Fuel 265 (2020) 116923

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Full Length Article

Energy, exergy, and emission analysis of a hydroxyl fueled compression T

ignition engine under dual fuel mode
Pushpendra Kumar Sharma , Dilip Sharma, Shyam Lal Soni, Amit Jhalani, Digambar Singh,
⁎

Sumit Sharma
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, Jaipur 302017, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: In this study, energy, exergy, and emission analysis were investigated for the hydroxyl fueled compression
Hydroxyl ignition (CI) engine under dual fuel mode. Hydroxyl gas (HHO) generator was used to supply three different
Dual-fuel engine mass flow rates of HHO (0.25, 0.5, and 0.75 lpm) along with diesel for the experimental work on a modified
CI engine constant speed CI engine. Significant improvement of 6.5% in brake thermal efficiency was obtained with 0.75
Emission and combustion
lpm HHO flow rate at 80% load. However, a slight increment in heat transfer losses and energy in exhaust gas
Energy analysis
Exergy analysis
were observed by 6.29% and 8.55%, respectively, at the optimized condition. The work availability, exhaust gas,
and heat transfer exergy were increased by 6.54%, 5.69%, and 6.36% (0.75 lpm and 80% load), respectively due
to the higher diffusivity of hydrogen and faster oxidation of fuel species within the cylinder. A significant re-
duction in emission parameters was obtained in carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbon, and smoke emission as
53%, 62%, and 49%, respectively. High pressure and temperature within the cylinder improve the rate of
oxidation of fuel species, which results in decreased HC, CO, and smoke emission. Furthermore, high tem-
perature increases the NOX emission by 35%. Overall it can be concluded the HHO can be used as a prominent
alternative fuel with increased exergy and lower emissions.

1. Introduction emission standards, and made a policy to use alternative energy

1.1. Global scenario at a glance – Energy and vehicular population
Energy performs a significant role in civilization. The economic
development of any country depends on its energy consumption. It is
essential in every sector around the world, i.e., transportation, manu-
facturing, agriculture sector, etc. BP Statistical Review reported that
primary energy consumption by fuel is 13276.3 Mtoe. However, total
proven oil reserves are 1706.7 thousand million barrels in the world till
the end of 2016, which is sufficient to meet 5 to 6 decades of world
energy demand [1]. The world energy consumption is drastically in-
creased from ~1687.7 kg in 2003 to 1873.7 kg in 2010 (per capita kg of
oil equivalent). However, diesel fuel consumption per capita increased
by ~ 37% between 2003 and 2010 for the automotive diesel engine
[2,3]. It has been found 900 million vehicles (except two-wheelers)
throughout the world that produces almost 26% greenhouse gases
(GHGs) emissions [4]. Nearly all types of automobiles operated by
diesel and petrol play a vital role in air pollution. To curbs out pollution
hazards, many countries adopted and implemented the updated
sources. In India, Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) standards are going to be
implemented from 2020, surpassing BS-V to control the continuous
increasing pollution hazards from automobiles. Various worldwide
emission standards (Bharat Stage, China, and Euro) for cars and light
trucks (diesel vehicles) for the last decade are shown in Fig. 1 [5]. A
flowchart of transportation activities and their emission are presented
in Fig. 2, and the vehicle population growth (commercial ~ 29.6% and
passenger ~ 34.9) from 2006 to 2015 are shown in Fig. 3 [6].
1.2. Dual fuel engine with hydrogen
Over the years, the researchers show their interest in the area of
dual-fuel engines for their versatility nature, especially in compression
ignition (CI) engine. So far, various types of gaseous fuels have been
used in CI engines under dual-fuel (DF) modes such as hydrogen (H2),
hydroxyl (HHO), biogas, compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied pet-
roleum gas (LPG), syngas, etc. Between these gaseous fuels, hydrogen
and hydroxyl gases are clean-burning fuel, which has no carbon content
and can be considered as a suitable energy carrier and sustainable fuel

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: pushpendra.mech@mnit.ac.in (P. Kumar Sharma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.116923
Received 14 November 2019; Received in revised form 12 December 2019; Accepted 18 December 2019
0016-2361/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Kumar Sharma, et al. Fuel 265 (2020) 116923

Nomenclature R gas constant

T temperature, K
Abbreviations Tr torque, N-m
Uo overall heat transfer coefficient
abdc after bottom dead center Vj velocity of gas, m/s
atdc after top dead center a1 carbon atoms number in fuel 1
bbdc before bottom dead center a2 carbon atoms number in fuel 2
BP brake power, kW b1 hydrogen atoms number in fuel 1
BSEC brake specific energy consumption, kJ/kWh b2 hydrogen atoms number in fuel 2
btdc before top dead center ex specific chemical exergy of fuel, kJ/kg
BTE brake thermal efficiency, % Ėχ exergy, kJ
CI compression ignition f2 and f3 constant for fuel and oxidizer
CNG compressed natural gas n number of moles
CO carbon monoxide Ru universal gas constant, J/kmol K
CR compression ratio X1 and Y1 molar fraction of fuels
d+HHO combination of diesel and hydroxyl gas Z1, Z2, and Z3 number of moles of CO2, H2O, and N2
EGT exhaust gas temperature, K σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant
H2 hydrogen ṁ mass flow rate, kg/s
HC hydro carbon α, β, and γ calibration constant
HHO hydroxyl gas ∂F/∂χ, - - - partial derivatives for calculated parameters
ICE internal combustion engines χ1, - - - different measured/calculated variables
IP injection pressure F F is the function of χ1, χ2,- - - χn-1, χn
IT injection timing Δχ1, - - - deviation of respectively measured/calculated variables
LCV lower calorific value of diesel, MJ/kg χ1, χ2,- - - χn-1, χn
LPG liquefied petroleum gas
lpm liter per minute Subscripts
NOX nitrogen oxides
O2 oxygen BC base case (diesel only)
KOH potassium hydroxide CW cooling water
PM particulate matter DF dual fuel
EG exhaust gas
Symbols HL heat loss
i inside
∅d diameter of the cylinder, mm I/P input
AT total cylinder area, m2 air for atmospheric air only
CP specific heat, kJ/kg K 0 dead state condition
En energy, kW o outside
h convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K O/P output
K thermal conductivity, W/mK T Total
P Pressure, kN/m2 wall cylinder wall
Q̇ist instantaneous heat transfer rate

for CI engines. Hydroxyl gas (HHO) is a combination of hydrogen and
oxygen (O2) in the ratio of 2:1, and it is produced by water electrolysis.
Many researchers reported their work in the area of HHO at different
names like brown gas, water electrolysis gas, hydroxy gas, oxy-hy-
drogen gas. The first water electrolysis generator was developed by
Charles Frazer in 1918 to produce hydrogen for the combustion engine.
Henceforth, Yull Brown utilized this gas for metal cutting in the
1970s–80s [7].
Research on hydrogen and hydroxyl in CI engines has been a long
tradition for the past few years due to its favorable and unique prop-
erties. Due to which, HHO has been widely adopted in the field of the
ICEs. Some preliminary work was carried out by Kim et al. to study the
thermophysical properties of HHO (fuel-hydrogen, oxidizer-oxygen).
They also studied the minimal effect of radiation on flame temperature
due to the negligible amount of carbon present in it. The authors re-
ported the maximum flame temperature (~2800 °C) and combustion
speed (~9.5–10.3 m/s) for it [8]. Ismail et al. reported the performance
for the CI engine under hybrid mode. Improvement in thermal effi-
ciency (30–53%), fuel consumption (17%), CO (17%), and HC (27%)
were observed. They also studied the effect of different HHO (dry and
wet) cells on engine performance [7]. Ismail et al. developed a model
and simulated the experimental results for the hybrid SI engine using
HHO gas, assessing the MATLAB and fuzzy logic, and confirmed the
strong agreement between them [9].
Polverino analyzed the theoretical energetic need for on-board HHO
production for ICEs (CI and SI engines) and observed the fuel savings
were significant in small engines with the HHO flow rate. They also
reported further improvement could be achieved by selecting the op-
timized engine operating parameters (CR, IP, IT, and ṁHHO) [10].
Thangaraj and Govindan evaluated the performance, emission, and
combustion characteristics of a CI engine (3.7 kW) operated by bio-
diesel (Karanja oil methyl ester) and HHO. The BTE was improved by
2.61% (no load) and 21.67% (full load). Moreover, HC emission was
decreased by 33.23% with HHO addition. Furthermore, they suggested
the optimized flow rate of HHO (0.73 lpm) for used CI engine [11].
Uludamar compared the hydrogen and HHO gas effect on CI engine (89
HP) fuelled with microalgae biodiesel. They found the 2.6% and 2.1%
increment in torque output for the HHO + MB20 and H2 + MB20
fuelled CI engine due to higher heating value and flame speed of HHO
and H2 [12].
Al-Rousan and Musmar studied the inter-distance effect of anode–-
cathode on the HHO fuel cell for a gasoline engine (Honda G200 en-
gine). The average BTE and specific fuel consumption (SFC) were im-
proved by 17.7% and 18.53%, respectively, at 2000 rpm. Moreover, CO

2
P. Kumar Sharma, et al.
Fig. 1. Various worldwide emission standards for cars and light trucks (diesel vehicles) for last one decade [5].
and HC emissions were decreased by 10% and 8%, respectively, at a
10 mm cell inter-plate gap in the HHO fuel cell [13]. EL-Kassaby et al.
reported the thermal efficiency and fuel consumption of a gasoline
engine (Skoda Felicia 1.3 GLXi) improved about 10% and 34% with
hydroxyl addition. They also suggested the best catalyst and their
concentration (KOH and 6 g/L) [14]. Rimkus et al. investigated the
efficiency of CI engine (Audi 1.9 TDI 66 kW) operated on biodiesel and
HHO and reported that HHO decreased the brake torque by 2.7% and
increased the indicated SFC by 2% due to spontaneous combustion
before TDC in a 66 kW engine [15]. Matienzo checked the influence of
onboard H2 gas on CI engine (LISTER PETTER) and reported the opti-
mized cell current (6–10 A). Moreover, BSFC and thermal efficiency
were improved by 3.81% and 2.79%, respectively along with exhaust
gas temperature (EGT) was increased by 3–10% [16]. Nabil and Da-
wood reported higher thermal efficiency (15.7% and 19.1%) and lower
fuel consumption (14.8% and 16.3%) for the 150 cc and 1300 cc en-
gines with HHO . Moreover, CO emission reduced by 33% and 24.5%,
Fig. 2. Flowchart of transportation activities and their emission.
3
Fuel 265 (2020) 116923
along with HC emission decreased by 27.4% and 21% [17]. Table 1
presents various models of cars with hydrogen, and they are in the
category of zero-emission vehicles.
Sharief et al. reported the heat transfer correlation for the CI engine
in 2008 and considered the intake jet velocity instead of mean piston
speed during suction and exhaust stroke. Moreover, they specified the
qualitatively and quantitatively agreement among the developed cor-
relations. Furthermore, they also reported the heat transfer coefficient
increased with speed and load [19]. Polverino studied the energetic
analysis (fuel consumption and saving) for on-board HHO production
and reported the feasibility assessment of HHO. Along with, unchanged
fuel consumption limit (for monoatomic and diatomic states), changes
in fuel consumption and BTE were explained [10]. Table 2 shows the
description of the engine used with hydroxyl gas.
Fig. 3. Worldwide Commercial/Passengers vehicles from 2007 to 2015 [6].
P. Kumar Sharma, et al.
Table 1
Hydrogen car models at a glance [18].
S. No. Vehicle Name/ Picture Production
Company
1 Toyota Mirai/Toyota 2014-present
2 Hyundai Nexo/ 2018-present
Hyundai Motor
3 Honda Clarity/ 2016–present
Honda
4 Mercedes-Benz F- – Engine-147 kW polymer electrolyte fuel cell stack, speed-160 km/
Cell/Daimler AG
5 Renault Kangoo ZE/ 2018
Symbio Fcell
Wang et al. evaluated the energy and exergy for a H2 ICE (2.3 L
turbocharged) and reported the significant energy losses in the exhaust,
cooling, intercooler, and unaccounted by 23.5–34.7%, 21.3–34.8%,
0.5–3.6%, and 5.8–14.1% respectively. Moreover, they concluded that
the various types of energies increase with engine speed in the engine
[30]. Nabi et al. reported the no significant changes in BTE, brake spe-
cific energy consumption (BSEC), and brake mean effective pressure for
the CI engine (Kubota V3300-53.9 kW) for three different biodiesel
[Macadamia Biodiesel (MBD), Macadamia Biodiesel (~30%) + Diesel
(70%) (MD), and Waste Cooking Biodiesel (20%) + Macadamia Bio-
diesel (10%) + Diesel (70%) MWD]. Along with, Fuel energy and exergy
of three different biodiesel were less compared to standard diesel [31].
Chintala and Subramanian carried out a study on H2 fuelled CI engine
and reported the maximum useful work of the CI engine is increased with
hydrogen addition. Hydrogen significantly reduces the total irreversi-
bility (mixing process, unburned fuel, and combustion irreversibility)
and emissions (CO, HC, and PM) at all load conditions. Hence the
availability of more work with significant emission reduction can be
obtained [3]. Ramos Da Costa et al. conducted a study to analyzed en-
ergy and exergy of a dual-fuel diesel engine operated by natural gas and
diesel and reported about one-third part of the input energy is wasted in
the fuel oxidation and mixing process. Moreover, irreversibility due to
fuel oxidation and mixing process can be improved by adding combus-
tion gases, which raises the combustion temperature [32]. Verma et al.
compared the biogas, CNG, and H2 as primary fuels in CI engine under
DF mode and reported the highest maximum diesel substitution in CNG
and lowest in H2. Maximum exergy efficiency was observed for biogas,
CNG, and H2 by 8.5%, 11.1%, and 11.9% at injection timing of 32, 29
and 26° btdc respectively [33]. Karthickeyan studied the effect of com-
bustion chamber bowl geometry on energy and exergy analysis in 5.2 kW
Fuel 265 (2020) 116923
Specifications H2 consumption (kg/
100 km)
Solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell, Electric motor-4JM Fuel cell- 0.76
powered 113 kW, P = 113 kW, speed-111 mph, zero emission
vehicle (ZEV)
motor-Permanent magnet motor, P = 120 kW, speed-179 km/h, 0.84
zero CO2 emission
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell, Electric motor-Fuel cell- –
powered 103 kW, P = 113 kW, speed-111 mph, zero emission
vehicle (ZEV)
0.97
h, zero CO2 emission
Commercial vehicle, Electric vehicle + fuel cell, speed-130 km/h, 0.87
zero CO2 emission
at 1500 rpm diesel engine. They reported the maximum exergy efficiency
(66.03 kJ/min) in the toroidal combustion chamber (TCC) at full load
than the hemispherical combustion chamber (HCC) and trapezoidal
combustion chamber (TRCC) [34]. Sahoo et al. applied the second law of
thermodynamics to calculate the theoretical performance limits of a
syngas diesel-fueled CI engine. The study revealed the work availability
was increased by hydrogen addition with improvement in destroyed
availability due to better combustion. Moreover, destroyed availability
reduces with high inside cylinder temperature and pressure [35]. Table 3
shows a concise review of first and second laws of thermodynamics
analysis for CI engines under DF mode.
HHO is a clean source of energy, which has no carbon content, and
it can be considered as a suitable energy carrier and sustainable fuel for
the CI engines. The HHO gas in the CI engine enhanced the combustion
rate due to its favorable thermodynamic and transport properties. The
comparative thermodynamic and transport properties for diesel, hy-
drogen, and hydroxyl gas are listed in Table 4. From the literature re-
views, it is imperative to find the optimum flow rate of HHO gas and
engine load for optimum performance, emission, and combustion
characteristics. This research paper presents the actual characterization
of HHO diesel-fueled CI engine under DF mode, and study the perfor-
mance, emission, and combustion characteristics along with the energy
and exergy analysis of constant speed CI engine (1500 rpm).
2. Experimentation and governing equations
2.1. Experimental setup and procedure
The experiments were carried out on a non-road modified single-
cylinder constant speed CI engine. Originally the test engine was
4
 Table 2
Description of the engines used with hydroxyl gas.
S. No. Engine Model No. of Power (kW/ Speed (RPM) Bore Stroke Length Displacement Volume Compression Ratio Used HHO Name Electrolyte & Flow Rate Ref.
Cylinder HP) (mm) (mm) (cm3)

1 Honda G 200 (gasoline engine, 1 – 1000–2300 67 56 197 cc 6.5:1 Brown gas sodium bicarbonate [20]
P. Kumar Sharma, et al.

variable speed)
2 Mitsubishi Canter diesel engine 4 89 kW 3200 104 105 3567 – Hydroxy potassium hydroxide, 10 [21]
LPM
3 Naturally aspirated direct injection 1 9 kW 1200–2000 95 115 0.815 L 20:1 Hydroxyl potassium hydroxide, [22]
diesel engine 2150 cc
4 Mitsubishi 4D32 4 89 kW 3200 104 105 3567 cc – Hydroxy KOH, NaOH and NaCl [23]
5 MeMЗ-245 (gasoline engine) – 37.5 kW 5500 72 67 1091 9.5:1 Hydrogen containing – [24]
gas
6 Single cylinder diesel engine 1 2.5 kW 1200–3600 rpm 70 57 219 cc 17:1 HHO 1 LPM [25]
7 Kirloskar engine 1 5 HP 1500 – – 553 cc – HHO 0.89, 1.37, 1.66, and 2 [26]
LPM
8 Direct-injection diesel engine 4 80 kW 3600 104 105 3567 cc – Hydroxy KOH, NaOH, and NaCl, 5 [27]
LPM
9 Naturally aspirated LISTER PETTER – 5.5 kW 1050 86 80 0.930 L 18.5:1 HHO KOH [16]
diesel engine
10 Skoda Felicia (gasoline engine) 4 67.66 HP 5500 – – 1289 9.7:1 Hydroxy KOH and NaOH, 18 LPH [14]
11 Mitsubishi Canter diesel engine 4 91 HP 3500 100 105 3298 – Hydroxy – [28]
12 Kirloskar AV1 1 3.7 kW 1500 80 110 553 16.5:1 Browns gas NaHCO3, 0.73 LPM [29]

5
Table 3
Energy and exergy review on CI engines.
Energy Balance (%) Exergy Balance (%)

S. No. Engine Descriptions Fuel Work Exhaust gas Heat Loss Unaccounted Work Cooling Exhaust gas Heat Loss Unaccounted Irreversibility References
Water
1 Kirloskar and EA10, P = 7.4 kW at 1500 rpm Diesel 30.93 23.98 27.84 17.25 28.31 – 17.17 1.76 52.56 – [3]
Diesel + 33.6% H2 35.25 25.71 35.68 3.36 30.73 – 15.46 7.63 46.18 –
2 Cummins 6CTA P = 188 kW at 1800 rpm Diesel 37.9 36.8 25.3 – 35.4 – 14.7 1.1 – 48.8 [32]
Diesel + NG 55.1 31.8 13.1 – 52.4 – 12.7 0.06 – 34.3
3 Kirloskar TAF1, P = 4.4 kW at 1500 rpm, Diesel – – – – ~ 29 – ~11 ~22 ~34 22.74 [33]
BMEP = 5.32 bar Diesel + Biogas – – – – 24.38 – 10.86 18.74 44.01 18.89
Diesel + CNG – – – – 28.27 – 10.74 21.48 35.06 19.53
Diesel + H2 – – – – 30.35 – 10.07 26.53 30.6 16.9
4 Kirloskar TV1, P = 5.2 kW at 1500 rpm (Trapezoidal Diesel ~32 – – – 72.35 (kJ/ 173.41 (kJ/ – 290.55 (kJ/min) – [34]
combustion chamber) min) min)
100% pumpkin seed oil ~32 – – – 70.32 (kJ/ 170.72 (kJ/ – 282.84 (kJ/min) –
min) min)
100% Moringa ~32 – – – 71.48 (kJ/ 172.26 (kJ/ – 289.26 (kJ/min) –
oleiferaoil min) min)
5 Diesel engine, P = 5.0 kW at 1450 rpm Diesel 28 37 35 – 26 – 16 7 – 51 [36]
Diesel + Biogas 28 34 38 – 28 – 17 8 – 47
6 Kirloskar TV1, P = 5.2 kW at 1500 rpm Diesel – – – – 19.8 – 16.4 4.9 – 58.9 [35]
Diesel + Syngas – – – – 18.3 – 16.1 0.4 – 65.2
Fuel 265 (2020) 116923
P. Kumar Sharma, et al. Fuel 265 (2020) 116923

Table 4
Thermodynamic and transport properties of diesel, hydrogen gas, and hydroxyl gas [8,37,38].
Fuel property Diesel Hydrogen gas Hydroxyl gas

Chemical formula CnH1.8n (C3-C24) C12H26 H2 Mixture of H2 and O2

Average molecular weight (kg/kmol) 170 2.01594 12.01
density (kg/m3) 833–881 0.08376 0.49115
LHV (MJ/kg) 42.5 120.21 21.995
HHV (MJ/kg) 44.8 142.18 25.982
AIT (°C) 257 536–585 –
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio (mass basis) 14.5 34.12 –
Flammability limit (% volume) 0.6–5.5 4.0–74.5 –
Specific heat (CP) at NTP gas – 14.89 (kJ/kg K) 29.01 [kJ/kmol k]
Thermal conductivity – – 0.98E–04 [kJ/kmol]
Octane number 30 130+ (lean burn) –
Cetane number 40–55 – –
Viscosity of gas at NTP (10–3 g/cm s) – 0.0875 0.18E–04 [kg/ms]
Adiabatic flame tem. (°C) – 2045 –

5.5 kW Kirloskar TV 1 engine which was modified to produce 3.5 kW at Table 5

full load condition by Apex Innovation India limited. It was performed Test engine specifications.
to facilitate the variation of compression ratio. Diesel and the HHO gas S. No. Parameters Descriptions
were used as a fuel for the experimentation work under DF mode. HHO
dry cell 316L 19 plates hydrogen generator (Model No. 302780548849) 1 Engine make, model, and type Research engine
was used for the HHO gas production, and a specially designed rota- 2 Number of cylinders 1
3 Displacement volume (cc) 661
meter for HHO was installed in the gas pipeline to measure the hydroxyl 4 Bore (mm) 0.0875
gas flow rate in volume basis. Further, HHO gas was supplied into the 5 Stroke (mm) 0.11
engine cylinder through the air inlet manifold. The eddy current dy- 6 Compression ratio 21:01
namometer was used to measure the engine load with the help of a 7 Injection timing (°btdc) 20
8 Injection pressure (bar) 210
strain gauge load cell. The other measurable factors, i.e., speed, tem-
9 Intake valve opening (°btdc) 4.5
perature, cylinder pressure, mass flow rate (air and diesel) were re- 10 Intake valve closing (°abdc) 35.5
corded by the National Equipment Data Acquisition Device. 11 Exhaust valve opening (°bbdc) 35.5
Additionally, the “ENGINESOFT” software is used to analyze engine 12 Exhaust valve closing (°atdc) 4.5
performance. 13 Cooling system Water cooling
14 Rated speed (rpm) 1500
Similarly, the AVL Digas 444 and AVL Dismoke 480 BT were uti- 15 Rated power (kW) 3.5
lized to measure the engine emission. Exhaust emission of CO, NOX, and 16 Fuel injection Direct, mechanical type
HC was measured in % vol and ppm, and smoke was observed in the
percentage of opacity. Fig. 4 presents the schematic diagram of the
experimental set-up, which shows the DF concept with hydroxyl gas, different engine load (2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, and 13.5 kg), and three
and the test engine specifications are tabulated in Table 5. different volumetric flow rates of HHO (0.25, 0.5, and 0.75 LPM). All
Experiments were conducted at a constant speed (1500 rpm), six measurable parameters, i.e. flow rates, temperature, engine load,

Fig. 4. The schematic diagram for the HHO fueled CI engine under DF mode.

6
P. Kumar Sharma, et al. Fuel 265 (2020) 116923

pressure, and emission were recorded at the steady-state condition. CO, where F is the function of χ1, χ2,- - - χn-1, χn, [F = f(χ1, χ2,- - - χn-1,
HC, and NOX emission have been measured by AVL Digas 444 gas χn)], ∂F/∂ χ1, ∂F/∂ χ2,- - -,∂F/∂ χn-1, ∂F/∂ χn are the partial derivatives
analyzer. The smoke meter (AVL Dismoke 480) has been used to for calculated parameters, χ1, χ2,- - - χn-1, χn are different measured
measure the smoke opacity. For HHO gas generation and induction, and calculated variables, and Δ χ1, Δ χ2, - - -, Δ χn-1, Δ χn are deviation
HHO dry cell 19 plates hydrogen generator was used and integrated of respectively measured or calculated variables.
with AC-DC converter (O/P 0–15 V DC and 1–30 A) to produce the
variable flow rate of HHO. Along with, potassium hydroxide (KOH 20%
2.3. Analytical analysis
by weight) was used with distilled water, which is acted as an elec-
trolyte. A hydroxyl rotameter was installed in the HHO gas pipeline to
2.3.1. Energy analysis
measure the exact volumetric flow rate of HHO. For safety, a flame trap
In this experimental study, two different cases of combustion con-
(arrestor) was mounted along with two non-return valves and gas valve,
ditions were considered, i.e., base case (BC) and dual-fuel mode
which was fitted between the hydroxyl rotameter and the engine. The
(diesel + HHO). The base case showed the standard diesel conditions,
layout of the experimental setup is sketched in Fig. 4 and pictures of the
and for the dual-fuel (DF) mode, hydroxyl gas (HHO) was supplied
equipment used are illustrated in Fig. 5. Finally, the HHO gas was
along with diesel at three different flow rates of 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75
supplied into the engine cylinder through the air inlet manifold.
lpm. Moreover, these three different DF (d + 0.25HHO, d + 0.5HHO,
For determining the desired HHO flow rate from the dry cell for an
and d + 0.75HHO) conditions were compared with neat diesel. For the
engine, 0.25 lpm per liter engine size formula was used. For example, a
energy and exergy analysis, all the experiments were performed on the
1000 cc (1 L) engine requires 0.25 lpm of HHO [7]. Moreover, in this
CI engine considered as an open system. Furthermore, the ideal fluid
study, the range of HHO flow rate supplied was increased almost four to
law and system under the steady-state assumptions could be considered
five times (0.75 lpm) to analyze the effect of higher lpm. Also, three
for simplicity. For the energy analysis purpose, the input (I/P) fuel
different HHO flow rate (0.25, 0.5, and 0.75 lpm) were selected for the
energy supplied to the engine was calculated by Eqs. (2) and (3) in
experimentation. The HHO dry cell used in this study is designed to
terms of kW.
produce a maximum of 0.75 L per minute of hydroxyl gas properly,
Input fuel energy (En(I/P,BC)) supplied to the engine for the BC:
which is the optimum setting. However, it could generate more hy-
droxyl gas with higher voltage and current but problems such as rise in En (I / P, BC ) , (kW ) = md, BC × LCVd (2)
an electrolyte and cell temperature, steam formation, and HHO flow
rate fluctuations were observed. Input fuel energy (En(I/P,DF)) supplied to the engine under DF mode:

En (I / P, DF ), (kW ) = [(md, DF × LCVd ) + (mHHO × LCVHHO )] (3)

2.2. Uncertainty analysis
where ṁd,BC is the mass flow rate of diesel (kg/s) for the BC (diesel
The details of the instruments comprise their measuring parameter, only), ṁd,DF is the mass flow rate of diesel (kg/s) for the DF mode
description, range, resolution, and uncertainty are presented in Table 6, (diesel and HHO), LCVd is the lower calorific value of diesel (MJ/kg),
which shows the accuracy of the conducted experiments. Uncertainty and LCVHHO is the lower calorific value of HHO (MJ/kg) respectively.
values of parameters, i.e., brake power (BP), brake thermal efficiency For conversion of load (kg) into torque (N-m) or brake power (kW),
(BTE), brake specific energy consumption (BSEC), etc. are calculated by the following Eqs. (4) and (5) can be used. Where, T and BP are engine
using Eq. (1) [3] and their values are given in Table 6. torque in N-m and brake power in kW.
Engine torque:
2 2 2
F F F F
F=
x1
x1 +
x2
x2 + +
xn 1
xn 1 +
xn
xn T , (N m) = Load (kg ) × 9.81 × 0.185 (4)

(1) Output shaft power:

Fig. 5. Photographs of (a) HHO dry cell 19 plates hydrogen generator, (b) Hydroxyl rotameter, (c) Flame arrester, (e) DC supply, and (e) Piezo sensors for combustion
and fuel line.

7
P. Kumar Sharma, et al. Fuel 265 (2020) 116923

Table 6
Details of instruments and their uncertainty.
S. No. Parameters Instruments Description Range Resolution Uncertainty (%)

1 Air flow rate Manometer and pressure transmitter Volume flow rate – 1 mm of WC ± 1.8
2 Diesel flow rate Burette and fuel flow transmitter Volume flow rate 0–50 ml 1 ml ± 2.4
3 HHO gas flow rate HHO rotameter (GT-556-MTR-ICV) Volume flow rate 0–3 LPM 0.1 LPM ± 1.2
4 Load Eddy current dynamometer (strain gauge load cell) AG10 0–50 kg 0.1 kg ±1
5 Temperature Temperature sensor RTD 0–400 °C 0.1 °C ± 0.3
Type K 0–1400 °C 0.1 °C ± 0.7
6 Pressure Piezo sensor M111A22 5000 psi 0.1 psi ± 0.5
7 Water flow rate Rotameter Engine cooling 40–400 LPH 1 lpm ± 0.7
Calorimeter 25–250 LPH 1 lpm ± 0.7
8 Engine RPM PPR rotary encoder 0–10000 max. 1 rpm ±1
9 CO AVL Digas 444 Emission 0–10% by vol. 0.01% by vol. ± 2.6
10 NOX AVL Digas 444 Emission 0–5000 ppm vol. 1 ppm vol. ± 2.1
11 HC AVL Digas 444 Emission 0–20,000 ppm vol. ≤2000:1 ppm vol. ± 2.3
> 2000:10 ppm vol. ± 2.3
12 Smoke AVL Dismoke 480 BT % Opacity 0–100% 0.1% vol ± 1.5
13 BP Calculated – – – ± 0.5
14 BTE Calculated – – – ± 0.7
15 BSEC Calculated – – – ± 0.85

BP , (kW ) =
2× × 1500 × T EnHL, Total , (kW ) = Uo × AT × (Ti, gas T0) (14)
60 × 1000 (5)
On the basis of primary assumption of energy (energy conserva-
A certain amount of energy is wasted in the exhaust gas and cooling tion), the I/P fuel energy is equal to the sum of all the O/P energy
water, which can be determined by Eqs. (6)–(8). (BP + exhaust gas energy loss + cooling water energy loss + total heat
Output energy in exhaust gas for diesel only: loss + unaccounted energy losses). Eqs. (15) and (16) shows the un-
En (BC, EG, O / P ) , (kW ) accounted energy losses in the engine.
Unaccounted energy loss for diesel only:
= [(md, BC ) × (1 + ( mair / md, BC ) × CP, EG × (TEG T0 )]] (6)
EnBC, UA , (kW ) = En (BC ) (BP + En (BC, EG) + En (BC , CW ) + EnHL, Total )
Output energy in exhaust gas for dual fuel mode:
(15)
(md, DF + mHHO ) × (1 + (mair /(md, DF + mHHO )) Unaccounted energy loss for dual fuel mode:
En (DF , EG, O / P ) , (kW ) =
× CP, EG × (TEG T0 )
EnDF , UA, (kW ) = En (DF ) (BP + En (DF , EG ) + En (DF , CW )
(7)
Output energy in cooling water:
+ EnHL, Total ) (16)

En (BC, CW , O / P ) , (kW ) = [(mCW ) × CP, CW × (TCW , O / L TCW , I / L)] (8) For the calculation of BTE, the following Eqs. (17) and (18) are used
for neat diesel and dual-fuel mode and % energy losses could be de-
For the purpose of heat loss analysis from incylinder gas to sur- termined by Eqs. (19)–(26). The exhaust gas energy loss (%) for BC and
rounding, three different mode of heat transfer (conduction, convec- DF mode is calculated by Eqs. (19) and (20), cooling water energy loss
tion, and radiation) were considered. Eqs. (9)–(11) shows the general (%) is determined by Eqs. (21) and (22), total heat transfer losses is
governing eqations for conduction, convection, and radiation applied in given by Eqs. (23) and (24), and unaccounted energy loss (%) is de-
the engine. termined by Eqs. (25) and (26) respectively.
Conduction heat loss from inner wall to outer wall: Brake thermal efficiency for base case:
Enconduction = K × AT × (Ti, wall To, wall ) (9) BP × 3600 × 100
BTEBC , (%) =
Convection heat loss from incylinder burned gas to inner wall md, BC × LCVd (17)
(Enconvection), which can be given by Eq. (10).
Brake thermal efficiency for dual fuel mode:
Enconvection = h × AT × (Ti, gas Ti, wall ) (10) BP × 3600 × 100
BTEDF , (%) =
Radiation heat loss from incylinder burned gas to surrounding md, DF × LCVd + mHHO × LCVHHO (18)
(Enradiation), which can be determined by Eq. (11).
Exhaust gas energy loss (%) for diesel only
Enradiation = × (Ti4, gas T04 ) (11)
= (En (BC, EG, O / P ) / En (I / P , BC ) ) × 100 (19)
Eq. (12) reveals the total heat loss from incylinder burned gas to
atmosphere. For the sake of simplicity, the overall heat transfer coef- Exhaust gas energy loss (%) for dual fuel mode
ficient is calculated by Eq. (13). Moreover, overall heat loss from system
to surrounding is determined by Eq. (14). = (En (DF , EG, O / P ) / En (I / P, DF ) ) × 100 (20)
Total heat loss:
Cooling water energy loss (%) for diesel only
EnHL, Total , (kW ) = Enconduction + Enconvection + Enradiation (12)
= (En (BC , CW , O / P ) / En (I / P, BC ) ) × 100 (21)
Overall heat transfer coefficient:
Uo, (W / m2K ) = 3.26 × P 0.8 × Vj 0.8 × T 0.55 × ( d) 0.2
(13) Cooling water energy loss (%) for dual fuel mode

Overall heat loss:

= (En (BC , CW , O / P ) / En (I / P, DF ) ) × 100 (22)

8
P. Kumar Sharma, et al. Fuel 265 (2020) 116923

Total heat transfer loss (%) for diesel only dExsystem

= ExI / P Ex O / P Ex destruction
dt (38)
= (EnHL, Total / En (I / P , BC ) ) × 100 (23)
The specific chemical exergy for neat diesel (exd), HHO (exHHO) can
Total heat transfer loss (%) for dual fuel mode be calculated using Eqs. (39) and (40). The I/P fuel exergy can be de-
= (EnHL, Total / En (I / P , DF ) ) × 100 (24) termined using Eqs. (41) and (42), in which H, C, O, and S are the
molecular masses of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and sulphur. The lower
Unaccounted energy loss (%) for diesel only calorific value of diesel fuel is LCVd.
= (EnBC , UA / En (I / P , BC ) ) × 100 (25) 1.0401 + 0.1728(H / C ) + 0.0432(O/ C )
ex d = LCVd ×
+ 0.2169(S /C ) × (1 2.0628(H / C )) (39)
Unaccounted energy loss (%) for dual fuel mode
The specific chemical exergy (exHHO) of HHO fuel is determined by
= (EnDF , UA / En (I / P, DF ) ) × 100 (26) Eq. (40).

(mole fraction × standard specific chemical exergy )

2.3.2. Exergy analysis
exHHO = + T0 (mole fraction × universal gas constant ×
The second law of thermodynamics defines exergy. It is the max-
imum useful work that can be available from the system. In a thermal ln (mole fraction)) HHO (40)
system and within control volume, the rate of change of exergy
where, T0 is dead state temperature (298.15 K).
( dExsystem
dt ) is equal to the net rate change of exergy transfer
Total I/P fuel exergy (ExI / P, BC ) for diesel only is given by Eq. (41).
(ExI / P ExO / P ) between the system and surroundings in a thermo-
dynamic process minus the rate of exergy destruction (Exdestruction) (see ExI / P, BC = md, BC × exd (41)
Eq. (38)). In other words, exergy analysis is a significant tool that Total I/P fuel exergy (ExI / P, DF ) for dual fuel mode is calculated by
identifies the proportion of inefficiencies in the thermal system. Eq. (42).
Moreover, potential improvements amongs the thermal components
can be achieved by it. For the sake of simplicity in exergy analysis, ExI / P, DF = [(md, DF × exd ) + (mHHO × exHHO )] (42)
natural ambient conditions (temperature T0 = 298.15 K and pressure where md, BC is the mass flow rate (kg/s) of diesel in BC md, DF is the mass
P0 = 101.325 kPa) were selected as the dead state (reference state). flow rate of diesel in DF mode (kg/s), mHHO is the mass flow rate of HHO
The quantification of incoming fuel exergies (ExI / P ) supplied to the (kg/s), exd is the specific chemical exergy (kJ/kg) for neat diesel, and
thermodynamic system is directly linked with the intake species masses. exHHO is the specific chemical exergy of HHO respectively.
The stoichiometric combustion equation, atomic balance (C, H, and O), Work transfer exergy (ExW , O / P ) from the engine is given by Eq. (43),
and species mass fraction (O2, CO2, and H2O) are shown in Eqs. and it is equal to the brake power (BP) of the engine due to the high-
(27)–(37). grade energy nature of BP.
X1 Ca1 Hb1 + Y1 Ca2 Hb2 + Z1 (O2 + 3.76N2 ) Z2 CO2 + Z3 H2 O + Z1 32.76 ExW , O / P = BP (43)
N2 (27)
Rate of I/P fuel exergy accompanied by exhaust gas exergy loss
The (ExEG, O / P ) from the engine is given by Eq. (44).
X1 = Mfuel1/(Mfuel1 + Mfuel2) (28) ExEG, O / P
= [mEG × CP, EG × (TEG T0)]
Y1 = Mfuel2/ (Mfuel1 + Mfuel2) (29)
TEG PEG
mEG T0 CP, EG × ln R × ln
Mfuel1 = mfuel1/(molecular weight )fuel1, M is a molar flow rate (30) T0 P0 (44)
Mfuel2 = mfuel2 /(molecular weight )fuel2 (31) where ṁEG, CP,EG, TEG, PEG, and R represent mass flow rate (kg/s),
specific heat (kJ/kg K), temperature (K), pressure (kN/m2) of exhaust
Z1 + (X1 a1 + Y1 a2) + (X1 b1 + Y1 b2)/4 (32) gases, and characteristic gas constant (kJ/kg K) respectively.
Z2 = X1 a1 + Y1 a2 (33) Rate of I/P fuel exergy accompanied by cooling water exergy loss
(Ex CW , O / P ) from the engine is determined by Eq. (45).
Z3 = (X1 b1 + Y1 b2)/2 (34)
Ex CW , O /P = [mCW × CP, CW × (TCW , O / L TCW , I / L)]
(nO2 × molecular weight of O2 ) TCW , O / L
Oxygen (O2) mass fraction = mCW × CP , CW × ln
( i
ni × molecular weight of ith species ) TCW , I / L (45)
(35) where ṁCW, CP,CW, TCW,O/L, and TCW,O/L represent mass flow rate (kg/
s), specific heat (kJ/kg K), temperature (K) at outlet and inlet of cooling
(nCO2 × molecular weight of CO2 )
CO2 mass fraction = water respectively.
( n × molecular weight of ith species ) (36)
i i Rate of I/P fuel exergy accompanied by heat transfer exergy loss
(ExHL, O / P ) from the engine is given by Eq. (46).
(n H2 O × molecular weight of H2 O)
Water (H2 O) mass fraction =
( n × molecular weight of ith species ) T0
i i ExHL, O / P = 1 Qist
Ti, gas (46)
(37)
where X1 and Y1 are molar fraction of fuels. Z1, Z2, and Z3 are number where the instantaneous heat transfer rate (Q̇ist) from in-cylinder
of moles of CO2, H2O, and N2. The number of carbon atoms and hy- burned gases to the surrounding is calculated by Eq. (47).
drogen atoms for fuel 1 and fuel 2 are represented by a1, a2, b1, and b2
Qist = AT [( K / d) × Re × (Ti, gas Twall ) + (Ti, gas 4 Twall 4 )] (47)
respectively. The number of moles is represented by n. Moreover, the
2
rate of change of exergy is determined by Eq. (38). where AT is the total area of cylinder (m ), Re is the Reynolds number,

9
P. Kumar Sharma, et al. Fuel 265 (2020) 116923

K is thermal conductivity of cylinder material (kJ/m K), ∅d is the load, which is very close to 80% load. Moreover, It improves with in-
diameter of cylinder (mm), and α, β, and γ are calibration constant creasing HHO flow rate, as presented in Fig. 5(a). It increased from
respectively, whereas the inside gas temperature and wall temperature 20.02% to 21.38% and 2.026% to 21.58% at 10 kg and 13.5 kg load
are denoted by Ti,gas and Twall. conditions. It increased by 6.5% at 80% load under dual fuel mode
The exergy destruction (Exdestruction ) is given by Eq. (48). (0.75 lpm HHO energy share). The improved BTE is due to favorable
thermodynamic and transport properties of H2, i.e. higher diffusivity
Exdestruction = ExI / P (ExW , O / P + ExEG, O / P + ExCW , O / P + ExHL, O / P )
(~0.63 cm2/s), wide flammability limit (4.0–74.5), and high auto-ig-
(48) nition temperature (536–585 °C) which allows the engine with the lean
The exergy efficiency by the second law of thermodynamics is given mixtures resulting in improvement of BTE in comparison to standard
by Eq. (49). diesel. Hora and Agarwal also reported the increasing BTE with the
addition of hydrogen gas [39].
ExW , O /P
Ex (%) = × 100
ExI / P (49)
3.1.2. Effect on exhaust gas energy with HHO energy share
The exergy performance coefficient (CEP) is determined by Eq. (50). The exhaust gas energy losses increased significantly with in-
ExW , O / P creasing HHO flow rate and the engine load, as depicted in Fig. 5(b). It
CEP = enhances due to the higher heating value (120 MJ/kg) of hydrogen as
Ex destruction (50)
compared to diesel (42.5 MJ/kg). It should be considered the exhaust
The diesel substitution is calculated by Eq. (51). gas energy is mainly dependent on the exhaust gas temperature (EGT).
EGT increased by in-cylinder combustion of fuel. The exhaust gas en-
md, BC md, DF
dsub (%) = × 100 ergy losses increased from 29.41% with the base case to 31.26% with
md, BC (51) 0.75 HHO flow rate (lpm) at 80% load. Similarly, Chintala and Sub-
ramanian also found the same trend that exhaust gas energy losses in-
3. Result and discussion creased significantly with the addition of hydrogen and the engine load
[3].
3.1. Energy conversion
3.1.3. Effect on cooling water losses with HHO energy share
3.1.1. Effect on BTE with HHO energy share The percentage of energy loss from cooling water decreases sig-
The variations of BTE versus HHO energy share (0, 0.25, 0.50, and nificantly with increasing HHO energy share and engine load, as shown
0.75 lpm) are depicted in Fig. 5 for six different load conditions under in Fig. 5(c). It decreased from 35.43% with neat diesel to 28.48% with
DF mode. From the experiments, the maximum BTE for the base case 0.75 lpm HHO flow rate at 80% load. The reduced loss of energy in
(standard diesel) was 20.9% at 12.5 kg load and the 20.02% at 10 kg cooling water is obtained as a significant amount of energy goes to BP,

Fig. 6. Engine energy distribution with HHO energy share (a) BTE, (b) Exhaust gas energy, (c) Cooling water losses, (d) Heat transfer losses.

10
P. Kumar Sharma, et al.
exhaust, and heat transfer.
3.1.4. Effect on heat transfer losses with HHO energy share
The percentage of overall heat transfer losses from in-cylinder
burned gases to the atmosphere is decreased with increasing load, and
it slightly increased with HHO addition. It increased from 12.04% with
neat diesel to 13.07% with the 0.75 lpm HHO flow rate at 80% load, as
shown in Fig. 5(d). Cylinder head, cylinder walls, and exhaust valves
are the significant parts in the engine that play an essential role in heat
transfer losses. Heat transfer losses largely depend on the convection
heat transfer among the other heat transfer mode (conduction and ra-
diation). It increased with HHO addition due to the in-cylinder mean
gas temperature (MGT), and it decreased with higher load due to higher
work availability. Chandrashekar et al. developed a modified heat
transfer correlation for the CI engine (1500 rpm and natural aspiration)
and reported a similar trend [19].
3.2. Exergy conversion
3.2.1. Effect on work output exergy with HHO energy share
Exergy is the maximum available energy that can be available, and
it is based on the second law of thermodynamics. In other words, exergy
analysis is a vital tool that identifies the proportion of inefficiencies in
the thermal system which shows that there is a scope of further im-
provement. Moreover, potential improvements amongst the thermal
components can be achieved by it. For the sake of simplicity in exergy
analysis, natural ambient conditions (Temperature T0 = 298.15 K and
pressure P0 = 101.325 kPa) were selected as the dead state (reference
state). The variations of work availability v/s HHO energy share (0,
0.25, 0.50, and 0.75 lpm) are shown in Fig. 6(a) for the six different
load conditions under dual fuel mode. The percentage of work
Fig. 7. Exergy distribution with HHO energy share (a) Work output exergy, (b) Exhaust gas exergy, (c) Cooling water exergy, (d) Heat transfer exergy.
11
Fuel 265 (2020) 116923
availability increased from 18.78% with neat diesel to 20.01% with the
0.75 lpm HHO flow rate at 80% load as shown in Fig. 6(a). It shows that
there is a scope to further improve the efficiency. Moreover, it is found
that work availability increased with engine load and HHO addition.
This is due to the higher diffusivity of hydrogen ~ 0.63 cm2/s, which
improves the mixing of fuel and air and enhances the in-cylinder
combustion. Furthermore, specific energy consumption decreased with
increasing HHO addition, which improves the work output exergy. The
reaction rate (oxidation rate) for the fuel is directly proportional to the
in-cylinder combustion temperature, as shown in Eqs. (52)–(54) [3,40].
In which, the oxidation rate increases exponentially with combustion
temperature. Reason for which significant improvement in work
availability was observed.
KRR = (Rate cons tan t ) × e (AE / Ru T )
(52)
ln (KRR) = ln (Rate constant ) AE /(Ru T ) (53)
KRR = (Rate constant ) × e (AE / Ru T ) × (fuel) f 2 × (oxidizer ) f 3 (54)
where KRR is kinetic reaction rate, AE is activation energy, Ru is uni-
versal gas constant, T is absolute temperature, f2 is constant for fuel,
and f3 is constant for oxidizer, respectively.
3.2.2. Effect on exhaust gas, cooling water, and heat transfer exergy with
HHO energy share
The variations of exhaust gas exergy v/s HHO energy share are
shown in Fig. 6(b). The exhaust gas exergy increased from 9.66% with
neat diesel to 10.21% with the 0.75 lpm HHO flow rate at 80% load, as
shown in Fig. 6(b). It could be observed that it is increased with the
increasing load and 0.75 lpm HHO addition, and it decreased margin-
ally up to 0.50 lpm HHO addition (see Fig. 6b) due to no significant
change in composition and properties of burned species with the
P. Kumar Sharma, et al. Fuel 265 (2020) 116923

increase of HHO energy share. These experimental results confirm the HC (g /kWh) = 2.002 × 10 3 × HC (ppm) (57)
results reported by Chintala and Subramanian that exhaust gas avail-
The variations of CO emission v/s HHO energy share (0, 0.25, 0.50,
ability increased significantly with the addition of hydrogen [3]. The
and 0.75 lpm) are shown in Fig. 7(a) for six different load conditions in
cooling water exergy decreased with the HHO addition, as shown in
the CI engine under dual fuel mode. The CO emission decreased from
Fig. 6(c). It is decreased from 3.01 and 2.06% with neat diesel to 1.26
0.17% vol with neat diesel to 0.08% vol with the 0.75 lpm HHO flow
and 1.3% with the 0.75 lpm HHO flow rate at 2.5 and 13.5 kg load
rate at 80% load condition. Moreover, it could also be observed that CO
conditions. It decreased due to the higher availability in work output,
emission increased with the increasing load due to the supply of rich
exhaust gas, and in heat transfer at 0.75 lpm HHO addition. The heat
mixture. The reason for the lower CO emission with HHO addition is
transfer exergy increased with the HHO addition, as shown in Fig. 6(d).
due to the presence of hydrogen and oxygen in HHO gas that enhances
It is increased from 7.18, 3.93, and 3% with neat diesel to 7.48, 4.18,
the air factor (air efficiency) in the air–fuel ratio. Higher air–fuel ratio
and 3.15% with the 0.75 lpm HHO flow rate at 2.5, 10, and 13.5 kg load
and hydrogen content in HHO gas improves the turbulence of in-cy-
respectively. It could be observed that it is decreased with the in-
linder air–fuel mixture and significantly improve the combustion (fuel
creasing load and increased with 0.75 lpm HHO addition. It determined
oxidation) of fuel.
by using Eqs. (46) and (47). From the equations, the availability of heat
The unburnt fuel resulted in the HC emission due to insufficient
transfer is directly proportional to the in-cylinder combustion tem-
temperature near the cylinder wall. At the cylinder wall, the tempera-
perature. The reason for the higher heat transfer availability is due to
ture of the air–fuel mixture is significantly lower than the center of the
the increase in in-cylinder combustion temperature and combustion
cylinder. The variations of HC emission v/s HHO energy share are
efficiency. These experimental results have good agreement with the
shown in Fig. 7(b) for different load conditions. The HC emission de-
results reported by Subramanian that heat transfer availability in-
creased from 53 ppm with neat diesel to 20 ppm with the 0.75 lpm
creased with the addition of gaseous fuel [41].
HHO flow rate at 80% load. The reason for the lower HC emission with
HHO addition is due to the higher in-cylinder mean gas temperature
3.3. Engine exhaust emission
(MGT). Moreover, possible causes to decrease the HC emission are the
flame speed (~3.06 m/s) and diffusivity (~0.63 cm2/s) of hydrogen,
Carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), particulate matter (PM)
which improves the in-cylinder combustion. It could also be observed
and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are some significant emission emitted from
that HC emission increased with the increasing load due to the supply of
the CI engine. The CO emission results from the incomplete combustion
rich mixture.
(fuel oxidation) of fuel. For conversion of CO (% vol), HC (ppm), and
The higher in-cylinder temperature of the CI engine is a significant
NOX (ppm) into emission in g/kWh the following Eqs. (55)–(57) can be
factor in producing NOX emission. At higher temperature nitrogen re-
used.
acts with oxygen and produce the NOX emission. Moreover, the high
CO (g / kWh) = 3.591 × 10 × CO (% vol) (55) oxygen concentration in the cylinder, which increases the NOX forma-
tion. The variations of NOX emission v/s HHO energy share are shown
NOX (g / kWh) = 6.636 × 10 3 × NOX (ppm) (56) in Fig. 7(c). The NOX emission risen from 307 ppm with neat diesel to

Fig. 8. Variation of engine emission with HHO energy share (a) CO emission, (b) HC emission, (c) NOX emission, (d) Smoke emission.

12
P. Kumar Sharma, et al.
415 ppm with the 0.75 lpm HHO flow rate at 80% load. The reason for
the higher NOX emission with HHO addition is due to the high in-cy-
linder mean gas temperature (MGT) and high oxygen concentration in
the air–fuel ratio. It is also observed that NOX emission is increasing up
to 80% load and then decreasing due to oxygen deficiency at higher
load.
Singh et al. compared the particulate characteristics from the engine
fueled with H2, CNG, HCNG, gasoline, and diesel and specified the PM
emission from CI engine are harmful to the environment and the health
[42]. The effect of supplying the HHO gas on smoke (% opacity) for the
CI engine is shown in Fig. 7(d) for simplicity in measurement and
avoiding the cumbersome methods, equipment, and processes asso-
ciated with measuring the particulate matter (PM) emission. The PM
emission was measured in terms of smoke. A linear correlation between
smoke and PM emission allows the measurement of smoke instead of
PM emission in the CI engine [38]. The smoke emission decreased from
60.3 with neat diesel to 30.5 with the 0.75 lpm HHO flow rate at 80%
load. Lower smoke emission was observed for HHO fueled CI engine
due to reduction in C/H ratio and complete combustion of fuel. Im-
provement in combustion was observed with D + 0.75HHO, which
reduces the smoke emission in comparison to standard diesel. These
experimental results confirm the results reported by Hora and Agarwal
that CO, HC, and smoke emission decreased significantly with the ad-
dition of hydrogen energy share [39].
3.4. Combustion analysis
The variations of combustion characteristics with HHO addition are
shown in Fig. 8 for different load conditions. From the observation, the
net heat release rate (NHRR) varied from ~ 56 J/oCA with neat diesel
to ~ 62 J/oCA with the 0.75 lpm HHO flow rate at 80% load as shown
in Fig. 8(b). Moreover, the peak of NHRR is shifted towards the top
dead center (TDC) from 367° to 365°. It improves correspondingly with
Fig. 9. Combustion characteristics of CI engine with HHO addition (a) Rate of pressure rise, (b) Net heat release rate, (c) In-cylinder mean gas temperature.
13
Fuel 265 (2020) 116923
the increasing in-cylinder mean gas temperature. The efficiency of the
Carnot engine (efficiency = 1–(Tlower/Thigher)) increases with in-
creasing the higher temperature. Moreover, NHRR indicates the better
combustion of the air–fuel mixture that enhances the in-cylinder pres-
sure, which results in better BTE. High pressure and temperature within
the cylinder improve the rate of oxidation of fuel species, which results
in decreased HC, CO, and smoke emission. Furthermore, high tem-
perature increases the NOX emission.
The variation of the rate of pressure rise (ROPR) with HHO addition
is shown in Fig. 9(a). The ROPR improved from ~ 6.26 bar/oCA with
neat diesel to ~ 6.8 bar/oCA with the 0.75 lpm HHO flow rate at 80%
load, and the peak of NHRR is shifted towards the TDC. The increased
ROPR improves the average mean effective pressure acting on the
piston, which results in improved energy efficiency. Hydrogen has high
flame speed (~3.06 m/s), which indicates the quicker combustion and
shorter combustion duration than diesel. It can be seen from the figure
that the addition of HHO in diesel engine reduced the ignition delay
period. It can be understood from the fact that HHO gas is more likely
to provide a homogeneous mixture of air and fuel. Further, it was ob-
served that HHO addition in the engine increased the peak pressure and
mean gas temperature. Patel et al. reported their work on CI engine and
described the effect of in-cylinder pressure on engine performance,
combustion, and emission. High engine operating parameters, i.e., en-
gine load and injected fuel mass are the main reason to increase the in-
cylinder pressure at 1500 rpm [43]. The in-cylinder mean gas tem-
perature increased with the HHO addition, as shown in Fig. 9(c). It is
increased from 1183 K with neat diesel to 1364 K with the 0.75 HHO
flow rate at 80% load. It increases with the HHO flow rate due to the
higher energy content of hydrogen (LHV = 120 MJ/kg) and the dif-
fusivity of hydrogen, which results in improved ROPR, oxidation of fuel
species, and increased NOX emission. Hora and Agarwal also reported a
similar tendency that ROPR, NHRR, and in-cylinder mean gas tem-
perature improved with hydrogen addition, and peak pressure shifted
P. Kumar Sharma, et al. Fuel 265 (2020) 116923

Table 7
Energy and exergy balance at 80% load for hydroxyl fueled CI engine under DF mode.
S. No. Descriptions First law of thermodynamics Second law of thermodynamics
Energy balance (%) Exergy balance (%)

Neat diesel D + 0.75HHO % Change Neat diesel D + 0.75HHO % Change

1 Work 20.02 21.38 6.79 ↑ 18.78 20.01 6.54 ↑

2 Exhaust gas 29.41 31.26 6.29 ↑ 9.66 10.21 5.69 ↑
3 Cooling water 35.43 28.48 19.61 ↓ 2.44 1.35 44.45 ↓
4 Heat transfer 12.04 13.07 8.55 ↑ 3.93 4.18 6.36 ↑
5 Unaccounted 3.1 5.81 – 65.19 64.25 –
6 Total (%) 100 100 – 100 100 –

towards the top dead center [39]. 4. Conclusion

In future, one can look into the effect of engine operating para-
meters, i.e., CR, IP, and IT, with the different HHO flow rates and need
to be optimized their combinations. Moreover, irreversibility due to
fuel oxidation, friction, and the mixing process need to be analyzed.
Furthermore, the long endurance test for HHO operated CI engine
under DF mode is required, which confirms the frictional power and
effect of lubricants on the engine.
3.5. Comparative analysis of energy and exergy
Table 7 shows the comparison of energy and exergy analysis applied
to the CI engine under dual fuel mode with 0.75 lpm HHO energy share
at 80% load. The energy balance((dEnsystem/dt) = ĖnI/P – ĖnO/P –
Ėndestruction) is based on the first law of thermodynamics. In a thermal
system and within the control volume, the rate of change of energy is
equal to the net rate change of energy transfer between the system and
surroundings in a thermodynamic process minus the rate of energy
destruction. Similarly, the exergy balance ((dExsystem/dt) = ĖxI/P – ĖxO/
P – Ėxdestruction) is a significant tool that identifies the proportion of
inefficiencies in the thermal system. Moreover, potential improvements
amongst the thermal components can be achieved by it, and it depends
on the second law of thermodynamics. It can be found that there are
significant differences between the energies and exergies in work
output, exhaust gas, cooling water, and heat transfer tabulated in
Table 7. Energy analysis makes the report for three significant losses,
i.e. exhaust gas, cooling water, and heat transfer. Moreover, the exergy
balance describes the inefficiencies in the thermal system and find out
the scope for potential improvements amongst the thermal components.
Fig. 10 shows the comparison of maximum useful work for the hydroxyl
fueled CI engine under DF mode with the previous studies in the lit-
erature (H2, natural gas, and biogas fuel).
In the present work, experimental analysis was performed on the
HHO fueled CI engine under dual fuel mode. The effect of HHO var-
iation on energy and exergy was analysed at different engine load
conditions. It is found that the BTE increased as the amount of HHO and
engine load increases. BTE improved by 6.5% at HHO flow rate of 0.75
lpm and 80% load condition under dual fuel mode. The energy losses
are significantly increased as 6.29% and 8.55% for exhaust gas and heat
transfer, respectively, whereas work availability improved by 6.54%.
Similarly, the exergy in the exhaust gas and heat transfer are enhanced
by 5.69% and 6.36%, respectively. The in-cylinder mean gas tempera-
ture, ROPR, and NHRR are found as 1364 K, ~6.8 bar/oCA,
and ~ 62 J/oCA with 0.75 lpm HHO energy share. The BTE is improved
due to higher Carnot efficiency, in-cylinder mean gas temperature and
ROPR with the addition of HHO. Moreover, NHRR indicates better
combustion and improves the peak in-cylinder pressure, which results
in increased work availability. The rate of oxidation of fuel species
improves the pressure and temperature, which decreases CO, HC, and
smoke emission by 53%, 62%, and 49%, respectively. However, high
temperature increases the NOX emission by 35%. As a future pro-
spective, the overall performance of the engine can further be improved
by optimizing the engine operating parameters, i.e., CR, IP, and IT with
the different HHO flow rates and need to be optimized their combina-
tions. The irreversibility due to fuel oxidation, friction, and the mixing
process may be analysed. Further, the long endurance test for HHO
operated CI engine under dual fuel mode is required, which confirms
the frictional power and effect of lubricants on the engine.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Pushpendra Kumar Sharma: Conceptualization, Methodology,
Data curation, Investigation, Formal analysis. Dilip Sharma:
Supervision. Shyam Lal Soni: Supervision. Amit Jhalani: Writing -
original draft. Digambar Singh: Validation, Visualization. Sumit
Sharma: Wrting - review & editing.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.

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