A c o m p a r i s o n of the fatigue

s t r e n g t h of m a c h i n e d and
a s - c a s t s u r f a c e s of SG iron
M. S. S t a r k e y a n d P. E. I r v i n g

The fatigue strength of machined specimens of ferritic SG iron has been compared with the
strength of specimens having an as-cast surface. Micropores, exposed by machining, initiated
failure in the machined specimens, whereas surface irregularities or dross defects initiated
failure from the as-cast surface. While the endurance of specimens in which failures initiated at
surface irregularities was only marginally less than that of machined specimens, dross defects
reduced fatigue life by a factor of ten.
It is demonstrated that the fatigue life of so irons is dominated by micro-crack growth
and that the effect of all types of sG-iron defects on fatigue endurance is related to defect size.
Specimen endurances of less than 105 cycles can be predicted using a fracture mechanics
approach and integrating the Paris Law from the appropriate defect size.

Key words: fatigue; fatigue strength; casting defects; dross; shrinkage porosity; as-cast surfaces;
SG irons; short cracks; crack growth; J-integral; life prediction.

Spheroidal graphite (SG) cast irons are being increasingly
used in highly stressed, safety critical applications, parti-
cularly in the automotive industry, l - s Their low cost, high
castab/lity and good machining properties make them
attractive alternatives to cast steels and lower strength
forging steels. This is despite the fact that redesign of the
component may be necessary to compensate for the lower
fatigue strength of the cast iron.
In some applications, such as crankshafts, all the
highly stressed areas where fatigue cracks originate (the
Fdlet radii) are machined. In other applications, such as
axle casings, gear casings and connecting rods, the cast
surface skin may be left intact at sites of stress concentra-
t/on. The cast and machined surfaces will produce different
component fatigue strengths, even if the matrix material
and the stress state in the critical areas are identical. In
situations where large engineering factors of safety are
applied, the difference in fatigue strength would not
matter. However, for automotive applications, weight
reduction is important, and safety factors need to be mini-
mized. It therefore becomes essential to thoroughly under-
stand the factors influencing the fatigue properties of both
machined and as-cast surfaces of sG iron.
In the present work the authors tested 80 specimens
machined from commercial cast axle housings, and deter-
minted their fatigue lives. These results were compared with
those for specimens machined from keel blocks, retaining
the cast skin on the specimen surface. Additionally, the
effects of both the graphite nodule size on the fatigue
strength of machined surfaces, and casting defects on the
fatigue strength of as-cast surfaces were investigated.
Finally, crack growth models were used to predict the
observed fatigue lives.
I N T E R I O R A N D SURFACE STRUCTURES OF
SG I R O N
Interior structures
Cast irons contain two types of defect not found in
wrought materials. Firstly, they contain precipitates of
graphite and secondly, they contain shrinkage pores. In the
ease of SG iron the graphite is in the form of spheroids or
nodules. Gilbert 4 has shown that under a tensile load, these
nodules can separate from the matrix and so act as spherical
voids.
Pores formed by shrinkage during solidification can
be either macroscopic or microscopic in scale. Excess/re
shrinkage and poor feeding will result in gross centre-line
porosity in a component, but this can be avoided by good
casting practice. Smaller microshrinkage pores are formed
by the impingement of dendrites and eutectoid cells during
solidification, thus preventing feeding on a micro scale.
Although these can be reduced in extent by careful casting,
they cannot be removed completely.
Both nodules and pores will be exposed at the surface
when a cast component is machined. They are both large in
relation to inclusions found in wrought steels, and also in
relation to irregular/ties found on a typical machined
surface. A typical nodule may be 50/~m in diameter, and a
microshrinkage pore 50 to 500/.an in length. They are there
fore liable to accelerate the initiation of fatigue cracks from
machined surfaces, and reduce total specimen lives.
Surface structure
The unmachined surface of a casting is irregular as it adopts
the texture of the sand used for the mould. Finer surface
finishes can be produced by using fine fac'ing sands or
proprietary mould dressings. Cleaning after casting by sand
or shot blasting will add/tionally influence surface relief.
The typical size of surface pits and asperities is 100 to
300/zm.
The m/crostructure of the casting close to the surface
may be different from the interior. Some denudation of
graphite is not uncommon. Additionally, sulphurous
impurities in the mould can react with magnesium in the
metal to produce local patches of flake or chunky graphite .5
Dross type defects can also be formed by this reaction and
can be trapped at the surface. 6'7 Poor pouring practices
and runner design can cause magnesium reaction products

0142-1123/82/030129-08 $03.00 © 1982 Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd INT. J. FATIGUE July 1982 129
 __.
and slag t o be s w e p t i n t o the casting w h e r e t h e y t e n d to
f l o a t t o cope surfaces. 8 T h e f a t i g u e p r o p e r t i e s o f as-cast
surfaces are t h e r e f o r e e x p e c t e d t o be v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m • IO

those o f m a c h i n e d surfaces. ~" 18o i

DURABILITY OF MA CHINED SURFA CES

F a t i g u e specimens were m a c h i n e d f r o m the 20 m m t h i c k
,ooI
spring pads of rear axle housings of an off-road vehicle.
The axles were supplied by seven different foundries to 1
BS 2789 grade 420/12. Tensile specimens, machined from "5
the same regions of the axle, gave ultimate tensile strengths 7
between 420 and 470 MN/m 2 and 0.2% proof strengths of 120 !-
2 8 0 - 3 4 0 MN/m 2. Fig. 1 illustrates one of the coarser
microstructures seen in these axles.
The cylindrical fatigue specimens had a gauge section
7 nun in diameter and 12 mm in length. They were tested
leo la ....
• O0

in strain control with zero mean loads on a serve-hydraulic

test machine. This material underwent rapid cyclic harden- I [ ....... L I I
o 0.4 08 12 I6 20 24
x I03 reversals to fadure

• 00
180

160

140
E

120
Z

Fig. 1 Microstructure of a commercial axle casting (x75) • • O0

5O(]
45C ,- / Cyclic
40C b I I I I
o 16 0.8 ?_4 3.2
£ ssc x I0 s reversals to toilure
Low~" bound monotonic . . . .
30C Fig. 4 The effect of nodule count on fatigue life: a} at a strain
amplitude of 0.005; b) at a strain amplitude of 0.0018
20C

//
ing t o a stable value o f c y c l i c stress. T h e cyclic stress/strain
~5C curve a n d s t r a i n / f a t i g u e l i f e curves w h i c h w e r e d e t e r m i n e d ,
IOC are given m. Figs 2 and 3. R u n - o u t s ( d e f i n e d at 2 x 107
5C reversals) w e r e o b t a i n e d f o r strain a m p l i t u d e s b e t w e e n
q 0 002
I/ I
0004
0 006 0008
I
0.010
I
0.012
1
0.001 a n d 0 . 0 0 1 2 5 , o r stresses f r o m 1 7 0 - 2 0 0 M N / m 2.
Total strain F u r t h e r m a t e r i a l , f o r an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t
Fig. 2 Cyclic stress/strain curve of ferritic SG iron grade 420/12
o f n o d u l e size o n f a t i g u e life, was k i n d l y s u p p l i e d b y t h e
British Cast Iron Research Association. Keel blocks with
100 I x Total strain nodule counts from 100 to 200nodules/ram 2 were
/ o Elastic strain
- iL ~ Ploltic strain produced by changing the section size from 19 to 25 mm
10 ~ Excluded points and varying the a m o u n t of inoculant added. The blocks
+ Elastic
= [ ~ O Plastic were annealed to give a fully ferritic structure. All the
specimens were taken from the bottom third of the blocks
to minimize the effects of porosity.
~ 6s The specimens were tested at two different strain
amplitudes, chosen to give lives of approximately 10 3
and 10 5 reversals. The tests were interrupted on first
~41 l I l I "% l l I detection of a crack, as indicated by a fall in the peak
,v I0o I0' I0z 103 I04 I0 ~ I0e I0 r tOa tensile load, and the specimens heat tinted to define the
Reversals to failure (2 Nf) failure origins.
Fig. 3 Strain/fatigue life curve for machined specimens of ferritic SG
iron grade 420/12 (plastic strains below 0.0001 are not included in The results are plotted in Fig. 4 as nodule count
the analysis) versus reversals to failure. It can be seen that nodule count

130 I N T . J. F A T I G U E J u l y 1982
had littleinfluence on the fatigue livesobtained. After
testing,the specimens were examined on the scanning
electron microscope (SEM). In 9 0 % of the specimens
;.: *..:
examined, the centre of the heat-tinted zone coincided
with a micropore exposed during machining. A typical " • O
pore can be seen in Fig. 5. The size of each of these pores
was measured and an inverse relationship found between o 4t "~
fatigue lifeand initiatingpore size,for pores of similar
shape (Fig. 6)• In this figure the length of the pore along
41" " e"re OQ e, ,~
the machined surface is defined as 2a and the depth of the
pore as c. A decrease in the depth of the startingpore from
8, Oe eOQ
200 p m to 50/ira produced a threefold increase in endur-
ance. To establish that the same was true in the tests of the • %+

commercial irons, a selection of failed specimens cut from

the axle housings were additionally examined on the SEM.
Pores were invariably found at the failure origins.
,•i, o e.. •

DURABIL I T Y OF AS- CAST SURFA CES

The specimens for this part of the programme were again
machined from keel blocks. Two casts were made• The first ~q
was cast in CO2 bonded moulds of low sulphur content
giving a nodular structure up to the surface. The second

f t+
t"

Fig. 7 Microstructure at the surface of a casting showing: a) nodular

structure (slightly denuded); b) c h u n k y graphite beneath a layer o f
flake graphite (both x 7 5 )

cast was poured into furine bonded sand moulds which had
a high proportion of recycled sand and so a high level of
sulphonic impurities. This produced a patchy flake graphite
Fig• 5 A microshrinkagepore that initiated tailure from a machined structure to depths of 200 to 400/J.rn on the surface. Photo-
surface (x330)
micrographs of the surfaces of both castings can be seen in
+oo Fig. 7. Occasional small dross defects were seen on the
surface, particularlyin the second cast (Fig. 8). All the
ec/o=.. 15
blocks were annealed in an inert nitrogen atmosphere, to
26 xclo =05 ensure a fully ferriticstructure.
24o~ Plate specimens with gauge length cross-sections of
2201-
6 x 6 m m were machined from the blocks, retaining the cast
surface on one face of the specimen (Fig. 9). These were

.c
180.
160t-
i tested in straincontrol with the extensometer positioned
on the cast surface.
After testing,the failure origins were identified in the
SEM. Most of the specimens from the firstcast failedfrom
surface irregularitiesor pits 200 to 3 0 0 # m deep, but in
three of the specimens, failure was initiatedby dross
defects on the surface. Similar dross defects caused almost
Io°t all of the failuresin the second cast.One such defect, 350
x 700/~m in size,on a fracture face, can be seen m Fig. i0.
The flake graphite on the surface of this cast initiatedonly
two failures.
The fatigue livesof the as-cast surface specimens are
201_I" I i I compared with the scatterband of livesobtained from
O0 . . . . I0 20 3.0 machined specimens in Fig. I I. The rough surface produced
x 105 reversols to foilure by the sand mould only marginally reduces the fatigue life
Fig. 6 Relationship between depth of starting pore and fatigue life below that of a machined-surface specimen. The dross
at a strain amplitude o f 0.0018 defects, however, substantially reduce the fatigue life;

INT. J. FATIGUE July 1982 131

 It was found in Reference [ 9 ] that the growth rates
of the smaU cracks could be approximated by:
4
d~ 2 X 10 8 A j 2 . 0 ( m / c y c l e ) (1)

over the range of A J from 1 ,to 15 kN/m and crack lengths

greater than 100/Ira. Here 'c refers to the crack depth in
metres, and N the number of load cycles.
41~ 4
I ~. _%_o -~

" " - 4 • ,0 "

" .v•4o ."
- __J

': • O~' Q ~e "ql

,al,, • t . ~ , •

.b ,~- ~ ovid , /
//
Cost s~rfoce skin
retained on one stde
of the specimen

~=21 ~ ~ 6_
•;" .'.:.. ;.,
Fig. 8 Surface dross/stringer defects in a metallographic section:
a) stringer defect 1.3 mm deep; b) dross defect 0.6 mm deep (both
x60)
tenfold life reducdons were measured. Run-outs at 2 x l07
reversals were obtained at strain amplitudes of 0.00085 ~: ~ 6
and 0.0009, or stresses of 1 4 0 - 1 5 0 MN/m 2. A stringer
defect which was 1.2 x 2.2 mm in surface length was
visible on the corner of one of these run-out specimens and
yet did not precipitate failure.
The dross defects were from 0.5 to 2 mm ( 5 0 0 -
2000/Ira) in d e p t h ; a b o u t 3 - 4 times the size of the surface
irregularities. Chemical analysis by energy dispersive
spectroscopy was inconclusive but a large number of
defects were found to contain magnesium and/or silicon. As-cast Machined
surface surface

Fig. 9 Geometry of fatigue specimens used for the study of the cast
PREDICTION OF TEST SPECIMEN L I VES surfaces (dimensions in ram)
In previous work, 9 the authors used replication techniques
to measure the growth rates of small cracks from 100 to
4000/zm (4 ram) in surface length, in machined cylindrical
specimens of ferritic SG iron. The growth rates, obtained
under elastic/plastic conditions, were correlated with linear
elastic long crack data using the characterizing parameter
A J rather than the linear elastic AK. The expression used
for the determination of A J and its derivation can be found
in the Appendix. The crack growth results are summarized
in Fig. 12. This approach has also been successfully
employed by Dowling. l°' 11 In the present correlation, A J
was calculated from the total stress and strain ranges rather
than the tensile stress and strain amplitude. This was
because, from replica observations, the cracks appeared
to be open throughout the compressive as well as the
tensile part of the load cycle. Fig. 10 Dross defect on a fracture surface (x60)

132 INT. J. FATIGUE July 1982

 I00[ Machined surface (or A K o f 5.1 MN/m3/2). It was assumed that Equation (1)
Scofferband of test results
was valid right down to this threshold, at which value crack
growth rates became i n f i n i t e l y slow, corresponding to a
I As- cost surface
• Initiation from surface fatigue lirrLit. For the typical defect o f 70 x 150/Jm, the
=rregulor fly fatigue l i m i t w o u l d be attained at an applied strain range
• Initiation from dross
o Initiation from flake of 0.0036 or strain amplitude of 0.0018.
<3 graphite Fig. 13 shows that, for this average starting pore, the
fatigue life at short and intermediate lives is slightly over-
estimated; the calculated line sits on the top rather than in
o iC~2~_ the middle of the scatterband. A A J threshold of 0.2 k N / m
predicts a fatigue limit that is much too high. Crack growth

Smooth specimen data

1(53--
I /k,12
x 00013
o 00018
i
• 0 003 ,
10-5 o 0005 j
/ I I . . . . L m . I 1 ;
1()4100 l0 t 102 103 104 105 106 10"t 10e
Reversals tO failure ( 2 N f ]
Fig. 11 Comparison of the fatigue life of as-cast surfaces with the
fatigue life of machined surfaces
10 - e _

In all the specimens replicated, (the longest life o f

which was about 105 reversals) crack growth was observed
to start from the pores within the first 15% of the life. ./.;,
Some cracks were also seen starting from the nodules but
they did not initiate until later in the life. It was found 9 i II
that fatigue life could be predicted to within a factor of
four, for each specimen replicated, by integrating Equation
(1) over the range, between the starting pore size and a final
crack length. Life was insensitive to the final crack length
which was arbitrariliy chosen as 4 ram. The initiating pore 10-e // i
was treated as a small crack of the same size and shape.
/
J values at the surface and at the point of maximum defect x

depth were generally different, and resulted in different /

/
increments of growth, leading in turn to an enlarged defect CT specrnendata
of different shape from the original. Continuous adjustments 10-s
!
I
were therefore made in the geometry correction factor, as R=07
I R =0.53
the integration progressed.
R=01
In Reference [9 ], this crack growth model was not
examined outside the strain levels at which specimens were
replicated. If the model is realistic it should be possible to iO-I°l 1
01 I I0 I00
generate the whole of the strain/life curve for machined A J (kNm -I)
surfaces and to predict the effect of as-cast surfaces, if Fig. 12 Fatigue crack growth rates for both long and short cracks as
initiation is immediate from the surface dross defects. a function of z~J
The hysteresis loop obtained during the course of the
fatigue test, was used in conjunction with a selected starting i0 "1
Scotterband of test data
defect size to calculate a value for AJ. Equation (1) was
--- Predicted hfe for defect
then integrated as before to yield a value for specimen life. i 70/~m x 150#m
A typical pore found in the machined specimens was oJ i
7 0 # m in surface length and 150/~m in depth; Equation (1)
.~I0 -2
was integrated over the range between a starting crack of
this size and a final crack length of 4 - 6 mm for different
values o f strain amplitude. This curve is plotted in Fig. 13
as a dashed line, and is compared with the scatterband of all o
the results of tests on machined specimens. The horizontal io-3
dashed line corresponds to a fatigue-limit strain calculated !
using the long crack threshold for growth. The crack growth
threshold was not measured independently for the small
cracks. Since these cracks were believed to be open through
_ _ J I I . i I I i
the whole of the stress range, it was thought that long crack 10 I0 o 101 102 103 104 10 5 10 6 i0 ? I0 e
thresholds measured for a R ratio of 0.7 would approximate Reversals to failure ~.Nf)
most closely to short crack behaviour. From Fig. 9 this Fig. 13 C o m p a r i s o n o f the p r e d i c t e d life of a specimen c o n t a i n i n g
threshold occurs abruptly at a value of A J of 0.2 kN/m an average pore w i t h test data o b t a i n e d f o r m a c h i n e d surfaces

INT. J. F A T I G U E July 1982 133

 ]0- I _____
Test data, failure initiated
• by dross defect 0 5 to
2 0 m m deep
------ Predicted [=fe for defect
I 0ram deep
'~I0-2I
~. '
E
o
~ I0 "s
o~
-.. • I--1:
I0 -4 i _ _ I .l =__ I I
I00 I01 IO2 IO s IO4 I05 106
Reversals to fadure (2 Nf )
Fig. 14 C o m p a r i s o n o f the p r e d i c t e d life o f a specimen c o n t a i n i n g
an average sized dross defect w i t h test data o b t a i n e d f o r as-cast
surfaces
from the pores is occurring at the much lower strain ampli-
tude of +0.0012, corresponding to A J values of 0.09 kN/m
or A K values of 3.9 MN/m 3/2.
Similar calculations can be made for a typical dross
defect of 1.0 x 1.0 mm, by treating it as a small crack.
Fig. 14 shows the results (dashed line) again compared with
actual test data. The scatter in observed lives is very large
but it appears that the crack growth model predicts lives
reasonably at 103 reversals but underestimates lives greater
than 104 reversals. In contrast to the small pore fatigue
limits, the long crack threshold for growth, when applied to
dross defects, greatly underestimates the fatigue limit.
DISCUSSION
Effect of nodule size
Nodule size had little effect on fatigue life over the range
of nodule counts studied. Pores were generally observed to
initiate fatigue cracks earlier in life than the nodules, and
failure life was controlled b y starting pore size. This does
not agree with the conclusions of Palmer. 12 He attributed
a deterioration in fatigue life between specimens cut out of
section sizes from 44 to 304 mm, to a coarsening of the
graphite nodules. He did not however look at failure origins.
In each investigation where failure origins have been exam-
ined, 13'14 pores have been shown to initiate cracks. Increas-
ing the section size by a factor of seven will also increase
the size of shrinkage pores and this may account for
Palmer's observations.
Fatigue strength of as-cast surfaces
The surface pits and irregularities left by the moulding sand
do not appreciably reduce the fatigue life below that of a
machined surface. This is because the machined surfaces
themselves contain notches in the form of nodules and
pores. (The pores found in the present study were of com-
parable size to the surface pits of the east surface.) The
larger dross defects however, substantially lower fatigue
life, reducing the fatigue limit to 20% below the lowest
measured for a machined surface. The incidence of these
defects was increased by the sulphurous impurities in the
moulding sand used for the fatigue specimens but similar
defects, albeit in lesser numbers, were also seen in metallo-
graphic samples taken from the commercial axles.
134 INT. J. FATIGUE July 1982
The irregular as-cast surface makes it very difficult,
if not impossible, to detect dross defects of this size in
components on a production line using the NDT techniques
currently available. Indeed, although these dross inclusions
have been termed defects in a fatigue sense, a casting found
containing small numbers of stringers or inclusions of this
size would not normally be rejected. Since one cannot
therefore confirm that there is not a defect of this nature
in a highly stressed area, design stresses in a safety critical
component must allow for the presence of such defects.
Prediction of fatigue life
I Integration of Equation (1) is more successful in predicting
i . the effects of pore-type defects than dross-type defects.
107 I0 e
This may be due to a number of factors. For instance, the
expression used for J, was for a crack in a cylindrical
specimen, crack depth being small in relation to specimen
diameter. Although accurate for the cylindrical machined
specimens it was less realistic to apply it to the as-cast
specimens which were square in section. Furthermore, the
life of specimens containing 1 m m dross defects will be
occupied growing a crack from 1 to 4 ram. Errors in the
expression for J will be appreciable in this region as the
crack size is large in relation to the total specimen width.
In contrast, specimens containing only the much smaller
pore defects will spend the majority of their lives growing a
crack up to a length of 1 mm and subsequent errors in the
calculated life, incurred at longer crack lengths, will be small.
Long crack threshold values of A J (or ~ K ) have not
been successfully used to predict the smooth specimen
fatigue limit. Estimates were too high for pore defects
( 5 0 - 500/Ira) and too low for dross defects ( 5 0 0 - 2000/Jm)
If the fatigue limit is regarded as a threshold for crack
initiation rather than growth, the behaviour of the dross
defects can be explained as being a consequence of initiation
difficulties, but the behaviour of the pore defects is then
anomalous. A crack initiating from a pore defect stressed
just above the fatigue limit, would still be below the pre-
dicted threshold for long crack growth and so should not
propagate.
In the present case, the lowest possible long crack
threshold data obtained at R = 0.7 has been used and in
addition, the whole of the load range has been applied in
the calculation. In spite of this, the calculated thresholds
for growth are too great to explain the observed fatigue
limit o f the machined specimens. It is concluded that thres-
holds for short cracks must be substantially lower than
those of long cracks. This is supported by considerable
recent experimental evidence 15-17 on other materials but
as yet, no quantitative data for short crack thresholds of
SG irons is available.
CONCL USIONS
1) Microshrinkage pores from 50 to 500 p.m in length play
a dominant role in the fatigue life of specimens with
machined surfaces. Although nodules were observed
to initiate fatigue cracks, they did so later in the life
than pores, and consequently nodule cracks rarely
became dominant.
2) Surface irregularities and pits 200 to 3 0 0 / n n deep,
present on as-cast surfaces, reduce the fatigue limit
only slightly below that of a machined surface.
S) Dross-type defects on as-cast surfaces substantially
reduce fatigue life. The fatigue limit for dross defects
 0.5 to 2.0 mm deep was found to be 20% below the
lowest measured on a machined surface. These
defects are more severe in their effect on fatigue life
than a 0.4 mm deep layer of surface flake graphite.
4) The growth rates of small cracks, larger than 100#m,
in these irons can be successfully correlated with long
crack data, if it is assumed that the compressive as
well as the tensile part of the load cycle is damaging.
5) For endurances less than 105 reversals, microcrack
initiation from pores exposed by machining was
observed to occur within the first 15% of life. The
lives of these spec/mens could therefore be predicted
by integrating crack growth data which had been
characterized in terms of AJ.
6) At longer byes, it is possible that microcrack initiation
forms a significant fraction of the total life, particu-
larly for the more blunt dross defects.
7) The fatigue limit, measured on specimens containing
dross defects, occurs at larger strains than that calcu-
lated from long crack threshold data.
8) The threshold for short crack growth was not
measured directly. However, failures of machined
specimens occurred from pore defects at AJ values
smaller than the long crack threshold. This suggests
that the threshold for the growth of short cracks of
about 100/am, may be below the threshold for long
crack growth.
ACKNOW L EDG EMENTS
The authors would like to thank BCIRA for providing some
of the material used in this investigation and David Moore
of Sheepbridge Engineering Ltd for developing methods
to form surface flake graphite. Mr V. Kumar is thanked for
his invaluable assistance with the experimental work. The
advice and encouragement of many other colleagues at
GKN Technology is also gratefully acknowledged, in parti-
cuLar that of Dr P. Watson, Head of Product Engineering,
GKN Technology. The paper is published by permission of
the late Dr T. L. Johnston, Director of GKN Technology Ltd.
A. J may thus be defined in relation to an origin at either
the tensile or compressive peak, and can be regarded as a
change in characterizing parameter, or AJ.
It is worth noting that if the crack does not close
before the compressive load peak is attained, (as has been
observed experimentally) then the tensile going and com-
pressive going halves of the cycle are identical. The forma-
tion and growth of crack tip reversed plastic zones on load
reversal will proceed in the same manner in either loading
direction.
In the context of continued cyclic loading, we may
thus define A J which has a similar significance as a correlat-
ing parameter, as does AK in the hnear elastic case. The
advantage of A J over other suggested elastic/pLastic corre-
lators 20-22 is that, if linear elastic long crack growth data
are expressed in terms of A J via J = K 2 / E ( 1 - u2), then
both short and long crack growth rates can be directly
compared by the same correlating parameter.
The value of A J can be expressed in terms of the
elastic and plastic components of the energy stored at
maximum load. Referring to Fig. A1
Ao 2
awe=
2E
and
AOAep
AWp-
n+l
SO
A J = 21ra[h(n) AWe+ g(n) AWp] (2)
for a through crack. For this sG iron, h(n) was calculated
to be 1.38, and g(n) to be 1.68, taking n as the cyclic and
not the monotonic strain hardening exponent.
,l

APPEND IX
Using an estimation procedure, Shih & Hutchinson 18 have
derived an expression for the line integral J, for the case of
a through crack in both small and Large scale yielding. It
was assumed that the material could be characterized by
the Ramberg-Osgood relation. By summing the small scale
yielding and fully plastic solutions, the generalized expres-
sion for J is given by E

02 h(n) + 2 (--°6Pl g(n)]

J -- na [_ - -
IE \ n +17
for a through crack of length 2a where: o is the apphed
aw,
stress; n is the strain hardening exponent; h ( n ) and g ( n )
\
are f u n c t i o n s of n; E is Young's Modulus; a n d ep is plastic
strain.
We now consider a crack in a specimen subjected to
tension/compression cycling, producing the hysteresis loop
shown in Fig. A1.
Dowiingl0,11 and others 19 have pointed out that the
hysteresis loop shown can be regarded as having an origin
at the compressive peak. A J value, obtained by loading the
material from point A to point B, can be defined, as can a
J value similarly obtained by loading the material from B to Fig. A1 Hysteresis loop for tension/compression cycling

INT. J. FATIGUE July 1982 135

 The cracks found in the smooth cylindricalspecimens
were semi-ellipticalin shape. J at both the surface and tip
of cracks of this geometry in an elasticallyloaded cylinder,
were calculated using the Marc finiteelement package. 23
The results were divided by the J expression for an elastic-
ally-loaded through crack, in order to obtain geometry
correction factors,9 for the ellipticalcase.
It was assumed that these geometry correction factors,
calculated for elasticloading, are also applicable to plastic
loading and Equation (2) was modified by the constants
derived from the Marc analysis.Hence A J at the specimen
surface;
AJsurf = fl(c/a) 2ha[ 1.38 A W e + 1.68 AWp]
and A J at the crack tip
AJti p = f2(c/a) 21rc[ 1.38 AWe + 1.68 AWp]
where fl(c/a) and ?2(c/a) are two different functions of
ratio o f crack depth 'c' to half the crack surface length, 'a'.
REFERENCES
1. Watson, P. and DabeU, B. J. 'A realistic computer based
comparison of SG iron and cast steel' in: Proc Int Confon
The Applications o f Computers in Fatigue, (SEECO, Warwick,
April 1978)
2. Mahnig, F., Trapp, H. G. and Walter, H. Konstrumren und
Giessen No 1 (1977)
3. Mehnig, F., Trapp, H. G. and Walter, H. 'Fatigue strength and
simulated service fatigue strength of automotive castings'
Report from the Research and Development Department of
Georg Fischer L t d (Schaff hauser, Switzerland)
4. Gilbert, G . N . J . BCIRAJournal (March 1964) p 170
5. Murray, W. G. and Protheroe, H. T. The British Foundryman
(June 1963) pp 294--307
6. Barton, R. BCIRA Journal (July 1967) pp 355-359
7. Askeland, D. R., Trojan, P. K. and Flinn, R. A. AFS Trans
80 (1972) pp 349--358
8. Barton, R. BCIRA Journal (September 1981 ) pp 340-352
136 I N T . J. F A T I G U E J u l y 1982
9. Starkey, M. S. and Irving, P. E. 'Prediction of fatigue hie of
small specimens of SG irons using a fracture mechanics
approach' presented at: Int Syrup on Low Cycle Fatigue and
Life Prediction, ( Firminy, France, 23/25 September 1980).
To be published as an ASTM STP
10. Dowling, N. E. Cracks and Fracture, ASTMSTP601 (1976)
pp 19-32
11. Dowling, N.E. FatigueCrackGrovvth, ASTM637(1977)
pp 97-121
12. Palmer, K. B. BCIRA Journal (November 1981) pp 3 8 5 -
391
13. Ostensson, B. J Iron and Steel/nst (September 1973)
pp 628--631
14. Testin, R. A. 'Characterization of the cyclic deformation and
fracture behaviour of nodular iron' T & A M Report No 371
(University of Illinois, June 1973)
15. Elsender, A., Hopkins, P. and BaRe, A. D. Metals Tech (June
1980) pp 256-258
16. Taylor, D. and Knott, J. F. Fatigue of Engng Mater and
Structures 4 No 2 (1981 ) pp 147-- 155
17. Tanaka, K., Nakai, Y. and Yamashita, M. Int J of Fracture
17 No 5 (October 1981) pp 519-533
18. Shih, C. F. and Hutchinson, J. W. 'Fully plastic solutions
and large scale yielding estimates for plane stress crack
problems' DEAP Report No S-14 (Harvard University,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, July 1975)
19. Turner, C. E. Private communication to P. E. Irving
20. Tomkins, B. PhilosophicalMagazine 18 (1968) pp 1041-
1066
21. Skelton, R. P. Fatigue of Engng Mater and Structures 2
(1979) pp 3 0 5 - 3 1 8
22. Solomon, H. D. J of Materials 7 (1972) pp 299-306
23. MARC-CDC Non Linear Finite Element Analysis Program,
User Information Manual, Vols 1-111 (Publication Nos
17309500, 17311600, 17311700, Control Data Co,
Minneapolis, USA)
AUTHORS
The authors are at G K N Technology Ltd's Group Tech-
nological Centre. Inquiries should be addressed to: Mrs M. S.
Starkey, Group Technological Centre, G K N Technology Ltd,
Birmingham N e w Road, Wolverhampton W V 4 6BW, England.