Minh POW
at Hưng Yên (1954)
tenable, particularly when the advent of the monsoon
season made dropping supplies and reinforcements by
parachute di cult. With defeat imminent, the French
sought to hold on until the opening of the Geneva peace
meeting on April 26. The last French o ensive took place
on May 4, but it was ine ective. The Viet Minh then be-
tion
Further information: Geneva Conference (1954) and
Partition of Vietnam
Negotiations between France and the Viet Minh started
in Geneva in April 1954 at the Geneva Conference, dur-
ing which time the French Union and the Viet Minh were
ghting a battle at Điện Biên Phủ. In France, Pierre
Mendès France, opponent of the war since 1950, had
been invested as Prime Minister on June 17, 1954, on
3.4. GENEVA CONFERENCE AND PARTITION
The 1954 Geneva Conference.
a promise to put an end to the war, reaching a cease re
in four months:
“Today it seems we can be reunited in a
will for peace that may express the aspirations
of our country ... Since already several years,
a compromise peace, a peace negotiated with
the opponent seemed to me commanded by the
facts, while it commanded, in return, to put
back in order our nances, the recovery of our
economy and its expansion. Because this war
placed on our country an unbearable burden.
And here appears today a new and formidable
threat: if the Indochina con ict is not resolved
—and settled very fast —it is the risk of war,
of international war and maybe atomic, that we
must foresee. It is because I wanted a better
peace that I wanted it earlier, when we had
more assets. But even now there is some re-
nouncings or abandons that the situation does
not comprise. France does not have to accept
and will not accept settlement which would be
incompatible with its more vital interests [ap-
plauding on certain seats of the Assembly on
the left and at the extreme right]. France will
remain present in Far-Orient. Neither our al-
lies, nor our opponents must conserve the least
doubt on the signi cation of our determination.
A negotiation has been engaged in Geneva ... I
have longly studied the report ... consulted the
most quali ed military and diplomatic experts.
My conviction that a paci c settlement of the
con ict is possible has been con rmed. A
“cease- re”must henceforth intervene quickly.
The government which I will form will x it-
self —and will x to its opponents —a delay
of 4 weeks to reach it. We are today on 17th
of June. I will present myself before you be-
fore the 20th of July ... If no satisfying so-
lution has been reached at this date, you will
be freed from the contract which would have
21
tied us together, and my government will give
its dismissal to the President of the Republic.”
*
[54]
The Geneva Conference on July 21, 1954, recognized the
17th parallel north as a "provisional military demarcation
line,”temporarily dividing the country into two zones,
Communist North Vietnam and pro-Western South Viet-
nam.
Student demonstration in Saigon, July 1964, observing the tenth
anniversary of the July 1954 Geneva Agreements.
The Geneva Accords promised elections in 1956 to deter-
mine a national government for a united Vietnam. Nei-
ther the United States government nor Ngo Dinh Diem's
State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva
Conference. With respect to the question of reuni ca-
tion, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected
strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when
the French accepted the proposal of Viet Minh delegate
Pham Van Dong,* [55] who proposed that Vietnam even-
tually be united by elections under the supervision of“lo-
cal commissions”.* [56] The United States countered with
what became known as the “American Plan”, with the
support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom.* [57]
It provided for uni cation elections under the supervi-
sion of the United Nations, but was rejected by the So-
viet delegation.* [57] From his home in France, Emperor
Bảo Đại appointed Ngô Đình Diệm as Prime Minister of
South Vietnam. With American support, in 1955 Diem
used a referendum to remove the former Emperor and de-
clare himself the president of the Republic of Vietnam.
When the elections failed to occur, Viet Minh cadres
who stayed behind in South Vietnam were activated and
started to ght the government. North Vietnam also in-
vaded and occupied portions of Laos to assist in supplying
the guerilla ghting National Liberation Front in South
Vietnam. The war gradually escalated into the Second
Indochina War, more commonly known as the Vietnam
War in the West and the American War in Vietnam.
22 CHAPTER 3. FIRST INDOCHINA WAR

3.5 Ho Chi Minh army and other o cials were freed from Japanese prisons
in Vietnam, they began reasserting their authority over
Main article: Ho Chi Minh parts of the country. At the same time, the French gov-
ernment began negotiations with both the Viet Minh and
the Chinese for a return of the French army to Vietnam
In 1923, Ho Chi Minh moved to Guangzhou, China. north of the 16th parallel.
In 1925–26, he organized the 'Youth Education Classes'
and occasionally gave lectures at the famous Whampoa The Viet Minh were willing to accept French rule to end
Military Academy on the revolutionary movement in In- Chinese occupation. Ho and others had fears of the Chi-
dochina. He stayed there in Hong Kong as a representa- nese, based on China's historic domination and occupa-
tive of the Communist International organization. In June tion of Vietnam. The French negotiated a deal with the
1931, he was arrested and incarcerated by British police Chinese where pre-war French concessions in Chinese
until his release in 1933. He then made his way back to ports such as Shanghai were traded for Chinese cooper-
the Soviet Union, where he spent several years recover- ation in Vietnam. The French landed a military force at
ing from tuberculosis. In 1938, he returned to China and Haiphong in early 1946. Negotiations then took place
served as an adviser with the Chinese Communist armed about the future for Vietnam as a state within the French
forces. Union. These talks eventually failed and the Viet Minh
ed into the countryside to wage guerrilla war. In 1946,
Vietnam created its rst constitution.

Võ Nguyên Giáp and Ho Chi Minh (1942)

In 1941, Ho Chi Minh, seeing communist revolution as

the path to freedom, returned to Vietnam and formed the Telegram from Ho Chi Minh to U.S. President Harry S. Truman
Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi (League for the Inde- requesting support for independence (Hanoi, February 28, 1946)
pendence of Vietnam), better known as the Viet Minh.
He spent many years in Moscow and participated in the The British had supported the French in ghting the Viet
International Comintern. At the direction of Moscow, he Minh, armed militias from the religious Cao Đài and Hòa
combined the various Vietnamese communist groups into Hảo sects and the Bình Xuyên organized crime groups,
the Indochinese Communist Party in Hong Kong in 1930. which were all individually seeking power in the country.
Ho created the Viet Minh as an umbrella organization forIn 1948, as part of a post-colonial solution, the French re-
all the nationalist resistance movements, de-emphasizinginstalled Bao Dai as head of state of Vietnam under the
his communist social revolutionary background. French Union. The Viet Minh were militarily ine ective
Late in the war, the Japanese created a nominally inde- in the rst few years of the war and could do little more
pendent government of Vietnam under the overall lead- than harass the French in remote areas of Indochina.
ership of Bảo Đại. Around the same time, the Japanese In 1949, the war changed with the triumph of the commu-
arrested and imprisoned most of the French o cials and nists in China on Vietnam's northern border. China was
military o cers left in the country. After the French able to give almost unlimited support in terms of weapons
3.6. FRENCH DOMESTIC SITUATION 23

and supplies to the Viet Minh, which transformed itself General Confederation of Labour, and notable leftist in-
into a conventional army. After World War II, the United tellectuals.* [61]* [62] The rst occurrence was probably
States and the USSR entered into the Cold War. The at the National Assembly on March 21, 1947, when the
Korean War broke out in 1950 between communist North communist deputees refused to back the military cred-
Korea (DPRK) supported by China and the Soviet Union, its for Indochina. The following year a paci st event was
and South Korea (ROK) supported by the United States organized, the "1st Worldwide Congress of Peace Parti-
and its allies in the UN. sans" (1er Congrès Mondial des Partisans de la Paix, the
The Cold War was now turning 'hot' in East Asia, and the World Peace Council's predecessor), which took place
March 25–28, 1948, in Paris, with the French communist
American government feared communist domination of
the entire region would have deep implications for Amer- Nobel laureate atomic physicist Frédéric Joliot-Curie as
president. Later, on April 28, 1950, Joliot-Curie would
ican interests. The US became strongly opposed to the
government of Ho Chi Minh, in part, because it was sup- be dismissed from the military and civilian Atomic En-
ergy Commission for political reasons.* [63]
ported and supplied by China. Ho's government gained
recognition from China and the Soviet Union by January Young communist militants (UJRF) were also accused
1950 in response to Western support for the State of Viet- of sabotage actions like the famous Henri Martin a air
nam that the French had proposed as an associate state and the case of Raymonde Dien, who was jailed one year
within the French Union. In the French-controlled areas for having blocked an ammunition train, with the help of
of Vietnam, in the same year, the government of Bao Dai other militants, in order to prevent the supply of French
gained recognition by the United States and the United forces in Indochina in February 1950.* [58]* [61] Simi-
Kingdom. lar actions against trains occurred in Roanne, Charleville,
Marseille, and Paris. Even ammunition sabotage by PCF
agents has been reported, such as grenades exploding
in the hands of legionaries.* [58] These actions became
3.6 French domestic situation such a cause for concern by 1950 that the French As-
sembly voted a law against sabotage between March 2–
The 1946 Constitution creating the Fourth Republic 8. At this session tension was so high between politicians
(1946–1958) made France a Parliamentary republic. Be- that ghting ensued in the assembly following communist
cause of the political context, it could nd stability only bydeputees’speeches against the Indochinese policy.* [63]
an alliance between the three dominant parties: the Chris- This month saw the French navy mariner and commu-
tian Democratic Popular Republican Movement (MRP), nist militant Henri Martin arrested by military police and
the French Communist Party (PCF) and the socialist jailed for ve years for sabotage and propaganda oper-
French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO). ations in Toulon's arsenal. On May 5 communist Min-
Known as tripartisme, this alliance brie y lasted until the isters were dismissed from the government, marking the
May 1947 crisis, with the expulsion from Paul Ramadier's end of Tripartism.* [63] A few months later on November
SFIO government of the PCF ministers, marking the of- 11, 1950, the French Communist Party leader Maurice
cial start of the Cold War in France. This had the e ect Thorez went to Moscow.
of weakening the regime, with the two most signi cant Some military o cers involved in the Revers Report
movements of this period, Communism and Gaullism, in scandal (Rapport Revers) such as Salan were pessimistic
opposition. about the way the war was being conducted,* [64] with
Unlikely alliances had to be made between left- and multiple political-military scandals all happening during
right-wing parties in order to form a government in- the war, starting with the Generals' A air (A aire des
vested by the National Assembly, which resulted in strong Généraux) from September 1949 to November 1950. As
parliamentary instability. Hence, France had fourteen a result, General Georges Revers was dismissed in De-
prime ministers in succession between the creation of the cember 1949 and socialist Defense Ministry Jules Moch
Fourth Republic in 1947 and the Battle of Dien Bien Phu (SFIO) was brought on court by the National Assembly on
in 1954. The rapid turnover of governments (there were November 28, 1950. Emerging media played their role.
17 di erent governments during the war) left France un- The scandal started the commercial success of the* rst
able to prosecute the war with any consistent policy ac- French news magazine, L'Express, created in 1953. [65]
cording to veteran General René de Biré (who was a lieu- The third scandal was nancial-political, concerning mil-
tenant at Dien Bien Phu).* [58] France was increasingly itary corruption, money and arms trading involving both
unable to a ord the costly con ict in Indochina and, by the French Union army and the Viet Minh, known as
1954, the United States was paying 80% of France's war the Piastres a air. The war ended in 1954 but its se-
e ort, which was $3,000,000 per day in 1952.* [59]* [60] quel started in French Algeria where the French Com-
munist Party played an even stronger role by supplying
A strong anti-war movement came into existence in the National Liberation Front (FLN) rebels with intelli-
France driven mostly by the then-powerful French Com- gence documents and nancial aid. They were called "the
munist Party (outpowering the socialists) and its young suitcase carriers" (les porteurs de valises).
militant associations, major trade unions such as the
 24 CHAPTER 3. FIRST INDOCHINA WAR

In the French news, the Indochina War was presented as a sassinated between 100,000 and 150,000 civilians
direct continuation of the Korean War, where France had during the war; total civilian deaths are estimated at
fought: a UN French battalion, incorporated in a U.S. unit 400,000.* [21]* [69]
in Korea, was later involved in the Battle of Mang Yang
Pass of June and July 1954.* [50] In an interview taped in • The French Army tortured Viet Minh prison-
May 2004, General Marcel Bigeard (6th BPC) argues that ers* [70]
“one of the deepest mistakes done by the French during
the war was the propaganda telling you are ghting for
Freedom, you are ghting against Communism”,* [51]
hence the sacri ce of volunteers during the climactic bat-
3.8 French Union involvement
tle of Dien Bien Phu. In the latest days of the siege, 652
non-paratrooper soldiers from all army corps from cav- Further information: French Union
alry to infantry to artillery dropped for the rst and last
time of their life to support their comrades. The Cold By 1946, France headed the French Union. As succes-
War excuse was later used by General Maurice Challe sive governments had forbidden the sending of metropoli-
through his famous “Do you want Mers El Kébir and tan troops, the French Far East Expeditionary Corps
Algiers to become Soviet bases as soon as tomorrow?", (CEFEO) was created in March 1945. The Union
during the Generals' putsch (Algerian War) of 1961, with gathered combatants from almost all French territories
limited e ect though.* [66] made of colonies, protectorates and associated states
A few hours after the French Union defeat at Dien (Madagascar, Senegal, Tunisia, etc.) to ght in French
Bien Phu in May 1954, United States Secretary of State Indochina, which was then occupied by the Japanese.
John Foster Dulles made an o cial speech depicting the About 325,000 of the 500,000 French troops were In-
“tragic event”and “its defense for fty seven days and dochinese, almost all of whom were used in conventional
nights will remain in History as one of the most heroic units.* [71]
of all time.”Later on, he denounced Chinese aid to the The Afrique Occidentale Française (AOF) was a federa-
Viet Minh, explained that the United States could not act tion of African colonies. Senegalese and other African
openly because of international pressure, and concluded troops were sent to ght in Indochina. Some African
with the call to “all concerned nations”concerning the alumni were trained in the Infantry Instruction Center
necessity of “a collective defense”against “the com- no.2 (Centre d'Instruction de l'Infanterie no.2) located in
munist aggression”.* [8] southern Vietnam. Senegalese of the Colonial Artillery
fought at the siege of Dien Bien Phu. As a French
colony (later a full province), French Algeria sent local
3.7 War crimes and re-education troops to Indochina including several RTA (Régiment de
Tirailleurs Algériens) light infantry battalions. Morocco
camps was a French protectorate and sent troops to support the
French e ort in Indochina. Moroccan troops were part of
• The Boudarel A air. Georges Boudarel was a light infantry RTMs (Régiment de Tirailleurs Marocains)
French communist militant who used brainwash- for the “Moroccan Sharpshooters Regiment”.
ing and torture against French Union POWs in Viet
Minh reeducation camps.* [67] The French national As a French protectorate, Bizerte, Tunisia, was a major
association of POWs brought Boudarel to court for French base. Tunisian troops, mostly RTT (Régiment de
a war crime charge. Most of the French Union pris- Tirailleurs Tunisiens), were sent to Indochina. Part of
oners died in the Viet Minh camps and many POWs French Indochina, then part of the French Union and later
from the Vietnamese National Army were missing. an associated state, Laos fought the communists along
with French forces. The role played by Laotian troops
• Passage to Freedom was a Franco-American opera- in the con ict was depicted by veteran Pierre Schoendo-
tion to evacuate refugees. Loyal Indochinese evacu- er er's famous 317th Platoon released in 1964.* [72] The
ated to metropolitan France were kept in detention French Indochina state of Cambodia played a signi cant
camps.* [68] role during the Indochina War through its infantrymen
and paratroopers.
• In 1957, the French Chief of Sta with Raoul Salan
would use the POWs’ experience with the Viet Minh While Bảo Đại's State of Vietnam (formerly Annam,
reeducation camps to create two "Instruction Cen- Tonkin, Cochinchina) had the Vietnamese National
ter for Paci cation and Counter-Insurgency" (Centre Army supporting the French forces, some minorities were
d'Instruction à la Paci cation et à la Contre-Guérilla trained and organized as regular battalions (mostly in-
aka CIPCG) and train thousands of o cers during fantry tirailleurs) that fought with French forces against
the Algerian War. the Viet Minh. The Tai Battalion 2 (BT2, 2e Bataillon
Thai) is infamous for its desertion during the siege of
• According to Arthur J. Dommen, the Viet Minh as- Dien Bien Phu. Propaganda lea ets written in Tai and
3.9. FOREIGN INVOLVEMENT 25

the Croix de guerre des TOE with palm in July 1951;

however, Vandenberghe was betrayed by a Viet Minh re-
cruit, commander Nguien Tinh Khoi (308th Division's
56th Regiment), who assassinated him (and his Viet-
namese ancee) with external help on the night of Jan-
uary 5, 1952.* [78]* [79]* [80] Coolies and POWs known
as PIM (Prisonniers Internés Militaires, which is basically
the same as POW) were civilians used by the army as
logistical support personnel. During the battle of Dien
Bien Phu, coolies were in charge of burying the corpses
—during the rst days only, after they were abandoned,
hence giving o a terrible smell, according to veterans
—and they had the dangerous job of gathering supply
packets delivered in drop zones while the Viet Minh ar-
tillery was ring hard to destroy the crates. The Viet
Minh also used thousands of coolies to carry the Chu-Luc
(regional units) supplies and ammunition during assaults.
The PIM were civilian males old enough to join Bảo Đại's
army. They were captured in enemy-controlled villages,
French Foreign Legion patrol question a suspected member of the
and those who refused to join the State of Vietnam's army
Viet Minh.
were considered prisoners or used as coolies to support a
given regiment.* [81]

French sent by the Viet Minh were found in the deserted

positions and trenches. Such deserters were called the
Nam Yum rats by Bigeard during the siege, as they hid 3.9 Foreign involvement
close to the Nam Yum river during the day and searched
at night for supply drops.* [73] Another allied minority
was the Muong people (Mường). The 1st Muong Bat-
talion (1er Bataillon Muong) was awarded the Croix de
guerre des théfftres d'opérations extérieures after the vic-
torious Battle of Vinh Yen in 1951.* [74]
In the 1950s, the French established secret commando
groups based on loyal Montagnard ethnic minorities
referred to as "partisans" or "maquisards", called the
Groupement de Commandos Mixtes Aéroportés (Compos-
ite Airborne Commando Group or GCMA), later re-
named Groupement Mixte d'Intervention (GMI, or Mixed
Intervention Group), directed by the SDECE counter-
intelligence service. The SDECE's “Service Action”
GCMA used both commando and guerrilla techniques
and operated in intelligence and secret missions from China supplied the Viet Minh with hundreds of Soviet-built GAZ-
1950 to 1955.* [75]* [76] Declassi ed information about 51 trucks in the 1950s.
the GCMA includes the name of its commander, fa-
mous Colonel Roger Trinquier, and a mission on April
30, 1954, when Jedburgh veteran Captain Sassi led the
3.9.1 China
Meo partisans of the GCMA Malo-Servan in Operation
Condor during the siege of Dien Bien Phu.* [77] One point that the French had a major problem with was
In 1951, Adjutant-Chief Vandenberghe from the 6th the concept of sanctuary. As long as the revolutionar-
Colonial Infantry Regiment (6e RIC) created the“Com- ies who are ghting a guerilla war have a sanctuary, in
mando Vanden”(aka “Black Tigers”, aka “North which they can hide out, recoup after losses, and store
Vietnam Commando #24”) based in Nam Định. Re- supplies, it is almost impossible for any foreign enemy to
cruits were volunteers from the Thổ people, Nfflng people ever destroy them. In the early 1950s, southern China
and Miao people. This commando unit wore Viet Minh was used as a sanctuary by Viet Minh guerrillas. Several
black uniforms to confuse the enemy and used techniques hit and run ambushes were successfully operated against
of the experienced Bo doi (Bộ гội, regular army) and French Union convoys along the neighboring Route Colo-
Du Kich (guerrilla unit). Viet Minh prisoners were re- niale 4 (RC 4), which was a major supply way in Tonkin
cruited in POW camps. The commando was awarded (northern Vietnam). One of the most famous attacks of
26 CHAPTER 3. FIRST INDOCHINA WAR

this kind was the battle of Cao Bằng. China supplied the
Viet Minh guerrillas with food (thousands of tons of rice),
money, medics, arms, ammunition, artillery (24 guns
were used at Dien Bien Phu) and other military equip-
ment including a large part of material captured from
Chiang Kai-shek's National Revolutionary Army during
the Chinese Civil War. Evidences of the Chinese se-
cret aid were found in caves during Operation Hirondelle
in July 1953.* [82]* [83] 2,000 Chinese and Soviet Union
military advisors trained the Viet Minh guerrilla force to
turn it into a full range army.* [58] On top of this China
sent two artillery battalions at the siege of Dien Bien Phu
on May 6, 1954. One operated 12 x 6 Katyusha rock-
ets* [84] China and the Soviet Union were the rst nations
to recognize North Vietnam.
tary instructors for the Viet Minh forces, most notably at
the Quang Ngai Army Academy.* [87] There were nec-
essary conventional military knowledge such as how to
conduct assaults, night attacks, company/battalion level
exercises, commanding, tactics, navigation, communica-
tions and movements. A few, however, actively led Viet-
namese forces into combat.* [87] The French also identi-
ed eleven Japanese nurses and two doctors working for
the Viet Minh in northern Vietnam in 1951. A number
of Japanese are remembered at the Yasukuni Shrine as a
result of the French Indochina War.* [88]
3.9.4 USA
Mutual Defense Assistance Act (1950–1954)

3.9.2 Soviet Union

The Soviet Union was the other ally of the Viet Minh,
supplying GAZ trucks, truck engines, fuel, tires, arms
(thousands of Skoda light machine guns), all kind of
ammunitions, anti-aircraft guns (4 x 37 mm type) and
cigarettes. During Operation Hirondelle, the French
Union paratroopers captured and destroyed tons of Soviet
supplies in the Ky Lua area.* [82]* [85] According to Gen-
eral Giap, the Viet Minh used 400 GAZ-51 soviet-built
trucks at the battle of Dien Bien Phu. Because the trucks
were using highly e ective camou age, the French Union
reconnaissance planes were not able to notice them. On
May 6, 1954, during the siege, Katyusha were success-
fully used against the outpost. Together with China, the
Soviet Union sent 2,000 military advisors to train the Viet
Minh and turn it into a fully organized army.* [58]

3.9.3 Japanese volunteers

Further information: Japanese holdout

Many former Imperial Japanese soldiers fought with the Anti-communist Vietnamese refugees moving from a French LSM
Viet Minh - perhaps as many as 5,000 volunteered their landing ship to the USS Montague during Operation Passage to
services throughout the war. These Japanese stayed be- Freedom in 1954.
hind in Indochina soon after World War II concluded in
1945 out of a peak number of 50,000 - the majority of At the beginning of the war, the U.S. was neutral in the
which were repatriated to Japan by the then occupying con ict because of opposition to European colonialism,
British.* [86] For those that stayed behind, ghting with because the Viet Minh had recently been their allies,
the Viet Minh became a more attractive idea than return- and because most of its attention was focused on Eu-
ing to a defeated and occupied homeland. In addition the rope where Winston Churchill argued an Iron Curtain had
Viet Minh had very little experience in warfare or govern- fallen.
ment so the advice of the Japanese was welcome. Some Then the U.S. government gradually began supporting the
of the Japanese were ex Kempeitai who were wanted for French in their war e ort, primarily through the Mutual
questioning by allied authorities. Giap arranged for them
Defense Assistance Act, as a means of stabilizing the
all to receive Vietnamese citizenship and false identi -
French Fourth Republic in which the French Communist
cation papers.* [86] Some Japanese were captured by theParty was a signi cant political force. A dramatic shift
Viet Minh during the last months of the war and were occurred in American policy after the victory of Mao Ze-
recruited in to their ranks dong's Communist Party of China in the Chinese Civil
Most of the Japanese o cers who stayed served as mili- War. By 1949, however, the United States became con-
3.9. FOREIGN INVOLVEMENT 27

cerned about the spread of communism in Asia, partic-

ularly following the end of the Chinese Civil War, and
began to strongly support the French as the two coun-
tries were bound by the Cold War Mutual Defense Pro-
gramme.* [89]
After the Moch–Marshall meeting of September 23,
1950, in Washington, the United States started to sup-
port the French Union e ort politically, logistically and
nancially. O cially, US involvement did not include
use of armed force. However, recently it has been dis-
covered that undercover (CAT)—or not—US Air Force
pilots ew to support the French during Operation Cas-
tor in November 1953. Two US pilots were killed in
action during the siege at Dien Bien Phu the following
year. These facts were declassi ed and made public more
Bois Belleau (aka USS Belleau Wood) transferred to France in
than 50 years after the events, in 2005 during the Légion 1953.
d'honneur award ceremony by the French ambassador in
Washington.* [90]
Franco-American evacuation operation called "Passage
In May 1950, after the capture of Hainan island by Chi-
to Freedom".
nese Communist forces, U.S. President Harry S. Truman
began covertly authorizing direct nancial assistance to The same month, the United States delivered additional
the French, and on June 27, 1950, after the outbreak of aircraft, again using the USS Windham Bay.* [92] On
the Korean War, announced publicly that the U.S. was April 18, 1954, during the siege of Dien Bien Phu, the
doing so. It was feared in Washington that if Ho were to USS Saipan delivered 25 Korean War AU-1 Corsair air-
win the war, with his ties to the Soviet Union, he would es- craft for use by the French Aeronavale in supporting the
tablish a puppet state with Moscow with the Soviets ulti- besieged garrison.
mately controlling Vietnamese a airs. The prospect of a
communist-dominated Southeast Asia was enough to spur
US Air Force assistance (1952–1954)
the U.S. to support France, so that the spread of Soviet-
allied communism could be contained.
On June 30, 1950, the rst U.S. supplies for Indochina
were delivered. In September, Truman sent the Military
Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) to Indochina to as-
sist the French. Later, in 1954, U.S. President Dwight
D. Eisenhower explained the escalation risk, introducing
what he referred to as the “domino principle”, which
eventually became the concept of domino theory. During
the Korean War, the con ict in Vietnam was also seen as
part of a broader proxy war with China and the USSR in
A 1952 F4U-7 Corsair of the 14.F otilla who fought at Dien
Asia.
Bien Phu.

A total of 94 F4U-7s were built for the Aéronavale in

US Navy assistance (1951–1954)
The USS Windham Bay delivered Grumman F8F Bearcat
ghter aircraft to Saigon on January 26, 1951.* [91]
On March 2 of that year, the United States Navy trans-
ferred the USS Agenor (ARL-3) (LST 490) to the French
Navy in Indochina in accordance with the MAAG-led
MAP. Renamed RFS Vulcain (A-656), she was used in
Operation Hirondelle in 1953. The USS Sitkoh Bay car-
rier delivered Grumman F8F Bearcat aircraft to Saigon
on March 26, 1951. During September 1953, the USS
Belleau Wood (renamed Bois Belleau) was lent to France
and sent to French Indochina to replace the Arromanches.
She was used to support delta defenders in the Hạ Long
Bay operation in May 1954. In August, she joined the
1952, with the last of the batch, the nal Corsair built,
rolled out in December 1952. The F4U-7s were actu-
ally purchased by the U.S. Navy and passed on to the
Aéronavale through the U.S. Military Assistance Pro-
gram (MAP). They were supplemented by 25 ex-U.S.MC
AU-1s (previously used in the Korean War) and moved
from Yokosuka, Japan, to Tourane Air Base (Da Nang),
Vietnam, in April 1952. US Air Force assistance fol-
lowed in November 1953 when the French comman-
der in Indochina, General Henri Navarre, asked General
Chester E. McCarty, commander of the Combat Cargo
Division, for 12 Fairchild C-119s for Operation Castor at
Dien Bien Phu. The USAF also provided C-124 Globe-
masters to transport French paratroop reinforcements to
Indochina.
28 CHAPTER 3. FIRST INDOCHINA WAR

Under the codename Project Swivel Chair,* [93] on in the opposite direction.
March 3, 1954, twelve C-119s of the 483rd Troop Car-
rier Wing (“Packet Rats”) based at Ashiya, Japan, were
painted with France's insignia and loaned to France with 3.10 Popular culture
24 CIA pilots for short-term use. Maintenance was car-
ried out by the US Air Force and airlift operations were
commanded by McCarty.* [90]

Central Intelligence Agency covert operations (1954)

French-marked USAF C-119 own by CIA pilots over Dien Bien

Phu in 1954.

Twenty four Central Intelligence Agency (Civil Air

Transport) pilots supplied the French Union garrison dur-
ing the siege of Dien Bien Phu by airlifting paratroopers,
ammunition, artillery pieces, tons of barbed wire, medics
and other military materiel. With the reducing Drop zone
areas, night operations and anti-aircraft artillery assaults,
many of the “packets”fell into Viet Minh hands. The
37 CIA pilots completed 682 airdrops under anti-aircraft
re between March 13 and May 6. Two CAT pilots, Wal-
lace Bu ord and James B. McGovern, Jr. were killed
in action when their Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar was
shot down on May 6, 1954 .* [90] On February 25, 2005,
the French ambassador to the United States, Jean-David French Indochina medal, law of August 1, 1953.
Levitte, awarded the seven remaining CIA pilots the Lé-
gion d'honneur.* [90] Although a kind of taboo in France,“the dirty war”has
been featured in various lms, books and songs. Since
its declassi cation in the 2000s, television documentaries
Operation Passage to Freedom (1954) have been released using new perspectives about the U.S.
covert involvement and open critics about the French pro-
Main article: Operation Passage to Freedom paganda used during wartime.
Famous Communist propagandist Roman Karmen was
In August 1954, in support to the French navy and the in charge of the media exploitation of the battle of
merchant navy, the U.S. Navy launched Operation Pas- Dien Bien Phu. In his documentary, Vietnam (Вь т а ,
sage to Freedom and sent hundreds of ships, including 1955), he staged the famous scene with the raising of the
USS Montague, in order to evacuate non-communist— Viet Minh ag over de Castries' bunker which is similar
especially Catholic —Vietnamese refugees from North to the one he staged over the Berlin Reichstag roof dur-
Vietnam following the July 20, 1954, armistice and ing World War II (Б , 1945) and the “S"-shaped
partition of Vietnam. Up to 1 million Vietnamese civil- POW column marching after the battle, where he used
ians were transported from North to South during this pe- the same optical technique he experimented with before
riod,* [94] with around one tenth of that number moving when he staged the German prisoners after the Siege of
3.12. NOTES
Leningrad (Л ь , 1942) and the Battle
of Moscow (Р ц х М ,
1942).* [95]* [96]
Hollywood made a lm about Dien Bien Phu in 1955,
Jump into Hell, directed by David Butler and scripted by
Irving Wallace, before his fame as a bestselling novel-
ist. Hollywood also made several lms about the war,
Robert Florey's Rogues' Regiment (1948). Samuel Fuller's
China Gate (1957). and James Clavell's Five Gates to Hell
(1959).
The rst French movie about the war, Shock Patrol (Pa-
trouille de Choc) aka Patrol Without Hope (Patrouille Sans
Espoir) by Claude Bernard-Aubert, came out in 1956.
The French censor cut some violent scenes and made the
director change the end of his movie which was seen as
"too pessismistic”.* [97] Léo Joannon's lm Fort du Fou
(Fort of the Mad) /Outpost in Indochina was released in
1963. Another lm was The 317th Platoon (La 317ème
Section) was released in 1964, it was directed by In-
dochina War (and siege of Dien Bien Phu) veteran Pierre
Schoendoer er. Schoendoer er has since become a me-
dia specialist about the Indochina War and has focused his
production on realistic war movies. He was cameraman
for the army (“Cinematographic Service of the Armies”
, SCA) during his duty time; moreover, as he had cov-
ered the Vietnam War he released The Anderson Platoon,
which won the Academy Award for Documentary Fea-
ture.
Graham Greene's novel The Quiet American takes place
during this war.
A Vietnamese software developer made a videogame [12] “CNN.com – France honors CIA pilots – Feb 28, 2005”
called 7554 after the date of Battle of Dien Bien Phu
to commemorate the First Indochina War from the Viet- [13] Windrow 1998, p. 23
namese point of view.
3.11 See also
• Hélie Denoix de Saint Marc
• Japanese invasion of French Indochina
• Franco-Thai War
• Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina
• Indochina Wars
• North Vietnamese invasion of Laos
• Second Indochina War
• Third Indochina War
• Cambodian–Vietnamese War
• Pathet Lao
• United Issarak Front
29
3.12 Notes
[1] Lee Lanning, Michael (2008). Inside the VC and the NVA.
: Texas A&M University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-1-
60344-059-2.
[2] Crozier, Brian (2005). Political Victory: The Elusive Prize
Of Military Wars. Transaction. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-7658-
0290-3.
[3] Fall, Street Without Joy, p. 63.
[4] Logevall, Fredrik (2012). Embers of War: the fall of an
empire and the making of America's Vietnam. Random
House. pp. 596–9. ISBN 978-0-375-75647-4.
[5] Jacques Dalloz, La Guerre d'Indochine 1945–1954, Seuil,
Paris, 1987,pp. 129–130, 206
[6] Jacques Dalloz (1987). La Guerre d'Indochine 1945–
1954. Paris: Seuil. pp. 129–130.
[7] Kiernan, Ben. How Pol Pot Came to Power. London:
Verso, 1985. p. 80
[8] henrisalvador. “John Foster Dulles on the fall of Dien
Bien Phu”. Dailymotion. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
[9]“Viện trợ của Trung Quốc đối với cuộc kháng chiến chống
Pháp của Việt Nam”. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
[10] http://geb.uni-giessen.de/geb/volltexte/2013/9311/pdf/
DaoDucThuan_2013_02_05.pdf
[11] “East Germany – The National People's Army and the
Third World”.
. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
[14] Ford, Dan. “Japanese soldiers with the Viet Minh”.
[15] Windrow, Martin (1998). The French Indochina War
1946–1954 (Men-At-Arms, 322). London: Osprey Pub-
lishing. p. 11. ISBN 1-85532-789-9.
[16] Clodfelter, Michael, Vietnam in Military Statistics (1995)
[17] Where the Domino Fell: America and Vietnam 1945–
1995. James S. Olson,Randy W. Roberts. Chapter 2: The
rst Indochina war 1945–54
[18] Dommen, Arthur J. (2001), The Indochinese Experience
of the French and the Americans, Indiana University Press,
pg. 252
[19] Smedberg, M (2008), Vietnamkrigen: 1880–1980. His-
toriska Media, p. 88
[20] Eckhardt, William, in World Military and Social Expen-
ditures 1987–88 (12th ed., 1987) by Ruth Leger Sivard.
[21] Dommen, Arthur J. (2001), The Indochinese Experience
of the French and the Americans, Indiana University Press,
pg. 252.
[22] s:Page:Pentagon-Papers-Part I.djvu/30
30
[23] Fall, Street Without Joy, p. 17.
[24] Edward Rice-Maximin, Accommodation and Resistance:
The French Left, Indochina, and the Cold War, 1944–
1954 (Greenwood, 1986).
[25] Flitton, Dave. “Battle eld Vietnam – Dien Bien Phu, the
legacy”. Public Broadcasting System PBS. Retrieved 29
July 2015.
[26] “Interview with Carleton Swift, 1981”. Open Vault. Re-
trieved October 15, 2016.
[27] Stuart-Fox, Martin (1997). A History of Laos. Cambridge
University Press: Cambridge.
[28] “WGBH Open Vault – Interview with Archimedes L. A.
Patti, 1981”. Retrieved 2015-08-19.
[29] " ベトナム独立฀争参加日本人の事跡に基づく日
越のあり方に関する研究" (PDF). 井川一久. Tokyo
foundation. October 2005. Retrieved 2010-06-10.
[30] " 日越関係発展の方途を探る研究ヴェトナム独立฀
争参加日本人―その実態と日越両国にとっての歴
史的意味―" (PDF). 井川一久. Tokyo foundation. May
2006. Retrieved 2010-06-10.
[31] Barbara Wertheim Tuchman (1985). The march of folly:
from Troy to Vietnam. Random House, Inc. p. 235. ISBN
0-345-30823-9. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
[32] Tuchman 1985, p. 237.
[33] Text of Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers Gen-
eral Order no. One, Taiwan Documents Project, http:
//www.taiwandocuments.org/surrender05.htm
[34] Hugh Dyson Walker (November 2012). East Asia: A New
History. AuthorHouse. pp. 621–. ISBN 978-1-4772-
6516-1.
[35] Larry H. Addington (2000). America's war in Vietnam: a
short narrative history. Indiana University Press. p. 30.
ISBN 0-253-21360-6. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
[36] Peter Neville (2007). Britain in Vietnam: prelude to dis-
aster, 1945-6. Psychology Press. p. 119. ISBN 0-415-
35848-5. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
[37] Van Nguyen Duong (2008). The tragedy of the Vietnam
War: a South Vietnamese o cer's analysis. McFarland. p.
21. ISBN 0-7864-3285-3. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
[38] Stein Tffinnesson (2010). Vietnam 1946: how the war be-
gan. University of California Press. p. 41. ISBN 0-520-
25602-6. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
[39] Elizabeth Jane Errington (1990). Elizabeth Jane Erring-
ton; B. J. C. McKercher, eds. The Vietnam War as his-
tory. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 63. ISBN 0-275-
93560-4. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
[40] “The Vietnam War Seeds of Con ict 1945–1960”. The
History Place. 1999. Retrieved 2010-12-28.
[41] Stanley Karnow, Vietnam: A History, (New York: Pen-
guin Books Ltd., 1997), 146
CHAPTER 3. FIRST INDOCHINA WAR
[42] Allies Reinforce Java and Saigon, British Paramount News
rushes, 1945
[43] Philipe Leclerc de Hauteloque (1902–1947), La légende
d'un héro, Christine Levisse-Touzé, Tallandier/Paris
Musées, 2002
[44] Windrow 2004, p. 90.
[45] Barnet, Richard J. (1968). Intervention and Revolution:
The United States in the Third World. World Publishing.
p. 185. ISBN 0-529-02014-9.
[46] Sheehan, Neil (1988). A Bright Shining Lie. New York:
Random House. p. 155. ISBN 0-394-48447-9.
[47] Cirillo, Roger (2015). The Shape of Battles to Come.
Louisville: University Press of Kentucky. p. 187. ISBN
978-0813165752.
[48] Trận then chốt Đông Khê. 02 November, 2014.
[49] Gras, Yves (1979). Histoire de la Guerre d'Indochine.
Paris. p. 408. ISBN 2-259-00478-4.
[50] “La Guerre En Indochine” (video). newsreel. October
26, 1950. Retrieved May 20, 2007.
[51] “Bigeard et Dien Bien Phu”(video). TV news. Channel
2 (France). May 3, 2004. Retrieved May 20, 2007.
[52] “dienbienphu.org”. Archived from the original on Oc-
tober 24, 2003.
[53] Michael C. Howard; Kim Be Howard (2002). Textiles of
the Daic Peoples of Vietnam. White Lotus Press. p. 46.
ISBN 978-974-7534-97-9.
[54] Assemblée Nationale. “Le Gouvernement provisoire et
la Quatrième République (1944–1958)".
[55] The Pentagon Papers (1971), Beacon Press, vol. 3, p. 134.
[56] The Pentagon Papers (1971), Beacon Press, vol. 3, p. 119.
[57] The Pentagon Papers (1971), Beacon Press, vol. 3, p. 140.
[58] Hercombe, Peter (2004). “Dien Bien Phu, Chronicles of
a Forgotten Battle”. documentary. Transparences Pro-
ductions/Channel 2 (France).
[59] “France's war against Communists rages on” (video).
newsreel. News Magazine of the Screen/Warner Bros.
May 1952. Retrieved May 20, 2007.
[60] A Bernard Fall Retrospective, presentation of Bernard
B. Fall, Vietnam Witness 1953–56, New York, Praeger,
1966, by the Ludwig von Mises Institute
[61] Ruscio, Alain (August 2, 2003). “Guerre d'Indochine:
Libérez Henri Martin”(in French). l'Humanité. Archived
from the original on August 4, 2003. Retrieved May 20,
2007.
[62] Nhu Tang, Truong (March 12, 1986).“A Vietcong Mem-
oir: An Inside Account of the Vietnam War and Its Af-
termath”. Vintage. Retrieved June 27, 2007.
[63] “France History, IV Republic (1946–1958)" (in French).
Quid Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 20, 2007.
3.13. REFERENCES
[64] Patrick Pesnot, Rendez-vous Avec X – Dien Bien Phu,
France Inter, December 4, 2004 (Rendez-vous With X
broadcast on public station France Inter)
[65] “We wanted a newspaper to tell what we wanted”inter-
view by Denis Jeambar & Roland Mihail
[66] General Challe's appeal (April 22, 1961)
[67] “Accueil”. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
[68] “USS Skagit and Operation Passage To Freedom”. self-
published. Archived from the original on October 27,
2009. Retrieved May 20, 2007.
[69] https://books.google.com.vn/books?id=
MauWlUjuWNsC&pg=PA252&dq=The+Indochinese+ [90]
Experience+of+the+French+and+the+Americans+
100,000+to+150,000&hl=vi&sa=X&ved=
0ahUKEwjt-L-o-9bQAhXFqo8KHZq-A58Q6AEIGTAA#
v=onepage&q=The%20Indochinese%20Experience% [91]
20of%20the%20French%20and%20the%
20Americans%20100%2C000%20to%20150%2C000& [92]
f=false
[70] indochine.uqam.ca/en/historical-dictionary/
1420-torture-french.html
[71] Alf Andrew Heggoy and Insurgency and Counterinsur-
gency in Algeria, Bloomington, Indiana, Indiana Univer-
sity Press, 1972, p.175
[72] The 317th Platoons script
[73] Original audio recordings of General de Castries (Dien
Bien Phu) and General Cogny (Hanoi) transmissions on
May 7, 1954, during the battle of Dien Bien Phu (from
the European Navigator based in Luxembourg)
[74] French Defense Ministry archives, ECPAD
[75] Raymond Muelle; Éric Deroo (1992). Services spéciaux,
armes, techniques, missions: GCMA, Indochine, 1950–
1954 ... Editions Crépin-Leblond. ISBN 978-2-7030-
0100-3.
[76] Michel David (2002). Guerre secrète en Indochine:
Les maquis autochtones face au Viêt-Minh (1950–1955).
ISBN 978-2-7025-0636-3.
[77] Dien Bien Phu – Le Rapport Secret, Patrick Jeudy, TF1
Video, 2005
[78] French Defense Ministry archives
[79] French Defense Ministry archives
[80] French Defense Ministry archives
[81] Dr. Jacques Cheneau in In Vietnam, 1954. Eight episode
[82] French Defense Ministry archives
[83] French Defense Ministry archives
[84] Chinese General Hoang Minh Thao and Colonel Hoang
Minh Phuong quoted by Pierre Journoud researcher at
the Defense History Studies (CHED), Paris University
Pantheon-Sorbonne, in Paris Hanoi Beijing published in
Communisme magazine and the Pierre Renouvin Institute
of Paris, July 20, 2004.
31
[85] French Defense Ministry archives
[86] Goscha p. 46-49
[87] Goscha pp. 50-55
[88] Igawa, Sei (2005-10-10).“Japan-Vietnam relations, were
based on the performance of Japanese volunteers in Viet-
nam Independence War” (PDF). Tokyo Foundation (in
Japanese). Retrieved 2009-09-06.
[89] “Replacing France: The Origins of American Interven-
tion in Vietnam” (PDF). book. University Press of Ken-
tucky. July 2007. Retrieved June 28, 2007.
“U.S. Pilots Honored For Indochina Service” (PDF).
Embassy of France in the U.S. February 24, 2005. Re-
trieved March 30, 2010.
French Defense Ministry archives
“Indochina War: The“good o ces”of the Americans”
. National Audiovisual Institute.
[93] Conboy, Morrison, p. 6.
[94] Lindholm, Richard (1959). Viet-nam, the rst ve years:
an international symposium. Michigan State University
Press
[95] Pierre Schoendoer er interview with Jean Guisnel in
Some edited pictures
[96] Roman Karmen, un cinéaste au service de la révolution,
Dominique Chapuis & Patrick Barbéris, Kuiv Productions
/ Arte France, 2001
[97] “La Cinémathèque de Toulouse”.
3.13 References
• Buttinger, Joseph (1972). A Dragon De ant: A
Short History of Vietnam. New York: Praeger.
OCLC 583077932.
• Chaliand, Gérard (1982). Guerrilla Strategies:
An Historical Anthology from the Long March to
Afghanistan. California: University of California
Press. ISBN 0-520-04443-6.
• Jian, Chen (1993). “China and the First
Indo-China War, 1950–54”. The China
Quarterly. London: School of Oriental and
African Studies. 133 (March): 85–110.
doi:10.1017/s0305741000018208. ISSN 0305-
7410.
• Cogan, Charles G. (2000). “L'attitude des États-
Unis à l'égard de la guerre d'Indochine”. In
Vaïsse, Maurice. Armée française dans la guerre
d'Indochine (1946–1954). Bruxelles: Complexe.
pp. 51–88. ISBN 2-87027-810-1.
32 CHAPTER 3. FIRST INDOCHINA WAR

• Conboy, Kenneth; Morrison, James (1995). • Wiest, Andrew; editor (2006). Rolling Thunder in
Shadow War: The CIA's Secret War in Laos. Boul- a Gentle Land. Oxford: Osphrey. ISBN 978-1-
der, CO: Paladin Press. ISBN 978-1-58160-535-8. 84603-020-8.

• Devillers, Philippe; Lacouture, Jean (1969). End • Windrow, Martin (1998). The French Indochina
of a War: Indochina, 1954. New York: Praeger. War, 1946–1954. Osprey. ISBN 1-85532-789-9.
OCLC 575650635.
• Windrow, Martin (2004). The Last Valley. Weiden-
• Dunstan, Simon (2004). Vietnam Tracks: Armor in feld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-306-81386-6.
Battle 1945–75. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-
833-2.
3.14 Further reading
• Fall, Bernard B. (1967). Hell in a Very Small Place:
The Siege of Dien Bien Phu. Philadelphia: Lippin- • Pescali, Piergiorgio (2010). Indocina. Bologna:
cott. OCLC 551565485. Emil. ISBN 978-88-96026-42-7.
• Fall, Bernard B (1994). Street Without Joy. Stack-
pole Books. ISBN 0-8117-1700-3.
3.15 External links
• Fall, Bernard B. (1963). The Two Viet-Nams: A Po-
litical and Military Analysis. New York: Praeger. • Pentagon Papers, Chapter 2
OCLC 582302330.
• Vietnam: The Impossible War
• Giap, Vo Nguyen (1971). The Military Art of Peo-
• Fall, Bernard B. Street Without Joy: The French De-
ple's War. New York: Modern Reader. ISBN 0-
bacle In Indochina
85345-193-1.
• ANAPI's o cial website (National Association of
• Goscha, Christopher E (2008). “Chapter 3 Be- Former POWs in Indochina)
lated Asian Allies: The Technical and Military Con-
tributions of Japanese Deserters, (1945–50)". In • Hanoi upon the army's return in victory (bicycles de-
Young, Marilyn B; Buzzanco, Robert. A Compan- mysti ed) Viet Nam Portal
ion to the Vietnam War. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN
9781405172042. • Photos about the First War of Indochina (French
Defense Archives) (ECPAD) (French)
• Hammer, Ellen Joy (1954). The Struggle for In-
dochina. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
OCLC 575892787.

• Humphries, James. F (1999). Through the Valley:

Vietnam, 1967–1968. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
ISBN 1-55587-821-0.

• Perkins, Mandaley (2006). Hanoi, Adieu: A Bitter-

sweet Memoir of French Indochina. Sydney: Harper
Perennial. ISBN 978-0-7322-8197-7.

• Roy, Jules (1963). The Battle of Dienbienphu. New

York: Pyramid Books. OCLC 613204239.

• Summers, Harry G. (1995). Historical Atlas of the

Vietnam War. New York: Houghton Mi in. ISBN
0-395-72223-3.

• Thi, Lam Quang (2002). The Twenty-Five Year

Century: A South Vietnamese General Remembers
the Indochina War to the Fall of Saigon. University
of North Texas. ISBN 1-57441-143-8.

• Vaïsse; editor (2000). L'Armée française dans la

guerre d'Indochine (1946–1954). Paris: Editions
Complexe. ISBN 978-2-87027-810-9.
Chapter 4

Geneva Conference (1954)

Not to be confused with Geneva Conventions. The conference was held at the Palace of Nations in
For other similar events, see Geneva Conference. Geneva, commencing on April 26, 1954. The rst agenda
item was the Korean question to be followed by In-
* *
The Geneva Conference (April 26 – July 20, 1954* [1]) dochina. [4] :549
was a conference among several nations that took place in
Geneva, Switzerland, in order to settle outstanding issues 4.1.1 Korea
resulting from the Korean War and discuss the possibility
of restoring peace in Indochina.* [2] The Soviet Union, Main article: Korean War
the United States, France, the United Kingdom, and the
People’s Republic of China were participants through-
out the conference, while other countries concerned were The armistice signed at end of the Korean War required
represented during the discussion of questions of inter- a political conference within three months—a timeline
est to them.* [3] These included the countries that con- which was not met—“to settle through negotiation the
tributed troops to the United Nations forces in the Korean questions of the withdrawal of all foreign forces from Ko-
War, and countries that participated in the resolution of rea, the peaceful settlement of the Korean question, etc.”
*
the First Indochina War between France and the Việt [5]
Minh.
The part of the conference on the Korean question ended 4.1.2 Indochina
without adopting any declarations or proposals. On In-
dochina, the conference produced a set of documents Main article: First Indochina War
known as the Geneva Accords. These agreements tem- After the defeat of the Japanese Empire in 1945, the
porarily separated Vietnam into two zones, a northern
zone to be governed by the Việt Minh, and a southern
zone to be governed by the State of Vietnam, then headed
by former emperor Bảo Đại. A Conference Final Decla-
ration, issued by the British chairman of the conference,
provided that a general election be held by July 1956 to
create a uni ed Vietnamese state. Although presented
as a consensus view, this document was not accepted by
the delegates of either the State of Vietnam or the United
States. In addition, three separate cease re accords, cov-
ering Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, were signed at the
conference.

4.1 Background
On February 18, 1954, at the Berlin Conference, partici-
pants agreed that “the problem of restoring peace in In-
dochina will also be discussed at the Conference [on the
Korean question] to which representatives of the United
States, France, the United Kingdom, the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics and the Chinese People's Republic
and other interested states will be invited.”* [4]* [4]* :436
The Geneva Conference.
Provisional Government of the French Republic restored
colonial rule in French Indochina, encompassing present-
day Vietnam. Nationalist and communist movements in
Vietnam fought for independence, resulting in the First
Indochina War in 1946. This colonial war between the
French Union's Expeditionary Corps and Hồ Chí Minh's

33
34 CHAPTER 4. GENEVA CONFERENCE (1954)

Việt Minh guerrillas turned into a Cold War crisis in

January 1950.* [6] The communist Việt Minh received
support from the newly proclaimed People's Republic of
China and the Soviet Union, while France and the newly
established Vietnamese National Army received support
from the United States.
The Battle of Điện Biên Phủ started on March 13, 1954,
and continued during the Geneva conference. The course
of the battle hung over the conference, as both sides
sought a strategic victory that would strengthen their ne-
gotiating position.

4.2 On the Korean question

“Charles DeGaulle and Ho Chi Minh are hanged”in e gy by
The South Korean representative proposed that the South students demonstrating in Saigon, July 1964, on the tenth an-
niversary of the July 1954 Geneva Accords.
Korean government was the only legal government in Ko-
rea, that UN-supervised elections should be held in the
North, that Chinese forces should withdraw, and that UN the Conference was to achieve in relation to Indochina.
forces —a belligerent party in the war —should remain Anthony Eden, leading the British delegation, favored a
as a police force. The North Korean representative sug- negotiated settlement to the con ict. Georges Bidault,
gested that elections be held throughout all of Korea, that leading the French delegation, vacillated - keen to pre-
all foreign forces leave beforehand, that the elections be serve something of France's position in Indochina and
run by an all-Korean Commission that is made up of equal justify past sacri ces even as the nation's military situa-
parts from North and South Korea, and to generally in- tion deteriorated.* [4]* :559 The U.S. had been supporting
crease relations economically and culturally between the the French in Indochina for many years and the Repub-
North and the South.* [7] lican Eisenhower administration wanted to ensure that it
The Chinese delegation proposed an amendment to have could not be accused of another "Yalta" or having“lost”
a group of“neutral nations”supervise the elections, which Indochina to the Communists. Its leaders had previously
the North accepted. The U.S. supported the South Ko- accused the Democratic Truman administration of hav-
rean position, saying that the USSR wanted to turn North ing “lost China”when the communists were successful
Korea into a puppet state. Most allies remained silent and in dominating the country.
at least one, Britain, thought that the U.S.-South Korean The Eisenhower administration had considered air strikes
proposal would be deemed unreasonable.* [7] in support of the French at Dien Bien Phu, but were un-
The South Korean representative proposed all-Korea able to obtain a commitment to united action from key
elections, to be held according to South Korean consti- allies such as the United Kingdom. Eisenhower was wary
tutional procedures and still under UN-supervision. On of becoming drawn into“another Korea”that would be
June 15, the last day of the conference on the Korean deeply unpopular with the American public. U.S. domes-
question, the USSR and China both submitted declara- tic policy considerations strongly in uenced the U.S. po-
* *
tions in support of a uni ed, democratic, independent Ko- sition at Geneva. [4] :551–3 Columnist Walter Lippman
rea, saying that negotiations to that end should resume at wrote on April 29 that“the American position at Geneva
an appropriate time. The Belgian and British delegations is an impossible one, so long as leading Republican sen-
said that while they were not going to accept“the Soviet ators have no terms for peace except unconditional sur-
and Chinese proposals, that did not mean a rejection of render of the enemy and no terms for entering the war
the ideas they contained.”* [8] In the end, however, the except as a collective action in which nobody is now will-
* *
conference participants did not agree on any declaration. ing to engage.” [4] :554 At the time of the Geneva con-
ference, the U.S. did not recognize the People's Republic
of China. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, a strong
4.3 On Indochina anti-Communist, forbade any contact with the Chinese
delegation, refusing to shake hands with Zhou Enlai, the
lead Chinese negotiator.* [4]* :555 Dulles fell out with the
While the delegates began to assemble in Geneva from UK delegate Anthony Eden over the perceived failure of
late April, the discussions on Indochina did not begin until the UK to support united action and U.S. positions on
May 8, 1954. The Viet Minh had achieved their decisive Indochina; he left Geneva on May 3, being replaced by
victory over the French Union forces at Dien Bien Phu his deputy Walter Bedell Smith.* [4]* :555–8 The State of
the previous day.* [4]* :549 Vietnam refused to attend the negotiations until Bidault
The Western allies did not have a uni ed position on what wrote to Bao Dai assuring him that any agreement would
4.3. ON INDOCHINA
not partition Vietnam.* [4]* :550–1
Bidault opened the conference on May 8 by proposing a
cessation of hostilities, a cease re in place, a release of
prisoners, and a disarming of irregulars, notwithstanding
the French surrender at Dien Bien Phu the previous day
in northwest Vietnam.* [4]* :559–60
On May 10, Pham Van Dong, leader of the Democratic
Republic of Vietnam (DRV) delegation set out their
position, proposing a cease re, separation of the op-
posing forces, a ban on the introduction of new forces
into Indochina, exchange of prisoners, independence
and sovereignty for Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos, elec-
tions for uni ed governments in each country, withdrawal
of all foreign forces, and the inclusion of the Pathet
Lao and Khmer Issarak representatives at the Confer-
ence.* [4]* :560 Pham Van Dong rst proposed a tem-
porary partition of Vietnam on May 25.* [9] Following
their victory at Dien Bien Phu and given the worsening
French security position around the Red River Delta, a
cease re and partition would not appear to have been in
the interests of the DRV. It appears that the DRV lead-
ership thought the balance of forces was uncomfortably
close and were worried about morale problems among
their troops and supporters after 8 years of war.* [4]* :561
Turner has argued that the Viet Minh might have pro-
longed the negotiations and continued ghting to achieve
a more favorable position militarily, if not for Chinese
and Soviet pressure on them to end the ghting.* [9] In ad-
dition, there was a widespread perception that the Diem
government would collapse, leaving the Viet Minh free to
take control of the area.* [10]
On May 12, the State of Vietnam rejected any partition
of the country, and the U.S. expressed a similar position
the next day. The French sought to implement a physical
separation of the opposing forces into enclaves through-
out the country, known as the“leopard-skin”approach.
The DRV/Viet Minh would be given the Cà Mau Penin-
sula, three enclaves near Saigon, large areas of Annam
and Tonkin; the French Union forces would retain most
urban areas and the Red River Delta, including Hanoi and
Haiphong, allowing it to resume combat operation in the
north if necessary.* [4]* :562–3
Behind the scenes the U.S. and French governments con-
tinued to discuss the terms for possible U.S. military in-
tervention in Indochina.* [4]* :563–6 By May 29 the U.S.
and the French had reached agreement that if the Con-
ference failed to deliver an acceptable peace deal, Eisen-
hower would seek Congressional approval for military in-
tervention in Indochina.* [4]* :568–9 However, following
discussions with the Australian and New Zealand gov-
ernments, in which it became evident that neither would
support U.S. military intervention, reports of the plum-
meting morale among the French Union forces and op-
position from Army Chief of Sta Matthew Ridgway, the
U.S. began to shift away from intervention. They contin-
ued to oppose a negotiated settlement.* [4]* :569–73 By
35
early-mid June, the U.S. began to consider the possibil-
ity that, rather than supporting the French in Indochina,
it might be preferable for the French to leave and for the
U.S. to support the new Indochinese states. This would
remove the taint of French colonialism. Unwilling to sup-
port the proposed partition or intervention, by mid-June
the U.S. decided to withdraw from major participation in
the Conference.* [4]* :574–5
On June 15 Vyacheslav Molotov had proposed that the
cease re should be monitored by a supervisory commis-
sion chaired by neutral India. On June 16, Zhou Enlai
stated that the situations in Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos
were not the same and should be treated separately. He
proposed that Laos and Cambodia could be treated as
neutral nations provided they had no foreign bases. On
June 18 Pham Van Dong said the Viet Minh would be
prepared to withdraw their forces from Laos and Cam-
bodia provided no foreign bases were established in In-
dochina.* [4]* :581 This apparent softening of the Com-
munist position appeared to arise from a meeting among
the DRV, Chinese and Soviet delegations on June 15,
where Zhou warned the Viet Minh that their military
presence in Laos and Cambodia threatened to undermine
negotiations in relation to Vietnam. This represented a
major blow to the DRV, as they had tried to ensure that
the Pathet Lao and Khmer Issarak would join the gov-
ernments in Laos and Cambodia, respectively, under the
leadership of the DRV. The Chinese likely also sought to
ensure that Laos and Cambodia were not under Vietnam's
in uence in the future, but under China's.* [4]* :581–3
On June 18, following a vote of no-con dence, the French
Laniel government fell and was replaced by a coalition
with Radical Pierre Mendès France as Prime Minister, by
a vote of 419 to 47, with 143 abstentions.* [4]* :579 Prior
to the collapse of the Laniel government, France recog-
nized Vietnam as “a fully independent and sovereign
state”on June 4.* [11] A long-time opponent of the war,
Mendès France had pledged to the National Assembly
that he would resign if he failed to achieve a cease re
within 30 days.* [4]* :575 Mendès France retained the
Foreign Ministry for himself, and Bidault left the Confer-
ence.* [4]* :579 The new French government abandoned
earlier assurances to the State of Vietnam that France
would not pursue or accept partition, and engaged in se-
cret negotiations with the Viet Minh delegation, bypass-
ing the State of Vietnam to meet Mendès France's self-
imposed deadline.* [12] On June 23, Mendès France se-
cretly met with Zhou Enlai at the French Embassy in
Bern, Zhou outlined the Chinese position that an im-
mediate cease re was required, the three nations should
be treated separately, and recognition that two govern-
ments existed in Vietnam.* [4]* :584 Mendès France re-
turned to Paris. The following day he met with his main
advisers on Indochina. General Ely outlined the dete-
riorating military position in Vietnam, and Jean Chau-
vel suggested that the situation on the ground called for
partition at the 16th or 17th parallel. The three agreed
36
that the Bao Dai government would need time to consol-
idate its position and that U.S. assistance would be vital.
The possibility of retaining Hanoi and Haiphong or just
Haiphong was dismissed, as the French believed it was
preferable to seek partition with no Viet Minh enclaves
in the south.* [4]* :585–7
On June 16, 12 days after France granted full inde-
pendence to the State of Vietnam,* [13] Bao Dai ap-
pointed Ngo Dinh Diem as Prime Minister to replace Bửu
Lộc. Diem was a staunch nationalist, both anti-French
and anti-Communist, with strong political connections
in the U.S.* [4]* :576 Diem agreed to take the position,
on the condition that he receive all civilian and military
powers.* [13] Diem, and his foreign minister Tran Van
Do, were strongly opposed to partition of Vietnam. At
Geneva, the State of Vietnam's proposal included “a
cease re without a demarcation line”and “control by
the United Nations...of the administration of the entire
country [and] of the general elections, when the United
Nations believes that order and security will have been
everywhere truly restored.”* [14]
On June 28 following an Anglo-U.S. summit in Wash-
ington, the UK and US issued a joint communique that
included a statement that if the Conference failed, “the
international situation will be seriously aggravated.”The
parties also agreed to a secret list of seven minimum
outcomes which both parties would “respect;" these in-
cluded preserving a non-Communist south Vietnam (plus
an enclave in the Red River Delta if possible), future
reuni cation of divided Vietnam, and the integrity of
Cambodia and Laos, including removal of all Viet Minh
forces.* [4]* :593–4
Also on June 28, Tạ Quang Bửu, a senior DRV negotia-
tor, called for the line of partition to be at the 13th par-
allel, the withdrawal of all French Union forces from the
north within 3 months of the cease re, and the Pathet Lao
to have virtual sovereignty over eastern Laos.* [4]* :595–6
From July 3–5, Zhou Enlai met with Ho Chi Minh and
other senior DRV leaders in Liuzhou. Most of the rst
day was spent discussing the military situation and bal-
ance of forces in Vietnam, General Giáp explained that
while
“Dien Bien Phu had represented a colos-
sal defeat for France... she was far from de-
feated. She retained a superiority in numbers
- some 470,000 troops, roughly half of them
Vietnamese, versus 310,000 on the Viet Minh
side as well as control of Vietnam's major cities
(Hanoi, Saigon, Hue, Tourane (Da Nang)). A
fundamental alteration of the balance of forces
had thus yet to occur, Giap continued, despite
Dien Bien Phu.
Wei Guoqing, the chief Chinese military adviser to the
Viet Minh, said he agreed. “If the U.S. does not inter-
fere,”Zhou asked, “and assuming France will dispatch
CHAPTER 4. GENEVA CONFERENCE (1954)
more troops, how long will it take for us to seize the whole
of Indochina?" In the best-case scenario, Giap replied,
full victory could be achieved in two to three years. Worst
case? Three to ve years.”.* [4]* :596
That afternoon Zhou“o ered a lengthy exposition on the
massive international reach of the Indochina con ict...and
on the imperative of preventing an American interven-
tion in the war. Given Washington's intense hostility to
the Chinese Revolution...one must assume that the cur-
rent administration would not stand idly by if the Viet
Minh sought to win complete victory.”Consequently,“if
we ask too much at Geneva and peace is not achieved, it is
certain that the U.S. will intervene, providing Cambodia,
Laos and Bao Dai with weapons and ammunition, help-
ing them train military personnel, and establishing mili-
tary bases there....The central issue,”Zhou told Ho, is“to
prevent America's intervention”and“to achieve a peace-
ful settlement.”Laos and Cambodia would have to be
treated di erently and allowed to pursue their own paths,
provided they did not join a military alliance or permit
foreign bases on their territory. The Mendes France gov-
ernment, having vowed to achieve a negotiated solution,
must be supported, lest it fall and be replaced by one com-
mitted to continuing the war.”* [4]* :597 Ho pressed hard
for the partition line to be at the 16th parallel while Zhou
noted that Route 9, the only land route from Laos to the
South China Sea ran closer to the 17th parallel.* [4]* :597
Several days later the party's Sixth Central Committee
plenum took place. Ho Chi Minh and General Secre-
tary Trường Chinh took turns emphasising the need for
an early political settlement so as to prevent a military in-
tervention by the United States, now the“main and direct
enemy”of Vietnam.“in the new situation we cannot fol-
low the old program.”Ho declared. "[B]efore, our motto
was, “war of resistance until victory.”Now, in view of
the new situation, we should uphold a new motto: peace,
uni cation, independence, and democracy.”A spirit of
compromise would be required by both sides to make the
negotiations succeed, and there could be no more talk
of wiping out and annihilating all the French troops. A
demarcation line allowing the temporary regroupment of
both sides would be necessary...”The plenum endorsed
Ho's analysis, passing a resolution supporting a compro-
mise settlement to end the ghting. But Ho and Truong
Chinh plainly worried that following such an agreement
at Geneva, there would be internal discontent and “left-
ist deviation”and in particular that analysts would fail
to see the complexity of the situation and underestimate
the power of the American and French adversaries. They
accordingly reminded their colleagues that France would
retain control of a large part of the country, and that peo-
ple living in this area might be confused, alienated and
vulnerable to enemy manipulations.
“We have to make it clear to our people,”
Ho said, that “in the interest of the whole
country, for the sake of long-term interest, they
4.4. GENEVA ACCORDS
must accept this, because it is a glorious thing
and the whole country is grateful for that. We
must not let people have pessimistic and nega-
tive thinking; instead, we must encourage the
people to continue the struggle for the with-
drawal of French troops and ensure our inde-
pendence.”* [4]* :597–8
The Conference reconvened on July 10, and Mendès
France arrived to lead the French delegation.* [4]* :599
The State of Vietnam continued to protest against par-
tition but this had become inevitable, with the only issue
being where the line should be drawn.* [4]* :602 Walter
Bedell Smith from the US arrived in Geneva on July 16,
but the U.S. delegation was under instructions to avoid
direct association with the negotiations.* [4]* :602
All parties at the Conference called for reuni cation elec-
tions, but could not agree on the details. Pham Van Dong
proposed elections under the supervision of “local com-
missions”. The US, with the support of Britain and
the Associated States of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia,
suggested UN supervision. This plan was rejected by
Molotov, who argued for a commission composed of an
equal number of communist and non-communist mem-
bers, which could determine“important”issues only by
unanimous agreement.* [15] The negotiators were unable
to agree on a date for the elections for reuni cation. The
DRV argued that the elections should be held within 6
months of the cease re, while the Western allies sought
to have no deadline. Molotov proposed June 1955, then
later softened this to any time in 1955 and nally July
1956.* [4]* :610 The Diem government supported reuni -
cation elections, but only with e ective international su-
pervision, arguing that genuinely free elections were im-
possible in the totalitarian North.* [16]
Geneva Conference, 21 July 1954. Last plenary session on In-
dochina in the Palais des Nations. Second left Vyacheslav Molo-
tov, 2 unidenti ed Russians, Anthony Eden, Sir Harold Caccie
and W.D. Allen. In the foreground North Vietnamese delega-
tion.
By the afternoon of July 20 the remaining outstanding
issues were resolved as the parties agreed that the parti-
37
tion line should be at the 17th parallel and that the elec-
tions for reuni cation should be in July 1956, two years
after the cease re.* [4]* :604 The “Agreement on the
Cessation of Hostilities in Vietnam”was signed only by
French and Viet Minh military commands, completely
bypassing the State of Vietnam.* [15] Based on a pro-
posal by Zhou Enlai, an International Control Commis-
sion (ICC) chaired by India, with Canada and Poland
as members, was placed in charge of supervising the
cease re.* [4]* :603* [17] Because issues were to be de-
cided unanimously, Poland's presence in the ICC pro-
vided the communists e ective veto power over supervi-
sion of the treaty.* [17] The unsigned“Final Declaration
of the Geneva Conference”called for reuni cation elec-
tions, which the majority of delegates expected to be su-
pervised by the ICC. The Viet Minh never accepted ICC
authority over such elections, stating that the ICC's“com-
petence was to be limited to the supervision and control
of the implementation of the Agreement on the Cessation
of Hostilities by both parties.”* [18] Of the nine delegates
present, only the United States and the State of Vietnam
refused to accept the declaration. Bedell Smith delivered
a “unilateral declaration”of the US position, reiterat-
ing:“We shall seek to achieve unity through free elections
supervised by the United Nations to insure that they are
conducted fairly.”* [19]
While the three agreements (later known as the Geneva
Accords) were dated July 20 (to meet Mendès France's
30-day deadline) they were in fact signed on the morning
of July 21.* [4]* :605* [20]
4.4 Geneva Accords
The Geneva Accords, which were issued on July 21,
1954,* [21] set out the following terms in relation to Viet-
nam:
• a “provisional military demarcation line”running
approximately along the 17th Parallel* [22] “on ei-
ther side of which the forces of the two parties shall
be regrouped after their withdrawal”.* [22]
• a 3 miles (4.8 km) wide demilitarized zone on each
side of the demarcation line
• French Union forces to regroup to the south of the
line and Viet Minh to the north
• free movement of the population between the zone
for three hundred days
• neither zone to join any military alliance or seek mil-
itary reinforcement
• establishment of the International Control Commis-
sion, comprising Canada, Poland and India as chair,
to monitor the cease re* [4]* :605* [23]
38 CHAPTER 4. GENEVA CONFERENCE (1954)

The agreement was signed by the Democratic Republic 4.6 Post declaration events
of Vietnam, France, the People's Republic of China, the
Soviet Union and the United Kingdom. The State of Viet- Main articles: Operation Passage to Freedom and 1955
nam rejected the agreement.* [24] while the United States State of Vietnam referendum
stated that it“took note”of the cease re agreements and
declared that it would “refrain from the threat or use of
force to disturb them.* [4]* :606 On October 9, 1954, the tricolore was lowered for the
last time at the Hanoi Citadel and the last French Union
To speci cally put aside any notion that the partition was forces left the city, crossing the Paul Doumer Bridge on
permanent, an unsigned Final Declaration, stated in Arti- their way to Haiphong for embarkation.* [4]* :617–8
cle 6:“The Conference recognizes that the essential pur-
pose of the agreement relating to Vietnam is to settle mil-
itary questions with a view to ending hostilities and that
the military demarcation line is provisional and should
not in any way be interpreted as constituting a political or
territorial boundary”* [22]
Separate accords were signed by the signatories with the
Kingdom of Cambodia and the Kingdom of Laos in re-
lation to Cambodia and Laos respectively.
The British and Communist Chinese delegations reached
agreement on the sidelines of the Conference to upgrade
their diplomatic relations.* [25]

4.5 Reactions to the Geneva Ac-

cords
The DRV at Geneva accepted a much worse settlement
than the military situation on the ground indicated. “For
Ho Chi Minh, there was no getting around the fact that his
victory, however unprecedented and stunning was incom-
plete and perhaps temporary. The vision that had always
driven him on, that of a“great union”of all Vietnamese,
had ickered into view for a eeting moment in 1945-6,
then had been lost in the subsequent war. Now, despite
vanquishing the French military, the dream remained un-
realized...”* [4]* :620 This was partly as a result of the
great pressure exerted by China (Pham Van Dong is al-
leged to have said in one of the nal negotiating sessions
that Zhou Enlai double-crossed the DRV) and the Soviet
Union for their own purposes, but the Viet Minh had their
own reasons for agreeing to a negotiated settlement, prin-
cipally their own concerns regarding the balance of forces
and fear of U.S. intervention.* [4]* :607–9
France had achieved a much better outcome than could
have been expected. Bidault had stated at the beginning
of the Conference that he was playing with“a two of clubs
and a three of diamonds”whereas the DRV had several
aces, kings and queens,* [4]* :607 however Jean Chauvel
was more circumspect saying “There is no good end to
a bad business.”* [4]* :613
In a press conference on July 21, President Eisenhower
expressed satisfaction that a cease re had been concluded
but stated that the U.S. was not a party to the Accords
or bound by them as they contained provisions that his
administration could not support.* [4]* :612
Anticommunist Vietnamese refugees moving from a French LSM
landing ship to the USS Montague during Operation Passage to
Freedom in August 1954.
For Communist forces, which were instrumental in the
defeat of the French, the ideology of communism and
nationalism were linked. Many communist sympathisers
viewed the South Vietnamese as a French colonial and
later an American puppet regime. On the other hand, as
many others viewed the North Vietnamese as a puppet of
Communist International.
After the cessation of hostilities, a large migration took
place. North Vietnamese, especially Catholics, intel-
lectuals, business people, land owners, anti-communist
democrats, and members of the middle-class moved
south of the Accords-mandated cease re line during
Operation Passage to Freedom. The ICC reported that at
least 892,876 North Vietnamese were processed through
o cial refugee stations, while journalists recounted that
as many as 2 million more might have ed without the
presence of Viet Minh soldiers who frequently beat and
occasionally killed those that refused to turn back.* [26]
The CIA attempted to further in uence Catholic Viet-
namese with slogans such as 'the Virgin Mary is moving
South'. At the same time, 52,000 people from the South
4.7. NOTES
went North, mostly Viet Minh members and their fami-
lies.
The U.S. replaced the French as a political backup for
Ngo Dinh Diem, then Prime Minister of the State of Viet-
nam and he asserted his power in the South. Diem re-
fused to hold the national elections, citing that the South
did not sign and were not bound to the Geneva Accords
and that it was impossible to hold free elections in the
communist North, and went about attempting to crush
communist opposition.* [27]
On May 20, 1955, French Union forces withdrew from
Saigon to a coastal bases and on April 28, 1956 the last
French forces left Vietnam.* [4]* :650
North Vietnam violated the Geneva Accords by failing
to fully withdraw Viet Minh troops from South Vietnam,
sti ing the movement of North Vietnamese refugees, and
conducting a massive military build-up that more than
doubled the number of armed divisions in the North Viet-
namese army (while the South Vietnamese army was re-
duced by 20,000 men).* [28] North Vietnam established
military operations in the South in violation of the Geneva
Accords, by providing military supplies and equipment,
weaponry, and military personnel and leadership to the
Viet Cong in the South. Guerrilla activity in the South es-
calated, while U.S. military advisers continued to support
the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, which was cre-
ated as a replacement for the Vietnamese National Army.
The failure of reuni cation led to the creation of the
National Liberation Front (better known as the Vietcong)
by Ho Chi Minh's government. They were closely aided
by the Vietnam People's Army (VPA) of the North, also
known as the North Vietnamese Army. The result was
the Second Indochinese War, more commonly known as
the Vietnam War or American War in Viet Nam.
The historian John Lewis Gaddis said that the 1954 ac-
cords “were so hastily drafted and ambiguously worded
that, from the standpoint of international law, it makes [23] (Article 3) (N. Tarling, The Cambridge History of South-
little sense to speak of violations from either side.”* [29] east Asia, Volume Two Part Two: From World War II to
4.7 Notes
[1] Young, Marilyn (1991). The Vietnam Wars: 1945-1990.
New York: HarperPerennial. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-06-
092107-1.
[2] “Indochina - Midway in the Geneva Conference: Address
by the Secretary of State”. Avalon Project. Yale Law
School. May 7, 1954. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
[3]“The Geneva Conference”. Ministry of Foreign A airs of
the People's Republic of China. 2000-11-17. Retrieved
29 April 2010.
[4] Logevall, Fredrik (2012). Embers of War: The Fall of
an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam. random
House. ISBN 978-0-679-64519-1.
39
[5] “Text of the Korean War Armistice Agreement”. Find-
law. Columbia University. July 27, 1953. Retrieved 29
April 2010.
[6] Kathryn C. Statler, Replacing France: The Origins of
American Intervention in Vietnam, University Press of
Kentucky, July 2007
[7] Bailey, Sydney D. (1992). The Korean Armistice. St.
Martin's Press. p. 163.
[8] Bailey, Sydney D. (1992). The Korean Armistice. St.
Martin's Press. pp. 167–168.
[9] Turner 1975, p. 92.
[10] Turner 1975, p. 108.
[11] Turner 1975, p. 93.
[12] Turner 1975, p. 88.
[13] Turner 1975, p. 94.
[14] Turner 1975, p. 94-95.
[15] Turner 1975, p. 97.
[16] Turner 1975, p. 107.
[17] Turner, p. 97.
[18] Turner 1975, p. 99.
[19] Turner 1975, pp. 99-100.
[20] Turner, p. 96.
[21] “The Final Declarations of the Geneva Conference July
21, 1954”. The Wars for Viet Nam. Vassar College.
Retrieved 20 July 2011.
[22] The United States in Vietnam: An analysis in depth of the
history of America's involvement in Vietnam by George
McTurnan Kahin and John W. Lewis Delta Books, 1967.
the present, Cambridge University Press, p45)
[24] Ang Cheng Guan (1997). Vietnamese Communists' Rela-
tions with China and the Second Indochina War (1956–
62). Je erson, NC: McFarland. p. 11. ISBN 0-7864-
0404-3.
[25] Lowe, Peter (January 1997). Containing the Cold War
in East Asia: British Policies Towards Japan, China and
Korea, 1948-53. Manchester University Press. p. 261.
ISBN 9780719025082. Retrieved July 21, 2013.
[26] Turner 1975, p. 102-103.
[27] Keylor, William. “The 20th Century World and Beyond:
An International History Since 1900,”p.371, Oxford Uni-
versity Press: 2011.
[28] Turner 1975, p. 100-104.
[29] Fadiman, Anne. The Spirit Catches You and You Fall
Down. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 1997. 126.
40 CHAPTER 4. GENEVA CONFERENCE (1954)

4.8 Bibliography
• Asselin, Pierre.“The Democratic Republic of Viet-
nam and the 1954 Geneva Conference: a revisionist
critique.”Cold War History (2011) 11#2 pp: 155-
195.
• Hannon Jr, John S. “Political Settlement for Viet-
nam: The 1954 Geneva Conference and Its Current
Implications, A.”Virginia Journal of International
Law 8 (1967): 4.

• Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese Communism:

Its Origins and Development. Hoover Institution
Publications. ISBN 9780817914318.
• Waite, James. The End of the First Indochina War:
A Global History (2013)
• Young, Kenneth T. The 1954 Geneva Conference:
Indo-China and Korea (Greenwood Press, 1968)

4.9 External links

• “The Geneva Conference of 1954 – New Evi-
dence from the Archives of the Ministry of For-
eign A airs of the People's Republic of China”
(PDF). Cold War International History Project Bul-
letin. Woodrow Wilson International Center for
Scholars (16). 2008-04-22. Archived from the orig-
inal (PDF) on 2009-03-27. Retrieved 2009-04-14.

• Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars

- Cold War International History Project - The 1954
Geneva Conference July 13, 2011

• Indochina – History links for French involvement in

Indochina, casahistoria.net

• Vietnam – History links for US involvement in In-

dochina, casahistoria.net

• Bibliography: Dien Bien Phu and the Geneva Con-

ference

• Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954,

volume XVI, The Geneva Conference. Available
through the Foreign Relations of the United States on-
line collection at the University of Wisconsin.
Chapter 5

Operation Passage to Freedom

Up to a million refugees left communist North Vietnam during

Propaganda poster exhorting Northerners to move South. Title:
Operation Passage to Freedom after the country was partitioned.
“Go South to avoid Communism”. Bottom caption: “People
of Southern Vietnam are welcoming with open arms Northern
Operation Passage to Freedom was a term used by the Vietnamese people.”
United States Navy to describe its assistance in trans-
porting in 1954–55 310,000 Vietnamese civilians, sol-
diers and non-Vietnamese members of the French Army fore the border was sealed. The partition was intended
from communist North Vietnam (the Democratic Repub- to be temporary, pending elections in 1956 to reunify the
lic of Vietnam) to South Vietnam (the State of Viet- country under a national government. Between 600,000
nam, later to become the Republic of Vietnam). The and one million northerners moved south, including more
French and other countries may have transported a fur- than 200,000 French citizens and soldiers in the French
ther 500,000.* [1]* [2]* [3] In the wake of the French de- army * [4] while between 14,000 - 45,000 civilians and
feat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, the Geneva Accords approximately 100,000 Viet Minh ghters moved in the
of 1954 decided the fate of French Indochina after eight opposite direction.* [1]* [5]* [6]
years of war between French Union forces and the Viet The mass emigration of northerners was facilitated pri-
Minh, which sought Vietnamese independence. The ac- marily by the French Air Force and Navy. Ameri-
cords resulted in the partition of Vietnam at the 17th par- can naval vessels supplemented the French in evacuating
allel north, with Ho Chi Minh's communist Viet Minh northerners to Saigon, the southern capital. The opera-
in control of the north and the French-backed State of tion was accompanied by a large humanitarian relief ef-
Vietnam in the south. The agreements allowed a 300- fort, bankrolled in the main by the United States govern-
day period of grace, ending on May 18, 1955, in which ment in an attempt to absorb a large tent city of refugees
people could move freely between the two Vietnams be- that had sprung up outside Saigon. For the US, the migra-

41
42
tion was a public relations coup, generating wide coverage
of the ight of Vietnamese from the perceived oppres-
sion of communism to the “free world”in the southern
dictatorship under American auspices. The period was
marked by a Central Intelligence Agency-backed propa-
ganda campaign on behalf of South Vietnam's Roman
Catholic Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem. The campaign
exhorted Catholics to ee impending religious persecu-
tion under communism, and around 60% of the north's 1
million Catholics obliged.* [6]* [7]
5.1 Background
Main articles: First Indochina War and Geneva Confer-
ence (1954)
At the end of World War II, the Viet Minh had
proclaimed independence under the Democratic Repub-
lic of Vietnam (DRV) in September 1945. This occurred
after the withdrawal of Imperial Japan, which had seized
control of the French colony during World War II. The
military struggle started in November 1946 when France
attempted to reassert control over Indochina with an at-
tack on the northern port city of Haiphong.* [8] The DRV
was recognised by the Soviet Union and the People's Re-
public of China (PRC). On the other hand, the western
powers recognised the French-backed State of Vietnam,
nominally led by Emperor Bảo Đại, but with a French-
trained Vietnamese National Army (VNA) which was
loyal to the French Union forces. In May 1954, after eight
years of ghting, the French were surrounded and de-
feated in a mountainous northern fortress at the Battle of
Dien Bien Phu.* [9] France's withdrawal from Indochina
was nalised in the Geneva Accords of July 1954, after
two months of negotiations between Ho's DRV, France,
the PRC and the Soviet Union. Under the terms of
the agreement, Vietnam was temporarily divided at the
17th parallel north pending elections in 1956 to choose
a national government that would administer a reuni ed
country. The communist Viet Minh were left in control
of North Vietnam, while the State of Vietnam controlled
the south. French Union forces would gradually with-
draw from Vietnam as the situation stabilised.* [10] Both
Vietnamese sides were unsatis ed with the outcome at
Geneva; Ngo Dinh Diem, Prime Minister of the State of
Vietnam, denounced France's agreement and ordered his
delegation not to sign. He stated “We cannot recognise
the seizure by Soviet China . . . of over half of our
national territory”and that “We can neither concur in
the brutal enslavement of millions of compatriots”.* [11]
North Vietnamese Prime Minister Phạm Văn Đồng ex-
pressed bitterness after his Soviet and Chinese backers
threatened to cut support if he did not agree to the peace
terms; Dong had wanted to press home the Viet Minh's
military advantage so they could lay claim to more terri-
tory at the negotiating table.* [11]
CHAPTER 5. OPERATION PASSAGE TO FREEDOM
Under the accords, there was to be a 300-day period in
which free civilian movement was allowed between the
two zones, whereas military forces were compelled to re-
locate to their respective sides. All French Far East Ex-
peditionary Corps and VNA forces in the north were to
be evacuated south of the 17th parallel, while all Viet
Minh ghters had to relocate to the north. The accords
stipulated that civilians were to be given the opportunity
to move to their preferred half of Vietnam.* [12] Article
14(d) of the accords stated that:
Any civilians residing in a district con-
trolled by one party who wish to go and live
in the zone assigned to the other party shall be
permitted and helped to do so.* [12]
Article 14(d) allowed for a 300-day period of free move-
ment between the two Vietnams,* [13] ending on May 18,
1955. The parties had given little thought to the logis-
tics of the population resettlement during the negotia-
tions at Geneva, and assumed the matter would be minor.
Despite claiming that his northern compatriots had been
“enslaved”,* [12] Diem expected no more than 10,000
refugees. General Paul Ely, the French Commissioner-
General of Indochina, expected that around 30,000 land-
lords and business executives would move south and pro-
claimed that he would take responsibility for transport-
ing any Vietnamese who wanted to move to territory
controlled by the French Union, such as South Viet-
nam. French Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France and
his government had planned to provide aid for around
50,000 displaced persons.* [12] Mendes-France was sure
that the FFEEC would be able to handle the work all by
itself.* [14] The Americans saw the period as an opportu-
nity to weaken the communist north.* [12]
5.2 Evacuation
The predictions made by Diem and Ely were extremely
inaccurate.* [12] There had been heavy ghting in north-
ern Vietnam, where the Vietminh were at their strongest,
and many people had been forced to abandon their
homes.* [15] Although French charities had been operat-
ing in the north, the refugee camps were disorganised and
were able to provide little more than shelter. As a result,
there was a great number of northerners who wanted to
leave and start a new life in the south.* [16]
The French started their evacuation with their pre-
conceived notion that few would want to head south. As
knowledge of the migration program spread through the
communist-controlled north, thousands of predominantly
northern Catholic asylum-seekers descended on the cap-
ital Hanoi and the port of Haiphong, both of which were
still in French control. This led to anarchy and confu-
sion as the emigrants fought over limited shelter, food,
medicine and places on the ships and planes that were
5.2. EVACUATION
Vietnamese refugees move from a French landing ship to the USS
Montague during Operation Passage to Freedom in August 1954.
bound for the south. By early August, there were over
200,000 evacuees waiting in Hanoi and Haiphong.* [12]
Initially the ad hoc camps had insu cient sanitation and
water quality control, leading to the possibility of out-
breaks of disease. Some American representatives said
that they were the worst conditions they had seen.* [17]
The conditions continued to be poor and chaotic after the
evacuation got into full swing, and did not improve signif-
icantly for a month.* [18] There was no organization in-
frastructure as far as registration or medical records and
immunisation of the waiting evacuees.* [17] The com-
munists thus sent their propaganda activists through the
camps and said that the lack of organisation proved that
life for prospective refugees would be even worse in the
south, where they would be completely under the control
of South Vietnam.* [19]
The French Navy and Air Force had been depleted during
World War II. They were unable to deal with the unex-
pectedly large number of refugees.* [12] This was exac-
erbated by their unwillingness to allow civilian evacuees
to travel on trains from outlying districts to Hanoi and
Haiphong, as their priority was evacuating their military
personnel and equipment. France asked Washington for
assistance, so the US Department of Defense ordered the
US Navy to mobilise an evacuation task force.* [12]
The American government saw the evacuation as an op-
portunity to weaken the communists by providing for
and thereby winning the loyalty of the refugees to the
anti-communist cause.* [15] The United States Operation
Mission proposed that aside from helping to evacuate
refugees to the south and thereby draining the communist
43
population base, the Americans should provide health-
care, shelter, food and clothing in order to help the anti-
communists win the delity of their compatriots.* [20]
Another bene t of participating in the evacuation was
that American personnel would be on the ground in North
Vietnam, allowing them to gather intelligence on commu-
nist activities.* [21]
Accordingly, Task Force 90 (CTF-90) was inaugurated
under the command of Rear Admiral Lorenzo Sabin. US
servicemen renovated and transformed cargo vessels and
tank carriers to house the thousands of Vietnamese who
would be evacuated in them. The repairs were frequently
done en route to Haiphong from their bases at Subic Bay
in the Philippines.* [12] Sabin had no prior involvement
in humanitarian matters, and he and his sta prepared
Operation Order 2–54—the 114-page policy framework
for the operation—in the space of a week during their sea
voyage from Japan to Vietnam.* [21]
The rst US vessel to participate in the mass evacuation
was the Menard, which left Haiphong on August 17. It
carried 1,924 refugees for a 1,600 kilometre, three-day
journey to the southern capital.* [22] By this time, there
were already 132,000 people registered at the waiting ar-
eas, although very few had any identi cation.* [19] As a
result, there would be more work to be done in identify-
ing their needs once they arrived in the south.* [19] The
Montrose followed on the next day, with 2,100 passen-
gers. Both were originally built as attack transport ves-
sels. In August, the US policy was liberalised so that
Vietnamese and French military personnel could also be
evacuated at the discretion of CTF-90 and the Chief Mil-
itary Assistance Advisory Group (CHMAAG).* [22] To
cope with the rising volume of southbound sea transport,
CHMAAG established a refugee debarkation site at Vũng
Tàu, a coastal port at the entrance of the Saigon River.
This site relieved congestion in the Saigon refugee camps
and decreased the tra c bottlenecks along the river. A
setback occurred when a typhoon struck the Haiphong
area, destroying almost half of the refugee staging area.
Despite the problems, by September 3, the US Navy
had evacuated 47,000 northerners after only two weeks
of operations.* [23] The high rate of evacuation caused
the South Vietnamese government to order that only one
shipment of at most 2,500 passengers was to arrive in
Saigon or Vũng Tàu per day, until September 25. The
population pressure in the south was eased as incoming
numbers fell due to Viet Minh propaganda campaigns
and forcible detention, combined with the rice harvest-
ing season, which had prompted some to delay their de-
parture.* [24] Some were even waiting to nish all their
business deals before moving in the Lunar New Year.
On October 10, the Viet Minh were given full control
of Hanoi, closing o one point of evacuation for those
who wanted out.* [25] Some also decided to stay behind
and see how the Viet Minh would treat the inhabitants
of Hanoi before making a decision on whether to leave
their ancestral lands.* [25] On October 20, the French au-
44
thorities that were still in control of the ports decided to
waive docking fees on US vessels engaged in the evacu-
ation.* [24] Because of the high demand, the naval ves-
sels had to travel quickly; one ship completed one round
trip in a record of only six days.* [26] The record for the
most passengers taken in one journey was set by the USS
General Black, which sailed on October 29 with 5,224
Vietnamese aboard.* [27] In November, the evacuation
was further hampered by another typhoon, while the en-
tire crew of one American vessel were struck down by
a scabies outbreak.* [28] In December, because of Viet
Minh obstruction, which prevented people from rural and
regional areas from travelling to Hanoi and Haiphong
to emigrate, the French Navy sent ships to hover just
o the coast near the regional town of Vinh to evacuate
refugees.* [29]
USS Menard, the rst American ship to participate in the naval
evacuation
According to COMIGAL,* [30] the South Vietnamese
government agency responsible for the migration, French
aircraft made 4,280 trips, carrying a total of 213,635
refugees. A total of 555,037 passengers were recorded
on 505 sea trips. The French Navy accounted for the
vast majority of the naval evacuees, with 388 voyages,
while the US Navy made 109. British, Taiwanese and
Polish ships made two, two and four journeys respec-
tively. The o cial gures reported that a total of 768,672
people had migrated under military supervision. Of this
number around 190,000 were French and Saigon sol-
diers and returned prisoners; some 43,000 were mili-
tary dependents, “15,000–25,000 Nung tribesmen who
were military auxiliaries, between 25,000 and 40,000
French citizens, and about 45,000 Chinese residents.”
*
[2] It also included several thousand people who had
worked for the French and Vietnamese administrations
in the North. The o cial gures recorded that more
than 109,000 people journeyed into the south by their
own means, some arriving outside the 300-day period.
These people typically crossed the river that divided the
zones on makeshift rafts, sailed on improvised water-
craft into a southern port, or trekked through Laos. As
of 1957, the South Vietnamese government claimed a
total of 928,152 refugees, of whom 98.3% were ethnic
Vietnamese. The 1957 report said that 85% were en- The largest numbers of Catholic refugees came from the
gaged in farming or shing for their livelihood and 85%
CHAPTER 5. OPERATION PASSAGE TO FREEDOM
were Catholics, while the remainder were Buddhists or
Protestants.* [31] However, an October 1955 government
report claimed that 76.3% were Catholics, 23.5% were
Buddhists and 0.2% Protestants.* [32] In 1959, however,
the head of COMIGAL, Bui Van Luong, admitted that
the actual number of refugees could have been as low
as 600,000. The o cial data excluded approximately
120,000 anti-communist military personnel and claimed
that only 4,358 people moved north, though no historians
consider this number credible. The northward migration
was attributed to itinerant workers from rubber planta-
tions who returned north for family reasons.* [31]
An independent study by the French historian Bernard
B. Fall determined that the US Navy transported around
310,000 refugees. The French were credited with around
214,000 airlifted refugees, 270,000 seaborne refugees
and 120,000 and 80,000 Vietnamese and French military
evacuees respectively.* [3] During the US Navy voyages,
54 people died on board, and 111 babies were born.* [26]
Fall believed that of the 109,000 refugees who went south
by their own means, a large number hitchhiked on south-
bound French transport vessels that were not related to
the migration operation. Fall felt that the gures were
likely to have been overestimated, due to immigration
fraud. Some refugees would travel south and register
themselves, before smuggling themselves onto vessels re-
turning north for another shipment of humans. They
would then return south and re-register to claim another
aid package. Likewise, with instances of entire villages
moving south, the authorities frequently did not explic-
itly count the number of villagers, but simply took the
word of the village leaders. The chiefs would often in-
ate the population gures to claim more aid rations. The
mass exodus did not disrupt the north largely because
whole villages often emigrated, instead of half a village
moving and leaving the remainder of the community in
disarray. Fall estimated that around 120,000 Viet Minh
troops and their dependents went north. Most of these
evacuations were attributed to Viet Minh military strat-
egy, with some being ordered to stay behind in readiness
for future guerrilla activities. The northward movement
was facilitated by vessels leaving from assembly areas at
Qui Nhơn and Cà Mau at the southernmost extremity
of Vietnam. The voyages to North Vietnam were pro-
vided by empty French ships heading back north to fetch
more southbound anti-communists, as well vessels from
communist nations such as Poland. The Viet Minh also
actively cultivated the Montagnard indigenous people of
Vietnam, whose land in the Central Highlands was en-
croached upon by incoming northern settlers. The com-
munists spread propaganda through broadcasts in tribal
languages and in ltrated the highland areas. According
to a study by the Michigan State University Group, some
6,000 tribespeople went north with the communists, ac-
companied by some Viet Minh who had adopted the in-
digenous culture.* [3]
5.2. EVACUATION 45

of ghting,* [35] and that the varying and high rate of

departures among rural Catholics was due to the in u-
ence of the local clergy;* [36] priests in northern Viet-
nam were noted to be more theocratic and involved in
civic decision-making.* [37] They used a variety of ways
to persuade their disciples to migrate; some explained
their belief that circumstances would be di cult for peo-
ple who did not immigrate, some simply gave dogmatic
reasons such as“God is not here any more”,* [37] while
others gave no reason at all and made declarations such as
“We are leaving tomorrow”in the expectation that their
followers would obey without question.* [37] Surveys on
the immigrants suggested they were largely content to fol-
low the recommendation of the local priest.* [37] In some
Refugees transfer from a French LCT landing craft to British car- areas, the bishop in charge of the diocese told Catholics
rier HMS Warrior at the port of Haiphong during the operation to stay, but laypeople were more likely to leave or stay
4 September 1954 depending on the stance of the local priest with whom
they had regular contact; in many cases, such as in Hanoi,
a majority of priests ignored their bishop and left any-
way.* [38]
two northern dioceses with the highest percentage of
Catholics in Vietnam.* [33] These were Phát Diêm and In many cases, families left some members behind in the
*
Bffli Chu, mainly located in modern-day Ninh Bình and hope that they would retain land for the family, [39] while
Nam Định Provinces respectively. The bishops of the there were reports that a minority of Catholics with links
*
dioceses, had been strident opponents of the communists, to the communists decided to stay willingly. [40]
and both had organised Catholic paramilitary groups that The US provided emergency food, medical care, cloth-
fought against the Viet Minh, which had long identi ed ing and shelter at reception centres in Saigon and else-
Catholics with colonial collaborationism.* [33] When the where in the south. American sources donating through
communists had gained the upper hand in the north, many the United States Operations Mission (USOM) were re-
Catholics had already begun making preparations to move sponsible for 97% of the aid.* [41] The USOM sent pub-
to the south, where the communists were less in uen- lic health professionals to help with sanitation in an at-
tial, and large movements began immediately when news tempt to prevent the spread of disease. Doctors and
of the partition came through.* [33] After the defeat of nurses were sent to help train local workers in health-
French Union forces at Dien Bien Phu, French o cers care procedures, so that they would eventually be able to
had evacuated their troops from Bui Chu and Phat Diem take care of the medical needs refugees.* [15] In order
to reinforce the area between Hanoi and Haiphong which of contributions to the aid e orts, the US were followed
they still controlled, making it very easy for the commu- by France, United Kingdom, Australia, West Germany,
nists to progress through the Catholic strongholds.* [33] New Zealand and the Netherlands.* [41] Australian sent
The French withdrawal was not announced and was sup- farming equipment and accompanying technical instruc-
posed to be secret, but the local church leadership found tors under the Colombo Plan.* [26]
out quickly and the local Catholic community had already
begun to move to the ports before end of talks in Geneva. With most of the refugees being Catholic, the volun-
By the time the accords were signed, 45,000 Catholic tary agencies most prominent in helping the US and
refugees were already waiting in Hanoi, Haiphong or Hải French governments with humanitarian relief e orts
Dương.* [33] According to the records of the Catholic were Catholic. The National Catholic Welfare Con-
Church, over 70% of Catholics in Bui Chu and Phat ference and Catholic Relief Services contributed over
Diem left, compared to around 50% in most other ar- US$35 million ($312 million as of 2017) and sent hun-
eas. The Catholic records claim that only a third of dreds of aid workers to South Vietnam. US clerics such
Hanoi Catholics left, and that around 80% of all clergy as Joseph Harnett spent more than a year supervising
left.* [32] In all areas, a higher proportion of priests left the establishment of humanitarian and religious projects
than laypeople, which has been attributed to the com- in Saigon. These included the establishment and main-
munists in icting heavier punishments on more promi- tenance of orphanages, hospitals, schools and churches.
nent opposition gures, such as clerics.* [34] The depar- Harnett's volunteers fed rice and warm milk to 100,000
ture rate was also lower in areas further removed from refugees on a daily basis. Tens of thousands of blankets
the coastal areas and departure ports;* [35] in Hưng Hóa, donated by the American Catholic organisations served as
only 11.8% of Catholics were recorded by their diocese beds, makeshift roofs against monsoonal downpours *
and
*
as have migrated. [32] It has been speculated that the low as temporary walls in mass housing facilities. [42] The
rate of Hanoi residents choosing to depart may have been United Nations Children's Fund contributed technical as-
because the city was relatively untouched by the decade sistance and helped to distribute merchandise, foodstu s
46
and various other gifts.* [41]
5.3 Propaganda campaign
Colonel Edward Lansdale
The US ran a propaganda campaign through the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) to enhance the size of the
southward exodus. The program was directed by Colonel
Edward Lansdale, who masqueraded as the assistant US
air attaché in Saigon while leading a covert group that spe-
cialised in psychological warfare. Lansdale had advised
Diem that it was imperative to maximise the population
in the south in preparation for the national reuni cation
elections. When Diem noted the limited ability of the
south to absorb refugees, Lansdale assured him that the
US would bear the burden. Diem thus authorised Lans-
dale to launch the propaganda campaign. According to
the historian Seth Jacobs, the campaign “ranked with
the most audacious enterprises in the history of covert
action”.* [43] Lansdale recollected that “U.S. o cials
wanted to make sure that as many persons as possible,
particularly the strongly anti-communist Catholics, relo-
cated in the South”.* [44] While many Diem supporters
claimed that the mass exodus was proof of the popularity
of Diem and the people's hatred of communism, the CIA
operative Chester Cooper said “the vast movement of
Catholics to South Vietnam was not spontaneous”.* [45]
However, while Lansdale is often credited by historians
—usually those critical of his in uence—with the large
exodus of refugees due to superstition, he rejected the no-
tion that his campaign had much e ect on popular sen-
timent, saying in later years: “People don’t just pull
CHAPTER 5. OPERATION PASSAGE TO FREEDOM
up their roots and transplant themselves because of slo-
gans. They honestly feared what might happen to them,
and their emotion was strong enough to overcome their
attachment to their land, their homes, and their ances-
tral graves. So the initiative was very much theirs—and
we mainly made the transportation possible.”* [46] Some
northerners who stayed behind and were interviewed half
a century later said that they had not come across any pro-
migration propaganda and said that their decisions were
based on discussions with fellow locals.* [39] They said
that concerns over the possible e ects of communist rule
were discussed among themselves independent of outside
information.* [39]
Lansdale employed a variety of stunts to encourage more
northerners to move south. South Vietnamese soldiers in
civilian clothing in ltrated the north, spreading rumours
of impending doom. One story was that the communists
had a deal with Vietnam's traditional enemy China, allow-
ing two communist Chinese divisions to invade the north.
The story reported that the Chinese were raping and pil-
laging with the tacit approval of the communists. Lans-
dale hired counterfeiters to produce bogus Viet Minh
lea ets on how to behave under communist rule, advising
them to create a list of their material possessions so that
the communists would be able to con scate them more
easily, thereby fomenting peasant discontent.* [43]
Lansdale's men forged documents allegedly issued by the
Vietminh that promised to seize all private property. He
claimed that “The day following distribution of these
leatlets, refugee registration tripled”.* [44] The Cen-
tral Evacuation Committee in Haiphong, an American-
funded group, issued pamphlets claiming that in South
Vietnam, “the cost of living is three times less”,* [44]
and that there would be welfare payments and free rice-
lands, the latter two of which were false.* [44] It said that
“By remaining in the North you will experience famine
and will damn your souls. Set out now, brothers and sis-
ters!"* [44]
Lansdale's campaign focused on northern Catholics, who
were known for their strongly anti-communist tendencies.
His sta printed tens of thousands of pamphlets with slo-
gans such as “Christ has gone south”and “the Virgin
Mary has departed from the North”,* [47] alleging anti-
Catholic persecution under Ho Chi Minh. Posters de-
picting communists closing a cathedral and forcing the
congregation to pray in front of Ho, adorned with a cap-
tion “make your choice”, were pasted around Hanoi
and Haiphong.* [47] Diem himself went to Hanoi several
times in 1954 while the French were still garrisoned there
to encourage Catholics to move, portraying himself as a
savior of Catholics.* [48] The campaign resonated with
northern Catholic priests, who told their disciples that Ho
would end freedom of worship, that sacraments would no
longer be given and that anyone who stayed behind would
endanger their souls.* [47] A survey of refugees some ve
decades later con rmed that they felt their interests would
be best served under a Catholic leader and that Diem had
5.4. COMMUNIST PREVENTION OF EMIGRATION 47

substantial personal appeal due to his religion.* [48] Some the emigrants that it was a high and futile risk, assert-
have argued that the Catholics would have left regardless ing that the 1956 reuni cation elections would result in
of Lansdale's activities, as they had rst-hand experiences a decisive communist victory.* [52] The communist ef-
of their priests and co-religionists being captured and ex- forts were helped by the fact that many French or State
ecuted for resisting the communist revolution.* [49] of Vietnam o ces in the north evacuated their personnel
Regardless of the impact of the propaganda campaigns, and sold or otherwise left behind their printing *
facilities,
the Catholic immigrants helped to strengthen Diem's many of which fell into Viet Minh hands. [53]
support base. Before the partition, most of Vietnam's
Catholic population lived in the north. After the bor-
ders were sealed, the majority were now under Diem's 5.4 Communist prevention of emi-
rule. The Catholics implicitly trusted Diem due to their
common faith and were a source of loyal political sup- gration
port. One of Diem's main objections to the Geneva
Accords —which the State of Vietnam refused to sign Along with counter-propaganda, the Viet Minh also
—was that it deprived him of the Catholic regions of sought to detain or otherwise prevent would-be refugees
North Vietnam,* [42] and he had unsuccessfully called for from leaving. As the American and French military per-
Bui Chu and Phat Diem to be omitted from the com- sonnel were only present in the major cities and at air
munist zone.* [50] With entire Catholic provinces mov- bases and on the waterfront, the communists tried to
ing south en masse, in 1956 the Diocese of Saigon had stop people from trying to leave through a military pres-
more Catholics than Paris and Rome. Of Vietnam's 1.45 ence in the ruralside to interdict the ow of would-be
million Catholics, over a million lived in the south, 55% refugees.* [27] The communists were most e ective in
of whom were northern refugees.* [42] Prior to this, only Nghệ An and Thanh Hóa Provinces, which they had long
520,000 Catholics lived in the Dioceses of Saigon and controlled;* [35] only 20% of Catholics in Thanh Hóa
Huế combined.* [51] migrated.* [32] In parts of the Red River Delta, ferry
Apart from anti-communist campaigning, economics was services and other water tra c were shut down so* that
another factor in moving south. The US gave hand- refugees would not be able to travel to Haiphong. [54]
outs of US$89 ($794 as of 2017) for each refugee who In some cases there were reports of thousands-strong
moved; the per capita income in Vietnam at the time groups of refugees being forced back *
by similar num-
was only $85 per year ($758 per year as of 2017). [44]* bers of armed communist cadres. [54] The most noto-
Others have pointed to natural geographic factors unre- rious took place at Tra Ly and Ba Lang. At Tra Ly,
lated to and uncontrollable by political regimes. They Viet Minh troops forcibly dispersed most of a group of
point to the fact that the land in the south was seen as about 10,000 refugees. Some villagers who ed to sand-
being more productive, and memories of the Great Viet- bars o shore hoping for sanctuary were trapped by ris-
namese Famine of 1945, which killed millions in the ing tides. The French asked the International Control
north, as reasons independent of politics that motivated Commission to dispatch mobile teams to Tra Ly, but
migrants.* [39] In the mid-1950s, northern Vietnam again the Viet Minh hindered ICC movement and had nished
su ered food shortages, and some migrants have cited their job before the team arrived. French naval o -
food security as motive for relocation.* [48] Adding to this cers on the scene reported that the Viet Minh red upon
was a general perception that Saigon was a more mod- villagers in the dunes. At Ba Lang in December, the
ern city with more economic vibrancy.* [48] Earlier in the Viet Minh arrested refugee leaders who had contacted a
20th century, there had also been instances of campaigns French ship. This prompted villagers to clash with sol-
by Catholics to encourage southerly migration to exploit diers, killing one and capturing three, before barricading
underdeveloped land in the south, so it was not a new con- themselves inside a church. Troops forced their way into
cept for them.* [39] the church and dispersed the Vietnamese peasants, arrest-
ing several hundred. The village leader and a priest were
The Viet Minh engaged in counter-propaganda cam- tried by a kangaroo“People’s Court”and sentenced to
paigns in an attempt to deter the exodus from the prison.* [2] As a result, many refugees headed directly for
north.* [52] They moved through the neighbourhoods of the nearest coastal point to wait for passing vessels.* [55]
Hanoi and Haiphong on a daily basis, passing out their In one sweep of the coast near the Catholic stronghold of
pamphlets.* [53] Evacuees reported being ridiculed by Phát Diêm, the French Navy picked up 42,000 stranded
the Viet Minh, who claimed that they would be sadis- refugees in two days.* [28] The VNA also swept the area
tically tortured before being killed by the French and in late 1954 for two days, picking up several thousand
American authorities in Haiphong. The communists de- refugees, but increasing communist attacks forced them
picted the personnel of Task Force 90 as cannibals who to stop.* [56] In some rural coastal areas where it was
would eat their babies, predicting disaster in the jungles, common for refugees to converge before boarding vessels
beaches and mountains of South Vietnam.* [52] They fur- to connect to the long-distance naval vessels taking them
ther said that the Americans would throw them overboard south, the Viet Minh installed mortars on the beaches to
to drown in the ocean.* [53] The Viet Minh boasted to deter prospective immigrants.* [57]
48
They prohibited mass gatherings in an attempt to stop en-
tire villages or other large groups of people from emigrat-
ing together, and also isolated people who sold their water
bu alo and other belongings, as this was a clear sign that
they intended to end their farming.* [57] Both the Amer-
icans and the South Vietnamese lodged complaints to the
International Control Commission about the violations of
the Geneva Accords, but little action was taken.* [58] Ac-
cording to B. S. M. Murti, the Indian representative on
the ICC, the communists did not try to stop the refugees
at rst, but increased their e orts over time as it became
clearer that large proportions of the population wanted to
emigrate.* [35]
5.5 Media and public relations
“the people of Vietnam became a cruci ed people and
A Vietnamese Catholic evacuee. Catholics represented approxi-
mately 85% of the refugees in South Vietnam.
The United States reaped substantial public relations ben-
e ts from the mass exodus, which was used to depict the
allure of the“free world”.* [42] This was enhanced by the
comparatively negligible number of people who volun-
tarily moved into the communist north. The event gener-
ated unprecedented press coverage of Vietnam.* [42] Ini-
tially however, the press coverage was scant, and Admi-
ral Sabin bemoaned the lack of promotional work done
by the US Navy to publicise the evacuation among the
American media.* [59] At one point, a journalist from the
Associated Press travelled from Manila to Haiphong, but
was ordered back by superiors on the grounds that Amer-
icans were not interested in the subject.* [60]
CHAPTER 5. OPERATION PASSAGE TO FREEDOM
However, over time, the media interest grew. Many
prominent news agencies sent highly decorated reporters
to cover the event. The New York Times dispatched
Tillman and Peggy Durdin, while the New York Her-
ald Tribune sent the Pulitzer Prize-winning war reporters
Marguerite Higgins and Homer Bigart. Future US em-
bassy o cial John Mecklin covered the event for Time
Life. The press reports presented highly laudatory and
emotional accounts of the mass exodus of Vietnamese
away from the communist north. Time Life called the
mass migration “a tragedy of almost nightmarish pro-
portions ... Many [refugees] went without food or water
or medicine for days, sustained only by the faith in their
heart.”* [42]
In the American Catholic press, the migration was given
front page coverage in diocesan newspapers. The ac-
counts were often sensationalist, demonizing the com-
munist Viet Minh as religious persecutors who commit-
ted barbaric atrocities against Catholics.* [61] Our Sunday
Visitor called the“persecution”in Vietnam“the worst in
history”,* [61]* [62] alleging that the Viet Minh engaged
in“child murder and cannibalism”.* [61]* [62] San Fran-
cisco's Monitor told of a priest whom the Viet Minh“beat
with guns until insensible and then buried alive in a ditch”
.* [61]* [63] Newark, Ohio's The Advocate posted an edi-
torial cartoon titled“Let Our People Go!",* [61]* [64] de-
picting mobs of Vietnamese refugees attempting to break
through a blood-laced fence of barbed wire. Milwaukee's
Catholic Herald Citizen described two priests who had
been chained together and “su ered atrocious and end-
less agony”.* [61]* [65] Other papers depicted the Viet
Minh blowing up churches, torturing children and gun-
ning down elderly Catholics. One paper proclaimed that
their homeland a national Golgotha”.* [61] The Catholic
media also ran stories about Buddhist refugees who con-
verted, hailing it as proof of their religion's superior-
ity.* [66]
5.6 Social integration
The mass in ux of refugees presented various social is-
sues for South Vietnam. The new arrivals needed to be in-
tegrated into society with jobs and housing, as long peri-
ods in tents and temporary housing would sap morale and
possibly foster pro-communist sympathies. Diem had to
devise programs to ease his new citizens into the eco-
nomic system.* [67]
Diem appointed Bui Van Luong —a family friend and
devout Catholic—as the head of COMIGAL, the gov-
ernment resettlement agency. COMIGAL worked in
cooperation with the United States Operations Mission,
the non-military wing of the American presence and
the Military Assistance Advisory Group.* [67] Although
COMIGAL was purely dedicated to refugee issues, there
was a constant turnover of public servants through their
5.6. SOCIAL INTEGRATION
sta , and the bene ts of continuity did not material-
ize.* [26] After only a few months in the job, Luong
was replaced by Pham Van Huyen on December 7,
1954.* [26] COMIGAL were supplemented by Ameri-
can Catholic aid agencies and an advisory group from
Michigan State University, where Diem had stayed while
in self-imposed exile in the early 1950s.* [67] There
were three phases in the resettlement program.* [68] With
more than 4,000 new arrivals per day, the northerners
were housed in Saigon and Vũng Tàu in 42 makeshift re-
ception centers.* [68] These consisted of existing schools,
vacated French barracks, churches and tent cities on the
grounds of Tan Son Nhut Air Base and Phú Thọ Race-
course.* [68] These could not be used inde nitely as the
grounds needed to be used for their preexisting purpose,
and furthermore, such ad hoc areas were vulnerable to
outbreaks of re and disease.* [68]
The refugees needed buildings such as schools, hospitals,
warehouses, places of worship were built for them. As
part of the second phase, temporary villages were built
and by mid-1955, most of the one million refugees were
living in rows of temporary housing settlements, mostly
near highways leading out of Saigon, in provinces adja-
cent to the capital. The largest concentration of housing
in this second stage was located to the north of the cap-
ital.* [67]* [68] Only a minority could be sent to the fer-
tile Mekong Delta, as the area was already overcrowded.
It was also restive due to the presence of militant reli-
gious sects, so the most of the military evacuees were sent
there.* [69]
Overcrowding was a serious problem in many of the ad
hoc secondary camps set up in the Saigon region, and led
to public health issues.* [69] The Biên Hòa region on the
northeastern outskirts of Saigon was scheduled to have a
capacity of 100,000 refugees,* [69] but this was soon ex-
ceeded.* [70] In the Ho Nai camp near Bien Hoa, which
was supposed to hold only 10,000 refugees, more than
41,000 were present by the end of 1954.* [71] The area
surrounding Thủ Dầu Một north of the southern capi-
tal had initially been allocated a quota of 20,000 even
though there was no rice paddies in the area.* [69] The
area near Tây Ninh was to accommodate 30,000 people,
although the locals thought that 100,000 could t in.* [69]
Some large Catholic settlements such as Thủ Đức, Bình
Thạnh and Gò Vấp on the outskirts of Saigon have now
been subsumed by urban sprawl and are now districts of
the city.* [72] Because of the excessive number of in-
habitants, the infrastructure at many camps could not
cope and the promises made to the refugees were not
kept.* [71] American military doctors travelled around
the south in groups of three, and because of the paucity
of health professionals, saw around 150–450 patients per
day. They were also hampered by customs law, which
only allowed charities to bring medicine into the coun-
try without taxation. This forced them to turn to chari-
table organisations as a conduit, creating another layer of
bureaucracy.* [73] This was exacerbated by the fact that
49
some corrupt Vietnamese o cials pocketed the medical
aid.* [74]
The organisational ability of the government agencies
charged with overseeing the integration of the refugees
into society was frequently criticised by American of-
cials.* [75] In many cases, the individual o cials sim-
ply made their own decisions and the goal of resettling
the northerners without disruption to the existing local
economy or social structure was not achieved. In other
cases, the northern Catholics formed their own commit-
tees and settled and built on areas as they saw t.* [76] By
the end of September, the shortage of funds and equip-
ment had eased, but their distribution was not organised
or coordinated e ectively.* [75] At the same time, some
Viet Minh cadres who stayed in the south after the parti-
tion pretended to be refugees and stirred up trouble inside
the camps.* [74] Aside from disruption by communists,
other non-communist movements such as the Việt Nam
Quốc Dân Đảng were strong in areas of central Vietnam,
were opponents of Diem and some of them were mili-
tary personnel.* [77] This sometimes caused hindrance in
civilian-military cooperation in the resettlement program,
as some of Diem's public servants were suspicious of the
military's reliability as a working partner.* [77]
At the time, much of the rural ricelands had been aban-
doned due to war and lay fallow. The Americans pres-
sured Diem to assume control of such lands and distribute
it to the new settlers and to allow them to start their new
lives and ease the overcrowding in the camps, but no
action was taken in 1954.* [26] At the time, there was
a severe wastage of personnel due to the placement of
refugees in land that was inappropriate to them. Viet-
namese o cials had resolved to place the settlers in land
similar to their northern origins so that they could be pro-
ductive, but bureaucratic di culties hampered COMI-
GAL and no plan was produced. Throughout 1954, 60%
of the new arrivals identi ed themselves as having an
agrarian background, but only 20% of the total refugees
were placed in arable farming areas, meaning that at least
40% of the northerners were in areas not appropriate for
their skill set.* [71] There were also severe problems in
nding and then distributing farming equipment to the
northerners so that they could get to work and resuscitate
the agricultural sector that was hindered by the war.* [71]
The next objective was to integrate the refugees into
South Vietnamese society. At the time, there was a lack
of arable land in secure areas. In early 1955, the Viet
Minh still controlled much of the Mekong Delta, while
other parts were controlled by the private armies of the
Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects. The Bình Xuyên
organised crime gang controlled the streets of Saigon,
having purchased the operating license for the national
police from Emperor Bảo Đại. The new arrivals could
not be safely sent to the countryside until the Viet Minh
had moved north and Diem had dispersed the sects and
gangs. The urban areas were secured when the VNA de-
feated the Bình Xuyên in the Battle for Saigon in late
50 CHAPTER 5. OPERATION PASSAGE TO FREEDOM

April and early May. Lansdale managed to bribe many of alleviating overcrowding, fuelling rapid economic de-
of the Hòa Hảo and Cao Đài military commanders to in- velopment, and the government hoped that the presence
tegrate into Diem's VNA, but some commanders fought of ethnic Vietnamese development would prompt the in-
on. It was not until early 1956 that the last Hoa Hao com- digenous tribespeople to abandon their hunter-gatherer
mander, Ba Cụt, was captured in an Army of the Repub- lifestyle, thus “guiding them on the path to civiliza-
lic of Vietnam campaign by General Dương Văn Minh. tion and progress, so that they might join the ranks of
This allowed COMIGAL to send expeditions to survey the State's founders and liberators”.* [81] In the Cen-
the rural land for settlement.* [67] tral Highlands town of Buôn Ma Thuột, the local sawmill
was inundated with lumber to build houses and much of
The third phase of the resettlement involved the dispersal
of the new arrivals from the temporary villages in regions the surrounding forest was cleared for settlements.* [26]
In total, 92,443 housing units were constructed, serviced
surrounding the capital and other large cities. The areas
where the refugees had initially were over settled, notably by 317 and 18 elementary and secondary schools re-
spectively. 38,192 hectares of land were cleared and
Biên Hòa, where the population had doubled during the
migration period. In contrast, two thirds of South Viet- some 2.4 million tons of potassium sulfate fertiliser were
namese provinces had taken less than 10,000 refugees, distributed.* [80] At the end of 1957, Diem dissolved
and some of these less than 1,000.* [78] In the crowded COMIGAL, declaring that its mission had been accom-
provinces there were fears of social unrest due to a short- plished.* [82]
age of work.* [78]
COMIGAL dispatched inspection teams throughout
South Vietnam to identify areas that were suitable for
5.7 Difficulties and criticism
accommodating the new arrivals according to their pro-
fessional skills. This required a search for arable land See also: Huế Phật Đản shootings, Xá Lợi Pagoda raids,
for farmers, favourable coastal areas for shing and ar- and Arrest and assassination of Ngô Đình Diệm
eas near large population centres for industrially oriented The program had some loose ends that manifested them-
arrivals. Having identi ed the relevant areas, COMIGAL
would set up plans for settlement subprojects, sending
proposals to the USOM or the French Technical and Eco-
nomic Cooperation Bureau to gain approval and funding.
The bureaucracy was relatively low, with most applica-
tions taking less than a fortnight for nalising paperwork
and receiving approval. Each subproject was given a nine-
month deadline for completion.* [79]
When suitable areas were found, groups of refugees usu-
ally numbering between one and three thousand were
trucked to the site and began creating the new settlement.
This involved digging wells, building roads and bridges,
clearing forests, bushes and swamps and constructing sh-
ing vessels. Village elections were held to select members
for committees that would liaise with COMIGAL on be-
half of the new settlement.* [79]
COMIGAL provided the settlers with agrarian imple-
ments, fertilisers and farm animals. By mid-1957, 319
villages had been built. Of these, 288 were for farm-
ers and 26 for shermen. The refugees settled predom-
inantly in the Mekong Delta, where 207 villages were
built.* [80] The most notable scheme in the area was the
Cai San Agricultural Resettlement Project, based along
a system of canals near Long Xuyên.* [78] Another 50
villages were created further north near the border with
North Vietnam, while 62 were built in the central high- President Ngo Dinh Diem of South Vietnam saw the predomi-
lands.* [80] A 1955 government report claimed that only nantly Catholic refugees as his most reliable constituency.
2% of the land in the central highlands, mostly inhab-
ited by indigenous tribes were being used for economic selves later. Many refugees were not economically in-
purposes, and it was seen as a key area for exploitation tegrated and lived from government handouts. Critics
and building settlements to block the advance of com- noted that the refugees had become a special interest
munism.* [81] The area was seen as an important means group that fostered resentment. The COMIGAL o cials
often decided not to split up refugees belonging to the
5.8. NOTES 51

same village, hoping to maintain social continuity.* [83] Catholics in their regions. As a result of their discontent
In some cases, Catholic priests refused to obey govern- with the southern government, communist propagandists
ment directives to settle in certain areas.* [84] Many of in the highlands found it easier to win them over.* [94]
the refugees also refused to relocate from the camps
on the outskirts of the capital, wanting to live an ur-
ban lifestyle,* [85] and objecting to Diem's desire that 5.8 Notes
they help developed inhospitable frontier territory where
disease was more common and the economy less de- [1] Frankum, Ronald (2007). Operation Passage to Freedom:
veloped.* [86] On occasions, the reluctance to disperse The United States Navy in Vietnam, 1954–55. Lubbock,
away from Saigon resulted in protests outside Diem's Texas: Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 978-0-89672-
residence.* [87] Many Catholic villages were e ectively 608-6.
transplanted into southern territory. This was e cient
in the short run but meant that they would never assim- [2] Prados, John (January 2005).“The Numbers Game: How
Many Vietnamese Fled South In 1954?". The Veteran.
ilate into southern society. They had little contact with
Archived from the original on 2006-05-27.
the Buddhist majority and often held them in contempt,
sometimes ying the Vatican ag instead of the national [3] Lindholm, pp. 55–57.
ag.* [88] Peter Hansen, an Australian Catholic priest and
[4] Lindholm, p. 49; Prados
academic scholar of religion, has added that tensions be-
tween northern and southern Catholics were also present, [5] Ruane, Kevin (1998). War and Revolution in Vietnam.
due to issues of regionalism and local traditions. Hansen London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85728-323-5.
also said that northern Catholics took a more defensive
attitude towards other religions than their southern co- [6] Tran, Thi Lien (November 2005). “The Catholic
Question in North Vietnam”. Cold War His-
religionists, and were more likely to see non-Catholics as
tory. London: Routledge. 5 (4): 427–49.
a threat. He further noted that northern Catholics had doi:10.1080/14682740500284747.
a more theocratic outlook in that they were more will-
ing to listen to the advice of priests on a wide range of [7] Jacobs (2006), p. 45
issues, not only spiritual and ecclesiastical matters.* [89]
[8] Jacobs (2006), p. 23.
These di erences and the sense of segregation persist to
the current day.* [90] [9] Karnow, pp. 210–214.
Diem, who had a reputation for heavily favouring [10] Karnow, p. 218.
Catholics, granted his new constituents a disproportion-
ately high number of government and military posts on [11] Jacobs (2006), pp. 41–42.
religious grounds rather than merit.* [88] The dispropor- [12] Jacobs (2006), pp. 43–44.
tionate number of northerners who occupied leadership
posts also raised tensions among some regional-minded [13] Hansen, p. 178.
southerners who regarded them as intruders.* [91] He [14] Jacobs (2004), p. 130.
continued the French practice of de ning Catholicism as
a“religion”and Buddhism as an“association”, which [15] Frankum, p. 38.
restricted their activities. This fostered a social divide
[16] Frankum, p. 39.
between the new arrivals and their compatriots. While
on a visit to Saigon in 1955, the British journalist and [17] Frankum, p. 109.
novelist Graham Greene reported that Diem's religious
[18] Frankum, p. 114.
favouritism“may well leave his tolerant country a legacy
of anti-Catholicism”.* [83] In 1963, simmering discon- [19] Frankum, p. 110.
tent over Diem's religious bias exploded into mass civil
unrest during the Buddhist crisis. After the Buddhist ag [20] Frankum, pp. 38–39.
was prohibited from public display for the Vesak cele- [21] Frankum, p. 40.
brations commemorating the birth of Gautama Buddha,
Diem's forces opened re and killed nine protesters.* [92] [22] Lindholm, p. 63.
As demonstrations continued through the summer, the [23] Lindholm, p. 64.
Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces ran-
sacked pagodas across the country, killing hundreds and [24] Lindholm, pp. 65–67.
jailing thousands of Buddhists.* [88] The tension culmi-
[25] Frankum, p. 158.
nated in Diem being overthrown and assassinated in a
November coup.* [93] [26] Frankum, p. 193.
The indigenous population in the central highlands com- [27] Frankum, p. 159.
plained bitterly about the settlement of ethnic Vietnamese
[28] Frankum, p. 172.
52 CHAPTER 5. OPERATION PASSAGE TO FREEDOM

[29] Frankum, pp. 188–189. [65]“Viet Minh Violence Angers U.S. Bishops”. Catholic
Herald Citizen. 1954-11-27.
[30] Formally known as the Commissariat of Refugees,
COMIGAL was the acronym in French.
[66] Jacobs (2004), pp. 191–192.
[31] Lindholm, pp. 48–50.
[67] Jacobs (2006), p. 54.
[32] Hansen, p. 180.
[68] Hansen, p. 193.
[33] Hansen, p. 179.

[34] Hansen, p. 189. [69] Frankum, p. 149.

[35] Hansen, p. 181. [70] Frankum, pp. 180–195.

[36] Hansen, p. 182.
[71] Frankum, p. 192.
[37] Hansen, p. 187.
[72] Hansen, p. 202.
[38] Hansen, pp. 188–189.

[39] Hansen, p. 185. [73] Frankum, pp. 171–172.

[40] Hansen, p. 188. [74] Frankum, p. 183.

[41] Lindholm, p. 50.
[75] Frankum, p. 150.
[42] Jacobs (2006), p. 45.
[76] Hansen, p. 194.
[43] Jacobs (2006), p. 52.

[44] Jacobs (2004), p. 133. [77] Frankum, p. 185.

[45] Jacobs (2004), p. 132. [78] Hansen, p. 195.

[46] Hansen, pp. 182–183.
[79] Lindholm, p. 51.
[47] Jacobs (2006), p. 53.
[80] Lindholm, pp. 52–53.
[48] Hansen, p. 186.

[49] Hansen, p. 184. [81] Hansen, p. 196.

[50] Hansen, p. 203. [82] Jacobs (2006), p. 55.

[51] Hansen, p. 177.
[83] Jacobs (2006), p. 56.
[52] Lindholm, p. 78.
[84] Frankum, p. 191.
[53] Frankum, p. 112.

[54] Frankum, p. 160. [85] Frankum, p. 151.

[55] Frankum, p. 162. [86] Hansen, p. 197.

[56] Hansen, pp. 204–205.
[87] Hansen, p. 199.
[57] Frankum, p. 190.
[88] Jacobs (2006), p. 153.
[58] Frankum, p. 167.

[59] Frankum, pp. 167–168. [89] Hansen, pp. 177–178.

[60] Frankum, p. 168. [90] Hansen, p. 201.

[61] Jacobs (2006), p. 46.
[91] Hansen, p. 175.
[62]“Today's Persecution Worst in History”. Our Sunday Vis-
itor. 1955-03-20. [92] Jacobs (2006), p. 143.
[63]“Bishops Bare Red Record of Viet Violence”. Monitor.
[93] Jones, p. 429.
1954-12-24.

[64]“Let Our People Go!". The Advocate. 1954-12-03. [94] Lindholm, p. 94.
5.9. REFERENCES 53

5.9 References
• Frankum, Ronald (2007). Operation Passage to
Freedom: The United States Navy in Vietnam, 1954–
55. Lubbock, Texas: Texas Tech University Press.
ISBN 978-0-89672-608-6.
• Hansen, Peter (2009). “Bắc Di Cư: Catholic
Refugees from the North of Vietnam, and Their
Role in the Southern Republic, 1954–1959”. Jour-
nal of Vietnamese Studies. Berkeley, California:
University of California Press. 4 (3): 173–211.
doi:10.1525/vs.2009.4.3.173.

• Jacobs, Seth (2004). America's Miracle Man in Viet-

nam: Ngo Dinh Diem, Religion, Race, and U.S. In-
tervention in Southeast Asia, 1950–1957. Durham,
North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-
8223-3440-2.
• Jacobs, Seth (2006). Cold War Mandarin: Ngo Dinh
Diem and the Origins of America's War in Vietnam,
1950–1963. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Lit-
tle eld. ISBN 0-7425-4447-8.
• Jones, Howard (2003). Death of a Generation: How
the Assassinations of Diem and JFK Prolonged the
Vietnam War. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-505286-2.
• Karnow, Stanley (1997). Vietnam: A History. New
York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-670-84218-4.
• Lindholm, Richard (1959). Viet-nam, The First Five
Years: An International Symposium. Michigan State
University Press.

• Ruane, Kevin (1998). War and Revolution in Viet-

nam. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85728-323-
5.

• Tran, Thi Lien (November 2005). “The

Catholic Question in North Vietnam: From
Polish Sources, 1954–56”. Cold War His-
tory. London: Routledge. 5 (4): 427–449.
doi:10.1080/14682740500284747.
Chapter 6

Ho Chi Minh

For other uses, see Ho Chi Minh (disambiguation). namese writing.* [5]* :21 In addition to his studious en-
deavors, he was fond of adventure, and loved to y kites
* *
Hồ Chí Minh (/ˈhoʊ ˈtʃiː ˈmɪn/; [1] Central Vietnamese and go shing. [5] :21 Following Confucian tradition, at
*

͡ the age of 10, his father gave him a new name: Nguy n
pronunciation: [ho̞ ˧˩ tɕi˧˥ mɪŋ˧], Southern Vietnamese
pronunciation: [ho̞ ˧˩ tɕɪj˧ mɪ̈n˧]; 19 May 1890 – 2 Tất Thành (“Nguyễn the Accomplished”).
͡
September 1969; Chữ nôm: 胡志明), born Nguyễn Sinh Thành's father was a Confucian scholar and teacher, and
Cung,* [2]* [3]* [4] also known as Nguyễn Tất Thành later an imperial magistrate in the small remote district
and Nguyễn Ái Quốc, was a Vietnamese Communist of Binh Khe (Qui Nhơn). He was demoted for abuse of
revolutionary leader who was prime minister (1945–55) power after an in uential local gure died several days
and president (1945–69) of the Democratic Republic of after having received 102 strokes of the cane as punish-
Vietnam (North Vietnam). He was a key gure in the ment for an infraction.* [5]* :21Thành's father was eligible
foundation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in to serve in the imperial bureaucracy but refused because
1945, as well as the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) it meant serving the French.* [6] This exposed Thành to
and the Việt Cộng (NLF or VC) during the Vietnam War. rebellion at a young age and seemed to be the norm for
He led the Việt Minh independence movement from 1941 the province where Thành came of age. The province was
onward, establishing the Communist-ruled Democratic known for its resistance to foreign rule. In deference to
Republic of Vietnam in 1945 and defeating the French his father, Thành received a French education, attended
Union in 1954 at the battle of Điện Biên Phủ. He of- lycée in Huế, the alma mater of his later disciples, Phạm
cially stepped down from power in 1965 due to health Văn Đồng and Vff Nguyên Giáp and his later enemy, Ngô
problems, but remained a highly visible gurehead and Đình Diệm.
inspiration for those Vietnamese ghting for his cause—
a united, communist Vietnam—until his death. After the 6.1.1 First sojourn in France
war, Saigon, the former capital of the Republic of Viet-
nam, was renamed Hồ Chí Minh City. Previously, it was believed that Thành was involved in an
anti-slavery (anti-corvée) demonstration of poor peasants
in Huế in May 1908, which endangered his student status
6.1 Early life at Collège Quốc học. However, a document from the Cen-
tre des archives d'Outre-mer in France shows that he was
Ho Chi Minh was born Nguyễn Sinh Cung (as appeared admitted to Collège Quốc học on August 8, 1908, which
in a letter from the director of Collège Quốc học, dated was several months *after the anti-corvée demonstration
August 7, 1908),* [2]* [3]* [4] in 1890 in the village of (April 9–13, 1908). [3] The exaggeration of revolution-
Hoàng Trffl (the name of the local temple near Làng Sen), ary credentials was common among Vietnamese commu-
his mother's village. From 1895, he grew up in his fa- nist leaders, as shown in Tôn Đức Thắng's falsi ed par-
ther Nguyễn Sinh Sắc (Nguyễn Sinh Huy)'s village of ticipation in the 1919 Black Sea revolt. Later in life, Hồ
Làng Sen, Kim Liên, Nam Đàn, Nghệ An Province. would claim the 1908 revolt had been the moment when
He had three siblings: his sister Bạch Liên (or Nguyễn his revolutionary outlook emerged, but his application to
Thị Thanh), a clerk in the French Army; his brother the French Colonial Administrative School in 1911 un-
Nguyễn Sinh Khiêm (or Nguyễn Tất Đạt), a geomancer dermines this version of events. He chose to leave school
and traditional herbalist; and another brother (Nguyễn in order to nd a chance to go abroad. Because his fa-
Sinh Nhuận) who died in his infancy. As a young child, ther had been dismissed, he no longer had any hope for
Cung studied with his father before more formal classes a governmental scholarship and went southward, taking a
with a scholar named Vuong Thuc Do. Cung quickly position at Dục Thanh school in Phan Thiết for about six
mastered Chinese writing, a prerequisite for any serious months, then traveled to Saigon.
study of Confucianism, while honing his colloquial Viet- Thành worked as a kitchen helper on a French steamer,

54
 6.2. POLITICAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE 55

the Amirale de Latouche-Tréville, while using the alias

“Văn Ba”. The steamer departed on 5 June 1911 and ar-
rived in Marseille, France on July 5, 1911. The ship then
left for Le Havre and Dunkirk, returning to Marseille in
mid-September. There he applied for the French Colo-
nial Administrative School but his application was re-
jected. Instead, he decided to begin traveling the world by
working on ships and visited many countries from 1911
to 1917.

6.1.2 In the United States

In 1912, while working as the cook's helper on a ship,

Thành traveled to the United States. From 1912–13, he
may have lived in New York City (Harlem) and Boston,
where he claimed to have worked as a baker at the Parker
House Hotel. The only evidence that Thành was in the
United States is a letter to French colonial administra-
tors dated December 15, 1912 and postmarked New
York City (but he gave as his address Poste Restante in
Le Havre and stated that he was a sailor) * [7]* :20 and
a postcard to Phan Chu Trinh in Paris where he men-
tioned working at the Parker House Hotel. Inquiries to
the Parker House management revealed no records of his
ever having worked there.* [5]* :51 Among a series of me-
nial jobs, he claimed to have worked for a wealthy fam-
ily in Brooklyn between 1917–18, and for General Mo-
tors as a line manager.* [8]* :46 It is believed that while in
the United States, he made contact with Korean nation-
alists, an experience that developed his political outlook, Ho Chi Minh, 1921
but Sophie Quinn-Judge admits that this is“in the realm
of conjecture”.* [7]* :20
1917, but the French police only had documents record-
ing his arrival in June 1919.* [7] He joined a group of
6.1.3 In the United Kingdom Vietnamese nationalists in Paris whose leaders were Phan
Chu Trinh, Phan Văn Trường, and Nguyễn Thế Truyền.
At various points between 1913 and 1919, Thành claimed They had been publishing newspaper articles advocat-
to have lived in West Ealing, and later in Crouch End, ing for Vietnamese independence under the pseudonym
Hornsey. He reportedly worked as either a chef or Nguyễn Ái Quốc (“Nguyễn the Patriot”) prior *
to the
dish washer [reports vary] at the Drayton Court Hotel arrival of Nguyễn Tất Thành in Paris in 1919. [12] Fol-
*
in West Ealing. [9] It is claimed that he trained as a lowing World War I, the group petitioned for recogni-
pastry chef under Auguste Esco er at the Carlton Hotel tion of the civil rights of the Vietnamese people in French
in the Haymarket, Westminster, but there is no evidence Indochina to the Western *
powers at the Versailles peace
* * *
to support this. [7] :25 [10] However, the wall of New talks, but was ignored. [13] Citing the principle of self-
Zealand House, home of the New Zealand High Commis- determination outlined prior to the peace accords, they
sion, which now stands on the site of the Carlton Hotel, requested the allied powers to end French colonial rule
displays a blue plaque, stating that Hồ Chí Minh worked of Vietnam and ensure the formation of an independent
there in 1913. Thành was also employed as a pastry boy government. Prior to the conference, the group sent their
on the Newhaven–Dieppe ferry route in 1913. [11] * letter to allied leaders, including Prime Minister Georges
Clemenceau and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson. They
were unable to obtain consideration at Versailles, but
the episode would later help establish Nguyễn Ái Quốc
6.2 Political education in France as a symbol of the anti-colonial movement at home in
Vietnam.* [14] Since Nguyễn Tất Thành was the public
From 1919–23, while living in France, Thành began to face behind the publication of the document (although
show an interest in politics, being in uenced by his friend it was written by Phan Văn Trường),* [15] he soon be-
and Socialist Party of France comrade Marcel Cachin. came known as Nguyễn Ái Quốc and rst used the name
Thành claimed to have arrived in Paris from London in in September during an interview with a Chinese news-
56
paper correspondent.* [5] Many authors have speculated
that 1919 was a lost “Wilsonian moment”when the fu-
ture Hồ Chí Minh could have adopted a pro-American
and less radical position if only President Wilson had re-
ceived him. However, the available evidence shows that
at the time of the Versailles Conference he was commit-
ted to a Socialist program. While the conference was on-
going, Nguyễn Ái Quốc was already delivering speeches
on the prospects of Bolshevism in Asia and was attempt-
ing to persuade French Socialists to join Vladimir Lenin's
Third Communist International.* [16]
In December 1920, Quốc o cially became a represen-
tative to the Congress of Tours of the Socialist Party of
France, voted for the Third International and was a found-
ing member of the Parti Communiste Français (FCP).
Taking a position in the Colonial Committee of the PCF,
he tried to draw his comrades' attention towards people in
French colonies including Indochina, but his e orts were
often unsuccessful. During this period he began to write
journal articles and short stories as well as running his
Vietnamese nationalist group. In May 1922, Quốc wrote
an article for a French magazine criticizing the use of En-
glish words by French sportswriters.* [17]* :21 The arti-
cle implored Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré to out-
law such Franglais as le manager, le round and le knock-
out. While living in Paris, he reportedly had a relationship
with a dressmaker named Marie Brière.
6.3 In the Soviet Union and China
In 1923, Quốc left Paris for Moscow carrying a passport
with the name Chen Vang, a Chinese merchant,* [5]* :86
where he was employed by the Comintern, studied
at the Communist University of the Toilers of the
East,* [5]* :92* [18] and participated in the Fifth Com-
intern Congress in June 1924, before arriving in Canton
(present-day Guangzhou), China, in November 1924 us-
ing the name Ly Thuy.
In 1925–26, Quốc organized“Youth Education Classes”
and occasionally gave socialist lectures to Vietnamese
revolutionary young people living in Canton at the
Whampoa Military Academy. These young people would
become the seeds of a new revolutionary, pro-communist
movement in Vietnam several years later. According to
Duiker, he lived with and married a Chinese woman,
Zeng Xueming (Tăng Tuyết Minh), on 18 October
1926.* [19] When his comrades objected to the match, he
told them: “I will get married despite your disapproval
because I need a woman to teach me the language and
keep house.”* [19] She was 21 and he was 36.* [19] They
married in the same place where Zhou Enlai had married
earlier, and then lived in the residence of a Comintern
agent, Mikhail Borodin.* [19] In 1941, Ho returned to Vietnam to lead the Viet Minh in-
Hoàng Văn Chí argued that in June 1925, Hồ betrayed dependence movement. The Japanese occupation of In-
Phan Bội Châu, the famous leader of a rival revolution- dochina that year, the rst step toward invasion of the rest
CHAPTER 6. HO CHI MINH
ary faction and his father's old friend, to French Secret
Service agents in Shanghai for 100,000 piastres.* [20]
A source states that Hồ later claimed he did it be-
cause he expected Châu's trial to stir up anti-French
sentiment, and because he needed the money to estab-
lish a communist organization.* [20] In Ho Chi Minh: A
Life, William Duiker considered but rejected this hy-
pothesis.* [5]* :126–128 Other sources claim that Nguyễn
Thượng Hiền was responsible for Chau's capture. Chau,
sentenced to lifetime house arrest, never denounced
Quốc.
Chiang Kai-shek's 1927 anti-communist coup triggered
a new era of exile for Quốc. He left Canton again in
April 1927 and returned to Moscow, spending some of
the summer of 1927 recuperating from tuberculosis in the
Crimea, before returning to Paris once more in Novem-
ber. He then returned to Asia by way of Brussels, Berlin,
Switzerland, and Italy, where he sailed to Bangkok, Thai-
land, arriving in July 1928.“Although we have been sep-
arated for almost a year, our feelings for each other do not
have to be said in order to be felt”, he reassured Minh
in an intercepted letter.* [19] In this period, he served as
a senior agent undertaking Comintern activities in South-
east Asia.
Quốc remained in Thailand, staying in the Thai village
of Nachok,* [17] * :44 and xiii until late 1929 when he
moved on to India, then Shanghai. In early 1930, in Hong
Kong, he chaired a meeting with representatives from two
Vietnamese communist parties in order to merge them
into a uni ed organization, Communist Party of Viet-
nam. In June 1931, he was arrested in Hong Kong. To
reduce French pressure for extradition, it was (falsely) an-
nounced in 1932 that Quốc had died.* [17]* : 57–58 The
British quietly released him in January 1933. He moved
to the Soviet Union and in Moscow studied and taught at
the Lenin Institute.* [21] During those years he was also
recovering from tuberculosis. It is said that in this period
he lost his positions in the Comintern because of a con-
cern that he had betrayed the organization. His in uence
among his Vietnamese comrades faded signi cantly.
In 1938, Quốc was allowed to return to China and served
as an advisor to the Chinese Communist armed forces,
which later forced China's government into exile on Tai-
wan.* [7] Around 1940, Quốc began regularly using the
name“Hồ Chí Minh”,* [7] a Vietnamese name combin-
ing a common Vietnamese surname (Hồ, 胡) with a given
name meaning “He Who has been enlightened”(from
Sino-Vietnamese 志 明: Chí meaning 'will' (or spirit) and
Minh meaning “bright”).* [5]* :248–49
6.4 Independence movement
6.4. INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT 57

of Southeast Asia, created an opportunity for patriotic
Vietnamese.* [6] The“men in black”were a 10,000 mem-
ber guerrilla force that operated with the Viet Minh.* [22]
He oversaw many successful military actions against the
Vichy French and Japanese occupation of Vietnam dur-
ing World War II, supported closely but clandestinely by
the United States O ce of Strategic Services, and later
against the French bid to reoccupy the country (1946–
54). He was jailed in China by Chiang Kai-shek's lo-
cal authorities before being rescued by Chinese Com-
munists.* [17]* :198 Following his release in 1943, he re-
turned to Vietnam.
hotel in Paris.* [32]* [33] Ho o ered Ben-Gurion a Jew-
ish home-in-exile in Vietnam.* [32]* [33] Ben-Gurion de-
clined, telling Ho: “I am certain we shall be able to es-
tablish a Jewish Government in Palestine.”* [32]* [33]
In 1946, when Ho traveled outside of the country, his sub-
ordinates imprisoned 2,500 non-communist nationalists
and forced 6,000 others to ee.* [34] Hundreds of politi-
cal opponents were jailed or exiled in July 1946, notably
members of the National Party of Vietnam and the Dai
Viet National Party, after a failed attempt to raise a coup
against the Vietminh government.* [35]* [36] All rival po-
litical parties were hereafter banned and local govern-
ments were purged* [37] to minimize opposition later on.
However, it was noted that the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam's rst Congress had over two-third of its mem-
bers come from non-Viet Minh political factions, some
without election. NPV party leader Nguyễn Hải Thần
was named Vice President.* [38] They also held four out
of ten ministerial positions.* [39]

6.4.1 Birth of the Democratic Republic of

Vietnam

Ho Chi Minh (third from left, standing) with the OSS in 1945 On 2 September 1945, following Emperor Bảo Đại's ab-
dication, Ho read the Declaration of Independence of
Vietnam,* [40] under the name of the Democratic Re-
In April 1945, Ho met with the OSS agent Archimedes public of Vietnam. In Saigon, with violence between
Patti and o ered to provide intelligence to the allies pro- rival Vietnamese factions and French forces increasing,
vided that he could have “a line of communication with the British commander, General Sir Douglas Gracey, de-
the allies.”* [23] The OSS agreed to this and later sent a clared martial law. On 24 September, the Viet Minh lead-
military team of OSS members to train Ho's men and Ho ers responded with a call for a general strike.* [41]
himself was treated for malaria and dysentery by an OSS
doctor.* [24] In September 1945, a force of 200,000 Republic of China
Army troops arrived in Hanoi to accept the surrender of
Following the August Revolution (1945) organized by the the Japanese occupiers in northern Indochina. Ho made
Viet Minh, Ho became Chairman of the Provisional Gov- a compromise with their general, Lu Han, to dissolve the
ernment (Premier of the Democratic Republic of Viet-
Communist Party and to hold an election which would
nam) and issued a Proclamation of Independence of the yield a coalition government. When Chiang forced the
Democratic Republic of Vietnam.* [25] Although he con-
French to give the French concessions in Shanghai back
vinced Emperor Bảo Đại to abdicate, his government was to China in exchange for withdrawing from northern In-
not recognized by any country. He repeatedly petitioned
dochina, Ho had no choice but to sign an agreement with
American President Harry S. Truman for support for France on 6 March 1946, in which Vietnam would be rec-
Vietnamese independence,* [26] citing the Atlantic Char-
ognized as an autonomous state in the Indochinese Fed-
ter, but Truman never responded.* [27] eration and the French Union. The agreement soon broke
Several sources relate how,* [28] during a power struggle down. The purpose of the agreement, for both the French
in 1945, the Viet Minh killed members of rival groups, and Vietminh, was for Chiang's army to leave North Viet-
such as the leader of the Constitutional Party, Bui Quang nam. Fighting broke out in the North soon after the Chi-
Chieu, the head of the Party for Independence, and Ngo nese left.
Dinh Diem's brother, Ngo Dinh Khoi.* [29] Purges and Historian Professor Liam Kelley of the University of
killings of Trotskyists were also documented in The Black Hawaii at Manoa on his Le Minh Khai's SEAsian His-
Book of Communism. Ho, when asked by a reporter tory Blog challenged the authenticity of the alleged quote
about the murder of Ta Thu Thau, a leading Trotskyist where Hồ Chí Minh said he would rather sni French
and personal friend, answered matter-of-factly, “Any- shit than eat Chinese shit, noting that Stanley Karnow
one who does not follow the line determined by me will provided no source for the extended quote attributed to
be smashed.”* [30]* [31] Ho in his 1983 Vietnam: A History, and that the original
In 1946, future Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion quote was most likely forged by the Frenchman Paul Mus
and Ho became acquainted when they stayed at the same in his 1952 book Viêt-Nam: Sociologie d’une Guerre,
58 CHAPTER 6. HO CHI MINH

Mus was a supporter of French colonialism in Vietnam by a group of French soldiers led by Jean-Étienne Val-
and Ho knew that there was no danger of Chinese troops luy at Việt Bắc in Operation Lea. The person in question
staying in Vietnam, and in fact the Vietnamese at the turned out to be a Viet Minh advisor, who was later killed
time were busy spreading anti-French propaganda as ev- trying to escape. According to journalist Bernard Fall,
idence of French atrocities in Vietnam emerged, while after ghting the French for several years, Ho decided
Ho showed no qualms about accepting Chinese aid after to negotiate a truce. The French negotiators arrived at
1949.* [42]* [43] the meeting site: a mud hut with a thatched roof. Inside
they found a long table with chairs and were surprised
to discover in one corner of the room a silver ice bucket
containing ice and a bottle of good Champagne which
should have indicated that Ho expected the negotiations
to succeed. One demand by the French was the return to
French custody of a number of Japanese military o cers
(who had been helping the Vietnamese armed forces by
training them in the use of weapons of Japanese origin),
in order for them to stand trial for war crimes committed
during World War II. Ho replied that the Japanese o -
cers were allies and friends whom he could not betray.
Then he walked out, to seven more years of war.* [47]
In February 1950, after the successful removal of the
French border's blockade,* [48] Ho met with Stalin and
Mao Zedong in Moscow after the Soviet Union rec-
ognized his government. They all agreed that China
would be responsible for backing the Viet Minh.* [49]
Mao's emissary to Moscow stated in August that China
planned to train 60,000–70,000 Viet Minh in the near fu-
ture.* [50] The road to the outside world was open for Viet
Minh forces to receive additional supplies which would
allow them to escalate the ght against the French regime
throughout Indochina. In 1954, after the crushing de-
Hồ Chí Minh (right) with Võ Nguyên Giáp (left) in Hanoi, 1945 feat of French Union forces at Battle of Dien Bien Phu,
France was forced to give up its ght against the Viet
The Viet Minh then collaborated with French colonial Minh. The Viet Minh assassinated between 100,000 and
*
forces to massacre supporters of the Vietnamese nation- 150,000 civilians during the war. [51]
*
alist movements in 1945-6. [44] The Communists even-
tually suppressed all non-Communist parties but failed to
secure a peace deal with France. In the nal days of 1946, 6.5 Becoming president and Viet-
after a year of diplomatic failure and many concessions
in agreements such as the Dalat and Fontainebleau con- nam War
ferences, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam govern-
ment found that war was inevitable. The bombardment
of Haiphong by French forces at Hanoi only strength-
ened the belief that France had no intention of allowing
an autonomous, independent state in Vietnam. On 19
December 1946, Ho, representing his government, de-
clared war against the French Union, marking the begin-
ning of the Indochina War.* [45] The Vietnam National
Army, by then mostly armed with machetes and muskets
immediately attacked, waging assault against French po-
sitions, smoking them out with straw bundled with chili
pepper, destroying armored vehicles with“lunge mines”
(a hollow-charge warhead on the end of a pole, deto-
nated by thrusting the charge against the side of a tank;
typically a suicide weapon* [46]) and Molotov cocktails,
holding o attackers by using roadblocks, landmines and
gravel. After two months of ghting, the exhausted Viet E gies of“Charles DeGaulle and Hồ Chí Minh are hanged”by
Minh forces withdrew after systematically destroying any Students demonstration in Saigon, July 1964, observing the tenth
valuable infrastructure. Ho was reported to be captured anniversary of the July 1954 Geneva Agreements
6.5. BECOMING PRESIDENT AND VIETNAM WAR
The 1954 Geneva Accords concluded between France
and the Viet Minh, allowing the latter's forces to regroup
in the North whilst anti-communist groups settled in the
South. Ho's Democratic Republic of Vietnam relocated
to Hanoi and became the government of North Vietnam,
a communist-led one-party state.
Following the Geneva Accords, there was to be a 300-day
period in which people could freely move between the two
regions of Vietnam, later known as South Vietnam and
North Vietnam. More than 1 million North Vietnamese
people ed to the South. A much smaller number moved
North.* [52] It is estimated that as many as two million
more would have left had they not been stopped by the
Viet Minh.* [53]
All the parties at Geneva called for reuni cation elections,
but could not agree on the details. Recently appointed
Viet Minh acting foreign minister Pham Van Dong pro-
posed elections under the supervision of“local commis-
sions”. The US, with the support of Britain and the
Associated States of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, sug-
gested UN supervision. This plan was rejected by So-
viet representative Vyacheslav Molotov, who argued for
a commission composed of an equal number of com-
munist and non-communist members, which could de-
termine “important”issues only by unanimous agree-
ment.* [54] The negotiators were unable to agree on a date
for the elections for reuni cation. The DRV argued that
the elections should be held within 6 months of the cease-
re, while the Western allies sought to have no deadline.
Molotov proposed June 1955, then later softened this to
any time in 1955 and nally July 1956.* [55]* :610 The
Diem government supported reuni cation elections, but
only with e ective international supervision, arguing that
genuinely free elections were impossible in the totalitar-
ian North.* [56] By the afternoon of July 20 the remain-
ing outstanding issues were resolved as the parties agreed
that the partition line should be at the 17th parallel and
that the elections for reuni cation should be in July 1956,
two years after the cease re.* [55]* :604 The“Agreement
on the Cessation of Hostilities in Vietnam”was signed
only by French and Viet Minh military commands, com-
pletely bypassing the State of Vietnam.* [57] Based on
a proposal by Chinese delegation head Zhou Enlai, an
International Control Commission (ICC) chaired by In-
dia, with Canada and Poland as members, was placed in
charge of supervising the cease re.* [55]* :603* [58] Be-
cause issues were to be decided unanimously, Poland's
presence in the ICC provided the communists e ective
veto power over supervision of the treaty.* [59] The un-
signed “Final Declaration of the Geneva Conference”
called for reuni cation elections, which the majority of
delegates expected to be supervised by the ICC. The Viet
Minh never accepted ICC authority over such elections,
stating that the ICC's “competence was to be limited
to the supervision and control of the implementation of
the Agreement on the Cessation of Hostilities by both
parties.”* [60] Of the nine nations represented, only the
59
United States and the State of Vietnam refused to accept
the declaration. U.S. undersecretary of state Walter Be-
dell Smith delivered a “unilateral declaration”of the
US position, reiterating: “We shall seek to achieve unity
through free elections supervised by the United Nations
to insure that they are conducted fairly.”* [61]
Between 1953 and 1956, the North Vietnamese govern-
ment instituted various agrarian reforms, including“rent
reduction”and "land reform", which resulted in signi -
cant political oppression. During the land reform, testi-
mony from North Vietnamese witnesses suggested a ratio
of one execution for every 160 village residents, which
extrapolated nationwide would indicate nearly 100,000
executions. Because the campaign was concentrated
mainly in the Red River Delta area, a lower estimate of
50,000 executions became widely accepted by scholars
at the time.* [62]* [63]* [64]* [65] However, declassi ed
documents from the Vietnamese and Hungarian archives
indicate that the number of executions was much lower
than reported at the time, although likely greater than
13,500.* [66]
Ho Chi Minh with East German sailors in Stralsund harbour dur-
ing his 1957 visit to East Germany
At the end of 1959, Lê Duẩn was appointed by Ho to
be the acting party leader, after becoming aware that the
nationwide election would never happen and Diem's in-
tention to purge out all opposing forces (mostly ex-Viet
Minh). Ho began requesting the Politburo to send aid
to the Viet Cong's uprising in South Vietnam. This was
considered by Western analyzers as a loss of power by
Ho, who is said to have preferred the more moderate
Giap for the position.* [67] North Vietnam invaded Laos
in 1959 aided by the Pathet Lao, and used 30,000 men
to build invasion and supply routes through Laos known
as the Ho Chi Minh trail,* [68] which allowed the North
to send troops and aid to the Vietcong through Laos and
Cambodia, thus escalating the war and tipping the bal-
60
Ho Chi Minh with members of the East German Young Pioneers
near Berlin, 1957
ance, turning it to their favor.* [69] Duan was o cially
named party leader in 1960, leaving Ho a public gure
rather than actually governing the country. Ho main-
tained much in uence in the government, Tố Hữu, Lê
Duẩn, Trường Chinh, and Phạm Văn Đồng would often
share dinner with him, and later all of them remained
key gures of Vietnam throughout and after the war.
In 1963, Ho purportedly corresponded with South Viet-
namese President Diem in the hopes of achieving a nego-
tiated peace.* [17]* :174
In late 1964, PAVN combat troops were sent south-
west into o cially neutral Laos and Cambodia.* [70] Ac-
cording to Chen Jian, during the mid-to-late 1960s, Le
Duan permitted 320,000 Chinese volunteers into North
Vietnam to help build infrastructure for the country,
thereby freeing a similar number of PAVN personnel to
go south.* [71] However, there are no sources from Viet-
nam, US or the USSR con rming the number of Chinese
troops stationed in Northern Vietnam. By early 1965,
U.S. combat troops began arriving in South Vietnam, rst
to protect the airbases around Chu Lai and Da Nang, later
to take on most of the ght, as “More and more Ameri-
can troops were put in to replace Saigon troops who could
not, or would not, get involved in the ghting”.* [72]
Hồ Chí Minh meeting a North Vietnamese circus troupe after their
performance at the Presidential Palace, Hanoi, 1967.
CHAPTER 6. HO CHI MINH
As ghting escalated, widespread aerial and artillery
bombardment all over North Vietnam by the U.S. Air
Force and Navy begin with Operation Rolling Thunder.
In July 1967, Ho and most of the Politburo of Workers
Party of Vietnam met in a high-pro le conference where
they all concluded the war had fallen into a stalemate,
since the United States Army presence forced the People's
Army of Vietnam to expend the majority of their re-
sources maintaining the Ho Chi Minh trail instead of re-
inforcing their comrade's ranks in the South. With Ho's
permission, the Viet Cong planned to execute the Tet Of-
fensive to begin on 31 January 1968, gambling on taking
the South by force and defeating the U.S. military. The
o ensive came at great cost and with heavy casualties on
NLF's political branches and armed forces. It appeared
to Ho and to the rest of his government that the scope
of the action had shocked the world, which had up un-
til then been assured that the Communists were “on the
ropes”. The overly positive spin that the U.S. military
had been attempting to achieve for years came crashing
down. The bombing of Northern Vietnam and Ho Chi
Minh trail was halted, and U.S and Vietnamese negotia-
tors began to discuss how to end the war. From then on,
Ho and his government's strategy, based on the idea of
“avoiding conventional warfare and facing the might of
the U.S. Army, which would wear them down eventually,
while merely prolonging the con ict would lead to even-
tual acceptance of Hanoi's terms”materialized.
6.6 Personal life
Hồ Chí Minh watching a football game in his favourite fashion.
His closest comrade - Prime Minister Phạm Văn вồng is the per-
son sitting next to him on the right corner.
Other than a politician, Ho was also a writer, journal-
ist, poet and polyglot. His father was a scholar and
teacher, who received a high degree in the Nguyễn dy-
nasty Imperial examination; Ho was taught to master
6.7. DEATH 61

Classical Chinese at a young age. Before the August known as the Presidential Palace Historical Site. His hob-
Revolution, he often wrote poetry in Chữ Hán (the Viet- bies (according to his secretary Vũ Kỳ) included reading,
namese name for the Chinese writing system). One of gardening, feeding sh (many of which are still living)
those is Poems from the Prison Diary made when he was and visiting schools and children's homes.* [77]
imprisoned by the police of the Republic of China. This Ho remained in Hanoi during his nal years, demand-
poetry chronicle is Vietnam National Treasure No. 10, ing the unconditional withdrawal of all non-Vietnamese
and was translated to many languages. It is used in Viet- troops in South Vietnam. By 1969, with negotiations still
namese high schools.* [73] After Vietnam gained inde- dragging on, Ho's health began to deteriorate from multi-
pendence from France, the new government promoted
ple health problems, including diabetes which prevented
Chữ Quốc Ngữ (Vietnamese writing system in Latin him from participating in further active politics. How-
characters) exclusivity to eliminate illiteracy. Ho started
ever, he insisted that his forces in the south continue ght-
to create more poems in the modern Vietnamese language ing until all of Vietnam was reunited under his regime re-
for dissemination to a wider range of readers. After he
gardless of the length of time that it might take, believing
became President until the appearance of serious health that time was on his side.* [77]
problems, a short poem of his was regularly published in
the newspaper Nhffn Dffn Tết (Lunar new year) edition
to encourage his people in working, studying or ghting
Americans in the new year. 6.7 Death
Because of staying nearly 30 years in exile, Ho could
speak uently, as well as read and write professionally,
in French, English, Russian, Cantonese and Mandarin in
addition to his mother tongue Vietnamese.* [74] In the
1920s, he was bureau chief / editor of many newspapers
which he established to criticize French Colonial Govern-
ment of Indochina and serving communism propaganda
purposes. Examples are Le Paria (The Pariah) rst pub-
lished in Paris 1922 or Thanh Nien (Youth) rst published
on 21 June 1925 (21 June was named by The Socialist Re-
public of Vietnam Government as Vietnam Revolutionary
Journalism Day). In many state o cial visits to Soviet
Union and China, he often talked directly to their com-
munist leaders without interpreters especially about top
secret information. While being interviewed by Western
journalists, he used French.* [75] His Vietnamese had a Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum, Hanoi.
strong accent from his birthplace in the central province
of Nghệ An, but could be widely understood through the
country.* [note 1]

Hồ Chí Minh statue outside Hồ Chí Minh City Hall, Ho Chi Minh
City

Stilt house of “Uncle Ho”in Hanoi
As president, Ho held formal receptions for foreign heads
of state and ambassadors at the Presidential Palace, but
he personally did not live there. He ordered the building
of a stilt house at the back of the palace, which is today
With the outcome of the Vietnam War still in question,
Hồ Chí Minh died at 09:47 on the morning of 2 Septem-
ber 1969 from heart failure at his home in Hanoi, aged
79. His embalmed body is currently on display in a mau-
soleum in Ba Đình Square in Hanoi despite his will stat-
ing that he wanted to be cremated.* [5]* :565 News of his
62 CHAPTER 6. HO CHI MINH

death was withheld from the North Vietnamese public for

nearly 48 hours because he had died on the anniversary of
the founding of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. He
was not initially replaced as president, but a “collective
leadership”composed of several ministers and military
leaders took over, known as the Politburo.
During North Vietnam's nal campaign, a famous song
written by composer Huy Thuc was often sung by
People's Army of Vietnam soldiers,“Bác vẫn cfflng chúng
cháu hành quân”(“You are still marching with us, Un-
cle Ho”).* [78] Six years after his death, at the Fall of
Saigon, several PAVN tanks in Saigon displayed a poster
with the words “Bác vẫn cfflng chúng cháu hành quân”.
Hồ Chí Minh holding his god-daughter, baby Elizabeth (Babette)
Aubrac, and Elizabeth's mother, Lucie Aubrac in 1946

6.8 Legacy and personality cult In Vietnam today, Ho's image appears on the front of all
Vietnamese currency notes. His portrait and bust are fea-
See also: Nông Thị Xuân, Nông Đức Mạnh, Nguyễn Thị tured prominently in most of Vietnam's public buildings,
Minh Khai, and Zeng Xueming in classrooms (both public and private schools) and in
The former capital of South Vietnam, Saigon, was o - some families' altars. There is at least one temple ded-
icated to him, built in Vгnh Long shortly after his death,
in 1970, in Viet Cong-controlled areas.* [81]
The communist regime has also continually maintained a
personality cult around Ho since the 1950s in the North,
and later extended it to the South, which it sees as a
crucial part in their propaganda campaign about Ho and
the Party's past. Ho is frequently glori ed in schools to
schoolchildren. Opinions, publications and broadcasts
that are critical of Ho or that identify his aws are banned
in Vietnam. Both Vietnamese and foreign activists, writ-
ers, reporters and commentators who criticize anything
about Ho in the slightest are arrested and imprisoned or
ned for“opposing the people's revolution”. Ho is even
glori ed to a religious status as an“immortal saint”by the
Vietnamese Communist Party, and some people “wor-
Temple devoted to Nguy n Sinh Sắc, Hồ Chí Minh's father
ship the President”, according to a BBC report.* [80]
cially renamed Ho Chi Minh City on 2 July 1976* [79] by
the new VCP-controlled National Assembly of Vietnam.
However, the name provokes strong anti-communist feel-
ing in a substantial number of Vietnamese. Many Viet-
namese, especially those living abroad, continue to refer
to the city as Sài Gòn, in rejection of the new communist-
imposed name and in honor of the former capital of anti-
communist Republic of Vietnam.* [80]
Ho's embalmed body is on display in Hanoi in a gran-
ite mausoleum modeled after Lenin's Tomb in Moscow.
Streams of people queue each day, sometimes for hours,
to pass his body in silence. This is reminiscent of other
Communist leaders like Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong,
Kim il-sung, and Kim Jong-il.
The Ho Chi Minh Museum in Hanoi is dedicated to his Shrine devoted to Ho Chi Minh
life and work. Publications about Ho's non-celibacy are banned in Viet-
Chilean musician Víctor Jara referenced Hồ Chí Minh in nam, because the Party maintains that Ho had no roman-
his song “El derecho de vivir en paz”(“The Right to tic relationship with anyone in his lifetime in order to por-
Live in Peace”). tray a puritanical image of Ho to the Vietnamese pub-
6.10. REFERENCES
lic, and advance the image of Ho as “the father of the
[communist] revolution”* [82] and of a“celibate married
only to the cause of revolution”.* [83] William Duiker's
Ho Chi Minh: A Life (2000) presents much informa-
tion on Ho's relationships.* [5]* :605, fn 58 The govern-
ment requested substantial cuts in the o cial Vietnamese
translation of Duiker's book, which was refused.* [84] In
2002, the Vietnamese government suppressed a review of
Duiker's book in the Far Eastern Economic Review.* [84]
In 1987, UNESCO o cially recommended to member
states that they “join in the commemoration of the cen-
tenary of the birth of President Ho Chi Minh by orga-
nizing various events as a tribute to his memory”, con-
sidering “the important and many-sided contribution of
President Ho Chi Minh in the elds of culture, education
and the arts”who“devoted his whole life to the national
liberation of the Vietnamese people, contributing to the
common struggle of peoples for peace, national indepen-
dence, democracy and social progress.”* [85] There's also
a personality cult surrounding Nguyễn Sinh Sắc, Ho's fa-
ther.
6.9 Notes
[1] He sometimes went on-air to delivery important political
messages and encourage soldiers.* [76]
6.10 References
[1] “Ho Chi Minh”. Random House Webster's Unabridged
Dictionary.
[2] Trần Quốc Vượng. “Lời truyền miệng dân gian về Hồ
Chí Minh”. BBC Vietnamese. Retrieved 2013-12-10.
[3] Vũ Ngự Chiêu. “Vài vấn nạn lịch sử thế kỷ XX: Hồ Chí
Minh—Nhà ngoại giao, 1945-1946”. Hợp Lưu Mag-
azine. Note: See the document in French, from Centre
des archives d'Outre-mer [CAOM] (Aix)/Gouvernement
General de l'Indochine [GGI]/Fonds Residence Su-
perieure d'Annam [RSA]/carton R1, and the note in En-
glish at the end of the cited article. Retrieved 2013-12-10.
[4] Nguyễn Vгnh Châu. “Phỏng vấn sử gia Vũ Ngự Chiêu
về những nghiên cứu lịch sử liên quan đến Hồ Chí Minh”
. Hợp Lưu Magazine. Retrieved 2013-12-10.
[5] Duiker, William J. Ho Chi Minh: A Life. New York: Hy-
perion, 2000.
[6] Hunt, Michael H. (2016). The World Transformed 1945
To the Present. New York, New York: Oxford University
Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-19-937102-0.
[7]“Quinn-Judge”, “Sophie”(2002). Hồ Chí Minh: The
Missing Years. University of California Press.
[8] Winter, Marcus (1989). Uncle Ho: Father Of A Nation.
Limehouse Press, London.
63
[9] “The Drayton Court Hotel”. Ealing.gov.uk. Retrieved
30 January 2013.
[10] Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2012). Vietnam Past and
Present: The North. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Cognoscenti
Books.
[11] Harries, David. “Maritime Sussex”. Sussex Express.
Retrieved 12 June 2015.
[12] Phong, Huy; Anh, Yen (1989). “Unmasking Ho Chi
Minh”. “Viet Quoc”. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
[13] For a thumbnail of a photograph in the Library of
Congress collection showing Quốc at the Versailles Con-
ference, see “Ho Chi Minh, 1890–1969, half length,
standing, facing left; as member of French Socialist
Party at Versailles Peace Conference, 1919”, Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs Online Catalog.
[14] Huynh, Kim Kháhn, Vietnamese Communism, 1925–
1945. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982; pg.
60.
[15] Tran Dan, Tien. “Ho Chi Minh, Life and Work”. Com-
munist Party of Vietnam Online Newspaper. Gioi Publish-
ers. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
[16] Brett Reilly review of “Embers of War: The Fall of
an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam”by
Fredrik Logevall, Journal of Vietnamese Studies 11.1
(2016), 147.r
[17] Brocheux, Pierre; Duiker,, Claire, translator (2011). Ho
Chi Minh : a biography (1. publ. ed.). Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-62226-5.
[18] Obituary in The New York Times, 4 September 1969
[19] Brocheux, P. pp. 39–40
Duiker, p. 143.
[20] Davidson, Phillip B., Vietnam at War: The History: 1946–
1975 (1991), p. 4.
Hoàng Văn Chí. From Colonialism to Communism (1964),
p. 18.
[21] “Ho Chi Minh”. u-s-history.com.
[22] “Ho Chi Minh Was Noted for Success in Blending Na-
tionalism and Communism”, The New York Times
[23] Interview with Archimedes L. A. Patti,
1981, http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/
vietnam-bf3262-interview-with-archimedes-l-a-patti-1981
[24] Interview with OSS o cer Carleton Swift,
1981, http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/
vietnam-9dc948-interview-with-carleton-swift
[25] Zinn, Howard (1995). A People's History of the United
States: 1492–present. New York: Harper Perennial. p.
460. ISBN 0-06-092643-0.
[26] “Collection of Letters by Ho Chi Minh”. Rationalrev-
olution.net. Retrieved 26 September 2009.
[27] Zinn, Howard (1995). A People's History of the United
States. New York: Harper Perennial. p. 461. ISBN 0-06-
092643-0.
64
[28] The Black Book of Communism
[29] Joseph Buttinnger, Vietnam: A Dragon Embattled, vol 1
(New York: Praeger, 1967)
[30] Ngo, Van (November 2, 2010). In The Cross re: Adven-
tures of a Vietnamese Revolutionary. Oakland, CA: AK
Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-1849350136.
[31] Lind, Michael (October 18, 1999). Vietnam: The Neces-
sary War. New York: Free Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-
0684842547.
[32] “Ben-gurion Reveals Suggestion of North Vietnam's
Communist Leader”. Jewish Telegraphic Agency. 8
November 1966. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
[33] “ISRAEL WAS EVERYTHING”. Nytimes.com. 21
June 1987. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
[34] Currey, Cecil B. Victory At Any Cost (Washington:
Brassey's, 1997), p. 126
[35] “ER404 - Báo Công an nhân dân điện tử". cand.com.vn.
[36] Tucker, Spencer. Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: a
political, social, and military history (vol. 2), 1998
[37] Colvin, John. Giap: the Volcano under the Snow (New
York: Soho Press, 1996), p. 51
[38] Vietnamese Wikipedia pro le of Nguyễn Hải Thần
[39] vi:Chính phủ Liên hiệp Kháng chiến Việt Nam
[40] “Vietnam Declaration of Independence”.
Coombs.anu.edu.au. 2 September 1945. Retrieved
26 September 2009.
[41] Karnow, Stanley. Vietnam: a History.
[42] https://leminhkhai.wordpress.com/2012/09/01/
ho-chi-minh-said-what/ proof that he runs the blog
[43] https://leminhkhai.wordpress.com/2013/04/25/
chiang-kai-shek-and-vietnam-in-1945/
[44] Robert F. Turner, Vietnamese Communism: Its Ori-
gins and Development (Hoover Institution Press, 1975),
pp57-9, 67–9, 74 and “Myths of the Vietnam War”,
Southeast Asian Perspectives, September 1972, pp14-8;
also Arthur J. Dommen, The Indochinese Experience of
the French and the Americans (Indiana University Press,
2001), pp153-4.
[45] vi:Lời kêu gọi toàn quốc kháng chiến
[46] “Lone Sentry: New Weapons for Jap Tank Hunters
(U.S. WWII Intelligence Bulletin, March 1945)". www.
lonesentry.com. Retrieved 2016-05-27.
[47] Fall, Bernard. Last re ections on a War, p. 88. New York:
Doubleday (1967).
[48] vi:Chiến dịch Biên giới
[49] Luo, Guibo. pp. 233–36
[50] Russian Ministry of Foreign A airs, “Chronology”, p.
45.
CHAPTER 6. HO CHI MINH
[51] Dommen, Arthur J. (2001), The Indochinese Experience
of the French and the Americans, Indiana University Press,
pg. 252.
[52] United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. “The
State of The World's Refugees 2000 – Chapter 4: Flight
from Indochina” (PDF). Retrieved 6 April 2007.
[53] Robert F. Turner (1975), Vietnamese Communism: Its
Origin and Development, Hoover Institution Press, p. 75.
[54] Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese Communism: Its
Origins and Development. Hoover Institution Publica-
tions. pp. 89, 91, 97. ISBN 978-0817964313.
[55] Logevall, Fredrik (2012). Embers of War: The fall of
an Empire and the making of America's Vietnam. random
House. ISBN 978-0-679-64519-1.
[56] Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese Communism: Its
Origins and Development. Hoover Institution Publica-
tions. p. 107. ISBN 978-0817964313.
[57] Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese Communism: Its
Origins and Development. Hoover Institution Publica-
tions. p. 97. ISBN 978-0817964313.
[58] Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese Communism: Its
Origins and Development. Hoover Institution Publica-
tions. pp. 90, 97. ISBN 978-0817964313.
[59] Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese Communism: Its
Origins and Development. Hoover Institution Publica-
tions. pp. 97–98. ISBN 978-0817964313.
[60] Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese Communism: Its
Origins and Development. Hoover Institution Publica-
tions. p. 99. ISBN 978-0817964313.
[61] Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese Communism: Its
Origins and Development. Hoover Institution Publica-
tions. pp. 95, 99–100. ISBN 978-0817964313.
[62] Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese Communism: Its
Origins and Development. Hoover Institution Publica-
tions. p. 143. ISBN 978-0817964313.
[63] cf. Gittinger, J. Price, “Communist Land Policy in Viet
Nam”, Far Eastern Survey, Vol. 29, No. 8, 1957, p. 118.
[64] Courtois, Stephane; et al. (1997). The Black Book of
Communism. Harvard University Press. p. 569. ISBN
978-0-674-07608-2.
[65] Dommen, Arthur J. (2001), The Indochinese Experience
of the French and the Americans, Indiana University Press,
p. 340, gives a lower estimate of 32,000 executions.
[66] “Newly released documents on the land reform”. Viet-
nam Studies Group. Retrieved 2016-07-15. Vu Tuong:
There is no reason to expect, and no evidence that I have
seen to demonstrate, that the actual executions were less
than planned; in fact the executions perhaps exceeded the
plan if we consider two following factors. First, this de-
cree was issued in 1953 for the rent and interest reduc-
tion campaign that preceded the far more radical land re-
distribution and party recti cation campaigns (or waves)
that followed during 1954-1956. Second, the decree was
6.11. FURTHER READING
meant to apply to free areas (under the control of the Viet
Minh government), not to the areas under French control
that would be liberated in 1954-1955 and that would ex-
perience a far more violent struggle. Thus the number
of 13,500 executed people seems to be a low-end esti-
mate of the real number. This is corroborated by Edwin
Moise in his recent paper “Land Reform in North Viet-
nam, 1953-1956”presented at the 18th Annual Confer-
ence on SE Asian Studies, Center for SE Asian Studies,
University of California, Berkeley (February 2001). In
this paper Moise (7-9) modi ed his earlier estimate in his
1983 book (which was 5,000) and accepted an estimate
close to 15,000 executions. Moise made the case based on
Hungarian reports provided by Balazs, but the document I
cited above o ers more direct evidence for his revised es-
timate. This document also suggests that the total number
should be adjusted up some more, taking into considera-
tion the later radical phase of the campaign, the unautho-
rized killings at the local level, and the suicides following
arrest and torture (the central government bore less direct
responsibility for these cases, however). cf. Szalontai,
Balazs (November 2005). “Political and Economic Cri-
sis in North Vietnam, 1955–56”. Cold War History. 5
(4): 395–426.
[67] Cheng Guan Ang & Ann Cheng Guan, The Vietnam War
from the Other Side, p. 21. (2002)
[68] The Economist, 26 February 1983.
[69] Lind, 1999
[70] Davidson, Vietnam at War: the history, 1946–1975, 1988
[71] Chen Jian.“China's Involvement in the Vietnam Con ict,
1964–69”, China Quarterly, No. 142 (June 1995), pp.
366–69.
[72] “Vietnam Veterans Against the War: History of the U.S.
War in Vietnam”. vvaw.org.
[73] Translated version:
• French - Người tình nguyện vào ngục Bastille dịch
“Nhật ký trong tffl"
• Czech - by cs:Ivo Vasiljev.
• Korean - “Prison Diary”published in Korean by
Ahn Kyong Hwan.
• English - by Steve Bradbury, Tin sh Press
• Older version - by Aileen Palmer
• Spanish - by Félix Pita Rodríguez
• Romanian - by ro:Constantin Lupeanu
• Russian - by Pavel Antokolsky
[74] Duiker, William J. (2000). Ho Chi Minh: A Life. Hyper-
ion. ISBN 978-0-7868-8701-9.
[75] [iMarx] Full translated - English subtitle-Interview Presi-
dent Ho Chi Minh - 1964. YouTube. 19 December 2011.
[76] Marr, David, Vietnam: State, War, and Revolution (1945-
1946), 2013, University of California Press
[77] Phỏng vấn Vũ Kỳ - Thư ký của chủ tịch Hồ Chí Minh.
YouTube. 10 August 2011.
65
[78] Vietnamese Wikipedia article on Huy Thuc
[79] “Nghị quyết của Quốc hội nước Cộng hòa xã hội chủ
nghгa Việt Nam về việc chính thức đặt tên thành phố
Sài Gòn - Gia Định là thành phố Hồ Chí Minh”. wik-
isource.org.
[80] Marsh, Viv (6 June 2012). “Uncle Ho's legacy lives on
in Vietnam”. BBC News. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
[81]
[82] Dinh, Thuy. “The Writer's Life Stephen B. Young and
Hoa Pham Young: Painting in Lacquer”. The Zenith by
Duong Thu Huong. Da Mau magazine. Retrieved 25 De-
cember 2013.
[83] Baker, Mark (August 15, 2002). “Uncle Ho: a legend
on the battle eld and in the boudoir”. Sydney Morning
Herald. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
[84] “Great 'Uncle Ho' may have been a mere mortal”. The
Age. 15 August 2002. Retrieved 2 August 2009.
[85] “UNESCO. General Conference; 24th; Records of the
General Conference, 24th session, Paris, 20 October to
20 November 1987, v. 1: Resolutions; 1988” (PDF).
Retrieved 26 September 2009.
6.11 Further reading
Essays
• Bernard B. Fall, ed., 1967. Ho Chi Minh on Revo-
lution and War, Selected Writings 1920–1966. New
American Library.
Biography
• William J. Duiker. 2000. Ho Chi Minh: A Life.
Theia.
• Jean Lacouture. 1968. Ho Chi Minh: A Political
Biography. Random House.
• Khắc Huyên. 1971. Vision Accomplished? The
Enigma of Ho Chi Minh. The Macmillan Company.
• David Halberstam. 1971. Ho. Rowman & Little-
eld.
• Hồ chí Minh toàn tập. NXB chính trị quốc gia
• Sophie Quinn-Judge. 2003. Ho Chi Minh: The miss-
ing years. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 1-85065-658-4
• Tôn Thất Thiện, Was Ho Chi Minh a Nationalist?
Ho Chi Minh and the Comintern Information and Re-
source Centre, Singapore, 1990
Việt Minh, NLF and the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam
66 CHAPTER 6. HO CHI MINH

• William J. Duiker. 1981. The Communist Road to

Power in Vietnam. Westview Press.
• Hoang Van Chi. 1964. From colonialism to commu-
nism. Praeger.
• Trương Như Tảng. 1986. A Viet Cong Memoir.
Vintage.

War in Vietnam

• Frances FitzGerald. 1972. Fire in the Lake: The

Vietnamese and the Americans in Vietnam. Little,
Brown and Company.

American foreign policy

• Henry A. Kissinger. 1979. White House Years. Lit-

tle, Brown.

• Richard Nixon. 1987. No More Vietnams. Arbor

House Pub Co.

6.12 External links

• Works by or about Ho Chi Minh at Internet Archive
• The Drayton Court Hotel

• Hồ Chí Minh obituary, The New York Times, 4

September 1969

• TIME 100: Hồ Chí Minh

• Ho Chi Minh selected writings

• Hồ Chí Minh's biography

• Satellite photo of the mausoleum on Google Maps

• Final Tribute to Hồ from the Central Committee of

the Vietnam Workers' Party
• Bibliography: Writings by and about Hồ Chí Minh

• Booknotes interview with William Duiker on Hồ Chí

Minh: A Life, November 12, 2000
Chapter 7

French Union

The French Union (French: Union française) was a po- which would eventually evolve into separate national gov-
litical entity created by the French Fourth Republic to re- ernments; France wanted to create a single government
place the old French colonial system, colloquially known under a single French state.* [3]
as the "French Empire" (Empire Français). It was the for-
This French Union had a President, a High Council and an
mal end of the“indigenous”(indigène) status of French Assembly. The President was the President of the Repub-
subjects in colonial areas.
lic. The Assembly of the Union had membership from the
Council of the Republic, from the National Assembly and
from regional assemblies of the overseas territories and
7.1 Composition departments but ultimately had no power.* [4] The High
Council ultimately only met three times, rst in 1951.* [5]
The French Union had ve components: The Assembly was the only actually functioning institu-
tion that could manage legislation within the overseas ter-
ritories.* [3]
1. Metropolitan France, which included French Alge-
ria. In reality, the colonial areas had representation but all
power remained in the French Parliament and thus was
*
2. 'Old' colonies, notably those of the French West In- centralized. [3] The colonies had local assemblies but
*
dies in the Caribbean that became Overseas depart- these had only limited local power. [3] Instead, various
ments in 1946. natives of the overseas territories in metropolitan France
grew into a group of elites, known as evolués.* [3]
3. 'New' colonies, renamed Overseas territories.
On January 31, 1956, hoping to having peace in Al-
4. Protectorates of French Indochina. It had been ex- giers, the system changed, abandoning assimilation in
pected that other protectorates would become part favor of autonomy, allowing territories to develop their
of the French Union, but the rulers of French Mo- own local *government and to eventually gain their inde-
rocco and French Tunisia refused to become mem- pendence. [6] This would not succeed however and in
bers and never belonged.* [1] 1958 the French Union was replaced by the French Com-
munity by Charles de Gaulle's Fifth Republic wherein
5. United Nations Trust Territories, such as French France was now a federation of states with their own self-
*
Cameroons and French Togoland, successors of the government. [7]
League of Nations mandates.

7.3 Withdrawals from the French

7.2 History Union
The French Union was established by the French consti- • Cambodia withdrew on 25 September 1955.* [8]
tution of October 27, 1946 (Fourth Republic). Under it,
• South Vietnam withdrew on 9 December 1955.* [9]
it was said that there were no French colonies, but that
metropolitan France, the overseas departments, and the • Laos withdrew on 11 May 1957 by amending its
overseas territories combined to create a single French constitution.* [10]
Union, or just one France.* [2]
The goal of this union was “assimilation of the over-
seas territories into a greater France, inhabited by French 7.4 See also
citizens, and blessed by French culture.”* [3] Whereas
the British colonial system had local colonial governments • Decolonization

67
68 CHAPTER 7. FRENCH UNION

• First Indochina War

• CEFEO
• French Community

• French colonial empire

7.5 References
[1] Charles-Robert Argeron, La décolonisation française, Ar-
mand Colin, Paris, 1994, p. 73.

[2] Simpson, Alfred William Brian (2004). Human Rights

and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the
European Convention. Oxford University Press. p. 285.
ISBN 0199267898.

[3] Simpson, Human Rights (2004), p. 286

[4] Simpson, Human Rights (2004), p. 285-286

[5] Simpson, Human Rights (2004), p. 286 fn. 33

[6] Simpson, Human Rights (2004), p. 286-287

[7] Simpson, Human Rights (2004), p. 287

[8] [ Displaying Abstract ] (2012-04-30). “CAMBODIA

SEVERS TIES WITH FRANCE - Declares Her Indepen-
dence - Prince Norodom Takes the Post of Premier - Ar-
ticle - NYTimes.com”. Select.nytimes.com.

[9] “Pentagon Papers Part IV A 3” (PDF). 1954–1960.

[10] “Laos”. Worldvisitguide.com.

7.6 Further reading

• Cooper, Frederick. “French Africa, 1947–48: Re-
form, Violence, and Uncertainty in a Colonial Sit-
uation.”Critical Inquiry (2014) 40#4 pp: 466-478.
in JSTOR

• Simpson, Alfred William Brian. Human Rights and

the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the Eu-
ropean Convention (Oxford University Press, 2004).

• Smith, Tony. “A comparative study of French and

British decolonization.”Comparative Studies in So-
ciety and History (1978) 20#1 pp: 70-102. online
• Smith, Tony. “The French Colonial Consensus and
People's War, 1946-58.”Journal of Contemporary
History (1974): 217-247. in JSTOR
7.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 69

7.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Nguyen, Pawyilee, Zzuuzz, Homagetocatalonia, Cynicism addict, Silverhorse, Italian boy, SFGiants, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, Jwis-
sick, Spondoolicks, Fang Aili, Rms125a@hotmail.com, SMcCandlish, Chaunpq, JuJube, MStraw, Elfalem, Smurrayinchester, Peter, JLa-
Tondre, ArielGold, Tryst Nguyen, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, P stermeister, Carlosguitar, GrinBot~enwiki, CIreland, Junyi, Brambo,
Roland Longbow, SmackBot, Amcbride, YellowMonkey, The Dark, Meshach, Hethatishere, KnowledgeOfSelf, Pgk, Funky49, Weges-
rand, Ikip, Davewild, Delldot, RockRockOn, Kintetsubu alo, Aivazovsky, Swerdnaneb, Frances76, Edgar181, Shok, Jkp1187, Com-
mander Keane bot, Yamaguchi 先生, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, BertholdD, Dark jedi requiem, Yankees76, Dahn, Rakela, MK8,
Jprg1966, Lubos, Vietlong, Ctbolt, DHN-bot~enwiki, Da Vynci, Colonies Chris, KudukGirl, Darth Panda, George Ho, Can't sleep, clown
will eat me, RyanEberhart, Cripipper, Writtenright, OrphanBot, Jennica, TheKMan, Edivorce, Gary Betz, Phaedriel, GuildNavigator84,
Jmlk17, Krich, RolandR, SnappingTurtle, Jabamula~enwiki, Akriasas, KI, Nhan~enwiki, Bwduca, Where, Tim riley, Tom3605, Curly
Turkey, Ck lostsword, Kukini, Skinnyweed, Ricky@36, Andrew Dalby, SashatoBot, Zahid Abdassabur, Khazar, John, Fremte, Lapaz,
Wtwilson3, Saigon punkid, Wash West 191, Vanished user 56po34it12ke, RepSchnell, Kransky, IronGargoyle, Shinbucks, Speedboy
Salesman, Stupid Corn, Fuzzy510, Minhduc~enwiki, Publicus, Dicklyon, Jackhammer111, Jimurphy, Midnightblueowl, Ryulong, Con-
dem, Jggouvea, Petrolmaps, Andreworkney, Keith-264, NEPats, Nonexistant User, Iridescent, Grblomerth, NoCultureIcons, Joseph So-
lis in Australia, Newone, Bienhoisinh, Belgium EO, Mepat111, Courcelles, Woodshed, Tawkerbot2, Randroide, Event Horizon, JCoul-
son, Xcentaur, CmdrObot, President David Palmer, Minhln, Bobfrombrockley, Insanephantom, Aherunar, BeenAroundAWhile, Ruslik0,
Iwantmoresleep, Mikhailbalakirev, Karenjc, Chicheley, Porterhse, Oden, Evo4 rs, Themightyquill, Cydebot, Fnlayson, Ntsimp, Yrodro,
Kanags, MC10, Dadofsam, Gogo Dodo, Bellerophon5685, A380 Fan, Orangutan123, Corpx, Soetermans, Tawkerbot4, Shirulashem,
Christian75, DumbBOT, Redspider~enwiki, ThistleDew172, Mastaxpeng, Daniel Olsen, MaterTerribilis, Dr. Ke, Refault, Thijs!bot,
Epbr123, Biruitorul, Hawkie, Qwyrxian, Kablammo, Mojo Hand, Mereda, RevolverOcelotX, Marek69, Toi la ke khong, Simian777,
SGGH, Tellyaddict, Cool Blue, JustAGal, CharlotteWebb, Michael A. White, Nick Number, Srose, MinnesotanConfederacy, Niohe,
AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Luna Santin, Widefox, Guy Macon, Chubbles, SkooBoi, Opelio, QuiteUnusual, Brian0324, Fayenatic london,
Glacierfairy, LibLord, Darklilac, Ntrungthanh, Glass of water, Vneditor, Darrenhusted, Lhagiang, JAnDbot, Epee eche, Janejellyroll,
Hello32020, Tncz, Basilicum, Mantion, Zero76, Acroterion, SteveSims, Akuyume, Magioladitis, Connormah, Kamkow, Daniel Cordoba-
Bahle, VoABot II, MiguelMunoz, Chevinki, Iluvlemongrass, RyuuKanshin, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, JamesBWatson, CattleGirl, Kajasud-
hakarababu, Jim Douglas, Happydemic, Twsx, Mineval, KConWiki, Dragfyre, Animum, Cliché Online, Vssun, Glen, DerHexer, Philg88,
Purslane, Textorus, Rskoly, Neoshaolin, Kridily, Nathanaheldidymus, Ine able3000, Jacob Peters, Hdt83, MartinBot, Russ London, STBot,
WikiManGreen, Morki, Nhn294, Mschel, CommonsDelinker, Prezen, J.delanoy, The dark lord trombonator, Quailman, Anas Salloum,
Darkdogtx, ThirstyBob, Choihei, LOC85, Elkost, Katalaveno, McSly, Globusz, Jeepday, Tony360X, Tomvec, M-le-mot-dit, NewEng-
landYankee, SJP, KCinDC, Hateloveschool, Znsniper, KylieTastic, Atheuz, John2510, Tridungvo, Ejército Rojo 1950, Tweisbach, Ac-
tion Jackson IV, Treisijs, Gtg204y, Andy Marchbanks, S (usurped also), Apocalyptic Destroyer, Wikieditor06, Sawasdee~enwiki, Saa-
bie, Jordalus, Je G., AlnoktaBOT, Nonnoyo, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Crafedog, Erik the Red 2, Jalwikip, Malinaccier,
Phuongcm, Paulburnett, Rei-bot, ANB, Melsaran, Dream100~enwiki, Factus, Leafyplant, Broadbot, Darks0uldier, Jackfork, Ashtray,
Rocky Ly, Samson Lin, Natg 19, Wiae, Wang Ba Dan~enwiki, Maxim, Rumiton, Bl4ckdr4g00n, Gan Ni Niang~enwiki, Dirkbb, Hap-
pyme22, Y, SciAndTech, Anthonyjohnphan, Enviroboy, Quangsang010, Mathwha, Spit re8520, Chenzw, Twooars, Vinhtantran, Luigi-
Maniac, Mohonu, W4chris, Sfmammamia, Scottywong, Kcuong, Asisley, Steven Weston, Taxxon, Fanatix, SieBot, Dkalib, Monmonlu-
vsu, Rincui, Timothhy, YonaBot, Euryalus, Malcolmxl5, BotMultichill, Moopinator, Johnfallon, Quanisphung, VietFire, Rodomontade,
Winchelsea, Legion , Haimuoi, Caltas, Matthew Yeager, EricJe ers, Raskiy, Yintan, Cbinnix, Bentogoa, Callanhardin, Flyer22 Re-
born, Tiptoety, Pipdawg2, Jonesy445, Monegasque, Agentorange101, Darth Kalwejt, JuanFox, Penssuckerdrewforlife, Elizabethxdang,
Oxymoron83, Brokendata, Kevincof, YellowFlag, KibaKibbles, Lightmouse, Cajunfusion, Hak-kâ-ngìn, PalaceGuard008, HughJLF, Son-
tung007, Manic4000, OKBot, Smilo Don, Caymanislands, Iamwisesun, Big BLA, Dcker, Someone111111, ImageRemovalBot, RS1900,
RegentsPark, ClueBot, RobertLunaIII, GorillaWarfare, Jjackson42, GordonBrownforPresident, All Hallow's Wraith, Postmortemjapan,
Icarusgeek, CheGregory, Gtrxor, Quang Thang, Der Golem, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, LonelyBeacon, 7 R O J A N, Kelmad,
Jpgasp, Lachong, Snocrates, Natebornbach, Trooper26 26, Rungbachduong, Excirial, Zsheps, Noca2plus, Crazeguy, Vin Kaleu, Alderre,
Mindstalk, Plastic Fish, V7-sport, Garing, NuclearWarfare, Misty Willows, Arjayay, NMinaf40120, Jotterbot, Noosentaal, Redthoreau,
Miramo~enwiki, FedeloKomma, JaneGrey, ElectricLemon, Carlson288, Ed Moise, Bennyandwill, Smark ea, Berean Hunter, Appari-
tion11, Toegyewan, DumZiBoT, Sanada Yuki-kun, Bridies, XLinkBot, Michaelpkk~enwiki, Khailarkin, BodhisattvaBot, Irdyb, Frood,
Jakezing, Good Olfactory, SelfQ, Thebestofall007, VanishedUser ewrfgdg3df3, Addbot, Editer1232, TrueLie, Willking1979, Pnjfvgyuh-
fgt, Yoenit, Duacot, FokkerTISM, Fyrael, Nora nettlerash, Albamhandae, Ronhjones, Beurenda, Dairymilk007, Fieldday-sunday, Carfossil,
Cst17, Download, RTG, BepBot, Favonian, Gooksbrah, AtheWeatherman, West.andrew.g, Bungalowbill430, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Legobot,
Kurtis, Luckas-bot, MileyDavidA, Yobot, Theserialcomma, Acclark, Donfbreed, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Yngvadottir, Nallimbot, Reenem,
Nick5208, AnomieBOT, Damobassist, Sonia, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Chrisdugdale, AdjustShift, Ulric1313, RandomAct, Flewis, Ma-
terialscientist, Gemz0r, Cutt me, ArthurBot, LovesMacs, LilHelpa, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Angstworld, 4twenty42o, Ecorbalan, Tranjudas,
Amore Mio, Daisuke dakara zutto, Cuongdtvt, Aznpride2595, Guto2003, GrouchoBot, Trongphu, Naur, ProtectionTaggingBot, Chava-
canBen, Omnipaedista, Brandon5485, Carrite, JJ Georges, Jean-Jacques Georges, CoolVIguy, Spellage, Joaquin008, SD5, Celuici, Green
Cardamom, Tktru, Sector001, FrescoBot, Blackguard SF, LucienBOT, Tobby72, Ace of Spades, Lothar von Richthofen, Tranletuhan,
Js mcm, Recognizance, TravChar, Trust Is All You Need, Igna, Kassjab, Tuantintuc17, Igitur, Dferg47, Elockid, DefaultsortBot, Lit-
tleWink, Tom.Reding, Yahia.barie, Jusses2, Jschnur, Murderdan537, MastiBot, Serols, Fixer88, JamesGrimshaw, Hbj200, Shanmugamp7,
Sienic~enwiki, TobeBot, Yunshui, Zanhe, Sumone10154, Callanecc, Barlafus, Kristiani95, Diannaa, WikiTome, Hmmwhatsthisdo, Side-
ways713, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Onel5969, Hajatvrc, In ictu oculi, EmausBot, Immunize, Gfoley4, Look2See1, Katherine, ScottyBerg,
Super48paul, Dewritech, RA0808, Namnguyenvn, RenamedUser01302013, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, TuHan-Bot, Smallchief, Wikipelli,
Dcirovic, K6ka, Raja.m82, John of Lancaster, AvicBot, The Madras, ZéroBot, Sharadevon, BurtAlert, Trananh1980, Sundostund, Fæ, Ril-
72 CHAPTER 7. FRENCH UNION

lke, MLeHistory2011, Hoangkid, Pan Brerus, NFSMW1993, Sd31263, Unreal7, Hiraki, SporkBot, Vuhoangsonhn, Jspeed1310, Lokpest,
Bullmoosebell, Donner60, Orange Suede Sofa, Status, FurrySings, Labtjd, TheTimesAreAChanging, Martinduytran, Gunbirddriver, Clue-
Bot NG, Ronzo228, Peter James, NapoleonX, Hohopoo, Tigerman207, WawaVander, MelbourneStar, ฀, Gilderien, Baseball Watcher,
Toilahoanglong, Phaseyour2, Cybourg, Blobman227, NewAccount7854, EventView871, ItwasaMistake7, Rezabot, Daveco333, Lilalinda-
house, CopperSquare, Widr, WikiPuppies, JamesChambers666, Cent123s4union, PaoloNapolitano, Tomseattle, 411963abc, Jk2q3jrklse,
Imsocoolyeah, Hkyguru, Whyworry now76, Helpful Pixie Bot, H311h0und246, Zeraful, 乾隆帝, Lheym0809, Voldemort175, DBigXray,
ChrisEngelsma, 123whatevs, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Arnavchaudhary, M0rphzone, Trumann ca, ISTB351, Redverton, PhnomPen-
cil, Mysterytrey, Baglehcm, MusikAnimal, Eeisele96, Mgokuda, Caremkem, Davidiad, JamesNZ, Calvin Marquess, Marcocapelle, Jason-
terry69, Jfav26, Liebertk, Mtl9559, Emils146, Gorthian, Liverpoolmylove, Earth Wikipedian, Lalaoopsi, Bfugett, PlasmaTime, Glacial-
fox, Morning Sunshine, Politicalpat, Vdtt2011, Wannabemodel, Hoho chehe, Majorharry, Saiyanlogo, MeanMotherJr, Sander.v.Ginkel,
Globe Trekker, Nguyễn Quốc Việt, Brigeboi9, Mrt3366, Cyberbot II, Maxronnersjo, Cacra, NWOTruther, 梁 棚 元, Abezgauz, Stu-
mink, 4idaho, Dexbot, FoCuSandLeArN, Chow, Webclient101, Charles Essie, Mogism, 331dot, ThePageMesserUpper, Viewmont Viking,
Thechristiananarchist, Veleyben, Heherockit, FulhamMentalist, TwoTwoHello, Fête, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Silkindude11, Frosty, Har-
JIT, BeanZull, Jaxartes, Quadis danney, Rajmaan, Epicgenius, Asmark2, CsDix, BreakfastJr, Howicus, Stickler4accuracy2, Pestcamel44,
Vivaporius, Namige, Eyesnore, ThomasMikael, Summoner131, Tentinator, Billhainh, Dig under deep, Yong Gún, Nguyenletuongvy98,
Flat Out, New worl, Jtgelt, Michel Djerzinski, LahmacunKebab, Bionisam, Pietro13, Quenhitran, Luong Nguyen, Bienchau, Nguyen
QuocTrung, Notthebestusername, TCMemoire, Luxure, Hisashiyarouin, Josephyr, 1982vdven, TramBNguyen, Nn213, Hiepdn, SonCZ,
Magicloveisintheair, Ntb612, Xuanmai19, Melcous, Tigercompanion25, 越 南 強 姦 犯 胡 志 明, Dsprc, Woz7luv7, Trackteur, Cuong-
dola9695, Minhkhtn9695, Skylermiles0907, Txantimedia, TridiaChaplain, 3primetime3, Baum42, Firstlastwhenever, TheFloydPig, Tu-
anminh01, Weeniehead, MRD2014, Bodhisattwa, Anarkinsey, Eurodyne, Emanuelito martinez, Mistryman2000, Fatherho, Joseph2302,
Arkhangelsk185, Ṣalāḥ ad-Dеn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb, KasparBot, H1395010, Qaei, Ducnguyen89, CarbonatedLemons, Nighthawk7902, Arel-
lano23, CAPTAIN RAJU, Quyennguyen93, Zeigen95, 八方雲集, Stewader91, David Susan, Cpt. “Soap”MacTavish, Khanhio, An-
naGoFast, Mwinter99, Fitindia, GreenC bot, Hakyn, Gulumeemee, Taeguk, Klrngl509, Marvellous Spider-Man, Idkidcbitc, Saitoryu429,
SomeRandomVandel, Bender the Bot, SRV.Vietnamese, Wiseruby, Barry Carrier, Shubham Dhoni, Duy Khoa Nguyen, Annedagreat,
Nobitasorea, Restoring Pages, Majorconor, NickPruet, Cdbolton2016, Home Lander and Anonymous: 1407
• French Union Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Union?oldid=769142459 Contributors: Olivier, Marteau, JonathanDP81,
Slawojarek, Chealer, Domino theory, OwenBlacker, Rich Farmbrough, Rupertslander, Ricky81682, Hu, Nightstallion, JBellis, Koavf, Carl
Logan, Le Anh-Huy, Chobot, RobotE, Rjensen, NYArtsnWords, SmackBot, Piccadilly, Lapaz, Robo sh, Iridescent, Cydebot, Thijs!bot,
Littlefatboy, Random user 8384993, T L Miles, Waacstats, Paris By Night, VolkovBot, SieBot, Gecko G, Lightmouse, FredrikLähnn, Clue-
Bot, Swedish fusilier, Plastikspork, V i P, SoxBot III, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Willking1979, Thomas Guibal, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Octillion88, Kingpin13, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, JJ Georges, Erik9bot, LucienBOT, Bigweeboy, 6rv4za, AmphBot, Slb
nsk, Look2See1, Dewritech, ChuispastonBot, Gob Lofa, ZFT, BattyBot, Liam987, YFdyh-bot, Lubiesque, Tigercompanion25, Clankst,
Bertdrunk, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 37

7.7.2 Images
• File:030630-N-0000X-001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/030630-N-0000X-001.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.navy.mil/view_image.asp?id=8346“released”to Public Domain Original artist: U.S. Navy photo
• File:1931_Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/1931_Flag_of_India.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/in-hist.html Original artist: Nicholas (Nichalp)
• File:1947-01-16_New_Head_Of_Church_Installed.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/1947-01-16_
New_Head_Of_Church_Installed.ogv License: Public domain Contributors: Public Domain http://www.archive.org/details/1947-01-16_
New_Head_Of_Church_Installed Original artist: Universal Newsreel
• File:1er_CEPML.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/1er_CEPML.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: photo issue de collection personnelle Original artist: davric
• File:1stIndochinaWar001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/1stIndochinaWar001.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: George Esper, The Eyewitness History of the Vietnam War, Associated Press 1983 Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data- le-width='1050' data- le-height='590'
/></a>
• File:1stIndochinaWar003.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/1stIndochinaWar003.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: George Esper, The Eyewitness History of the Vietnam War, Associated Press 1983 Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data- le-width='1050' data- le-height='590'
/></a>
• File:306-ppb-225-2012-001-pr.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/306-ppb-225-2012-001-pr.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: http://research.archives.gov/description/6949142 Original artist: U.S. Information Agency. Bureau of
Programs. Press and Publications Service. Publications Division
• File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Aksar_Khmer.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Aksar_Khmer.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: CommonsDara ; Zirguezi
• File:Armoiries_république_française.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Armoiries_r%C3%
A9publique_fran%C3%A7aise.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 fr Contributors: Jérôme BLUM (original png seems to have been taken from
here) Original artist: Dessiné par Jérôme BLUM le 5 septembre 2007. Készítette: Jérôme BLUM 2007.
7.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 73

• File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_

projection%29.svg License: GFDL Contributors: National Geographic. Map by Ssolbergj
Aquarius.geomar.de
Original artist:Koyos + Ssolbergj (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ssolbergj' title='User talk:Ssolbergj'>talk</a>)
• File:Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg
License: CC0 Contributors: https://openclipart.org/detail/105859/booksajsvg-aj-ashton-01 Original artist: AJ on openclipart.org
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-48550-0036,_Besuch_Ho_Chi_Minhs_bei_Pionieren,_bei_Berlin.jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-48550-0036%2C_Besuch_Ho_Chi_Minhs_bei_Pionieren%
2C_bei_Berlin.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: Original artist:Sturm, Horst
• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-48579-0009,_Stralsund,_Ho_Chi_Minh_mit_Matrosen_der_NVA.jpg Source: https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-48579-0009%2C_Stralsund%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_mit_Matrosen_
der_NVA.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: Original artist:Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data- le-width='1050' data- le-height='590' /></a>
• File:Bác_Hồ_với_Thiếu_nhi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/B%C3%A1c_H%E1%BB%93_v%
E1%BB%9Bi_Thi%E1%BA%BFu_nhi.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pinus
• File:Bâtiments_172.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/B%C3%A2timents_172.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Template:Alistair Morrenger Original artist: Alistair Morrenger
• File:Charles_DeGaulle_and_Ho_Chi_Minh_are_hanged_in_effigy_during_the_National_Shame_Day_celebration_in_Saigon,
_July_1964.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Charles_DeGaulle_and_Ho_Chi_Minh_are_hanged_
in_effigy_during_the_National_Shame_Day_celebration_in_Saigon%2C_July_1964.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Published
in: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress ; edited by Ronald J. Cima, Vietnam : a country study - The First Indochina War.
Original artist: United States Army
• File:China_Qing_Dynasty_Flag_1889.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_the_Qing_
dynasty_%281889-1912%29.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Details: Flags of maritime nations. United States. Navy Dept. Bureau of
Equipment 1899. File source: Open Clip art. Original artist: Caleb Moore
• File:Cold_War_Map_1959.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Cold_War_Map_1959.svg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Image:BlankMap-World 1959.svg by Sémhur, under licence GFDL & CC-BY-SA
Original artist: Sémhur
• File:Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/
Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Le Monde Illustré, 1891 Original artist: M.
G. Scott
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Dien_bien_phu_castor_or_siege_deinterlaced.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Dien_
bien_phu_castor_or_siege_deinterlaced.png License: Public domain Contributors: Public Domain http://www.archive.org/details/
NewsMaga00_5 Original artist: Warner Pathé News
• File:Dissident_Activities_in_Indochina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Dissident_Activities_in_
Indochina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Page 8 of the Pentagon Papers, originally from the CIA NIE-5 Map Supplement
Original artist: CIA
• File:Emblem_of_the_Gouvernement_général_de_l'Indochine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/
Emblem_of_the_Gouvernement_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_de_l%27Indochine.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
• Gouvernement général de l'Indochine (Hrsg.): Annuaire administratif de l'Indochine 1926. Imprimerie d'Extrême-Orient, Hanoi 1926
(online).Original artist:Unknown, SVG by user: Perhelion
• File:F4U-Corsair.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/F4U-Corsair.JPG License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Meeting aérien Ambérieux en Bugey (France) Original artist: moi-même
• File:FNL_Flag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/FNL_Flag.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
• File:First_Indochina_War_COLLAGE.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/First_Indochina_War_
COLLAGE.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mohamed Ajjani
• File:First_Indochina_War_map_1954_de.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/First_Indochina_War_
map_1954_de.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, based on file:Indochina blank relief map.svg Original artist: Don-kun,
NordNordWest
• File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Flag_of_Cambodia.svg License: CC0 Con-
tributors: File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Original artist: Draw new ag by User:฀฀฀_฀฀
฀฀฀฀
• File:Flag_of_Cambodia_under_French_protection.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Flag_of_
Cambodia_under_French_protection.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work
assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Lexicon assumed (based on copyright claims).
• File:Flag_of_Central_Vietnam_(1885-1890).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Flag_of_Central_
Vietnam_%281885-1890%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
• Flag_of_Central_Vietnam_(1885-1890).gifOriginal artist:Flag_of_Central_Vietnam_(1885-1890).gif: Unknown
• File:Flag_of_East_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work
74 CHAPTER 7. FRENCH UNION

• Gesetz zur Änderung des Gesetzes über das Staatswappen und die Staats agge der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. Vom 1.
Oktober 1959
• Verordnung über Flaggen, Fahnen und Dienstwimpel der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. —Flaggenverordnung —Vom 3.
Januar 1973
• Verordnung über Flaggen, Fahnen und Dienstwimpel der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. —Flaggenverordnung —Vom 12. Juli
1979

Original artist:
• diese Datei: Jwnabd
• File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/de/frankreich_3/frankreich-entdecken_244/
portrat-frankreichs_247/die-symbole-der-franzosischen-republik_260/trikolore-die-nationalfahne_114.html Original artist: This
graphic was drawn by SKopp.
• File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Laos.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Laos_(1952-1975).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Flag_of_Laos_%281952-1975%
29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based on Flags of the World - Laos, 1952-1975 and Coat of arms of Laos (1952-
1975).svg Original artist: Thommy
• File:Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Manchukuo.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Urmas
• File:Flag_of_North_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg License:
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• File:Flag_of_North_Vietnam_(1945-1955).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Flag_of_North_
Vietnam_%281945-1955%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_North_Vietnam_1945-1955.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Flag_of_North_
Vietnam_%281945-1955%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Colum-
bano Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vítor Luís Rodrigues; António Martins-Tuválkin (2004; this speci c vector set: see sources)
• File:Flag_of_Reformed_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/
e6/Flag_of_Reformed_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
• CJZ1.pngOriginal artist:CJZ1.png: Bencmq
• File:Flag_of_Republic_of_Cochinchina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Flag_of_Republic_of_
Cochinchina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jedan02
• File:Flag_of_South_Korea_(1984-1997).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Flag_of_South_Korea_
%281949-1997%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This le was derived from: Flag of South Korea.svg
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Public domain Contributors: (see history) Original artist: (many, see history)
• File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_Thailand_1855.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Flag_of_Thailand_1855.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Xiengyod & Sodacan
• File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/
Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lưu Ly vẽ lại theo nguồn trên
• File:Flag_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Flag_of_the_
Communist_Party_of_Vietnam.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: w:Image:Co_bua_liem_2.jpg Original artist: Original work
by Eureka287, vector work by Lasse Havelund.
• File:Flag_of_the_Dadao_Municipal_Government_of_Shanghai.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/
24/Flag_of_the_Dadao_Municipal_Government_of_Shanghai.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist:
Inductiveload
• File:Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Champasak_(1713-1947).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Flag_
of_the_Kingdom_of_Champasak_%281713-1947%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work, Based on: Flag of Cham-
pasak Kingdom Historical ags of Laos Drapeaux de Laos Historical ags and heraldries of Laos Original artist: Sodacan
• File:Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Luang_Phrabang_(1707_-_1893).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/
81/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Luang_Phrabang_%281707_-_1893%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original
artist: Sodacan
• File:Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Mengjiang.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
7.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 75

• File:Flag_of_the_People'{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_

People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/
design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370
• File:Flag_of_the_People'{}s_Republic_of_Kampuchea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Flag_of_
the_People%27s_Republic_of_Kampuchea.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Based from Cambodian Flag History Original artist:
Zach Harden
• File:Flag_of_the_Philippines_(1943-1945).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Flag_of_the_
Philippines_%281943-1945%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User 50
• File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China-Nanjing_(Peace,_Anti-Communism,_National_Construction).svg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China-Nanjing_%28Peace%2C_Anti-Communism%
2C_National_Construction%29.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: 中華民國，南京國民政府 Original artist: SVG le created by
User:Mononomic on en.wikipedia.org.
• File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_
China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp
• File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_1912-1928.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Flag_of_the_
Republic_of_China_%281912-1928%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kibinsky
• File:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: http://pravo.levonevsky.org/ Original artist: СССР
• File:Flag_of_the_State_of_Burma_(1943-45).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Flag_of_the_State_
of_Burma_%281943-45%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
• Flag_of_Burma_1943.svgOriginal artist:Flag_of_Burma_1943.svg: *Flag_of_Burma_1943.gif: Jaume Ollé
• File:FrenchMarsouinsIndochina1888.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/
FrenchMarsouinsIndochina1888.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 1888 photograph. Reproduction in“La Royale”, Jean Randier
Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20'
height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
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data- le-height='590' /></a>
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cense: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: XrysD
• File:French_Indochina_c._1930.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/French_Indochina_c._1930.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://indochine1940-1975.over-blog.com/pages/lINDOCHINE_FRANCAISE-526718.html Origi-
nal artist: French atlas from c. 1930
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jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: self-made, adapted from Public Domain <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Thailand.gif' class='image'><img alt='Thailand.gif' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Thailand.gif' width='301'
height='514' data- le-width='301' data- le-height='514' /></a> Original artist: PHGCOM
• File:French_Indochina_medal_law_of_1_August_1953.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/French_
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la Legion d'Honneur Original artist: PHGCOM
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1.png License: Public domain Contributors: Public Domain http://www.archive.org/details/NewsMaga00_2 Original artist: Warner Pathé
News
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napalm_1953-12_1.png License: Public domain Contributors: Public Domain http://www.archive.org/details/NewsMaga_4 Original artist:
Warner Pathé News
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tributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gen.jpg Original artist: US Army Photograph
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Original artist: ?
• File:HD-SN-99-02043.JPEG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/HD-SN-99-02043.JPEG License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: http://www.dodmedia.osd.mil/DVIC_View/Still_Details.cfm?SDAN=HDSN9902043&JPGPath=/Assets/Still/
1999/DoD/HD-SN-99-02043.JPG Public Domain (Defense Visual Information Center): http://www.dodmedia.osd.mil/ Original artist:
PIX
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License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205187797 Original artist: Royal Navy o cial pho-
tographer
76 CHAPTER 7. FRENCH UNION

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Stewart, Richard W. (2012), “Deepening Involvement 1945-1965, " Center of Military History, United States Army, Origi-
nal artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
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