lnuuS18lAL

LLLC18CnlCS
ASSlCnMLn1 # 1
Maarl[ 8aheem
LL037
1LSLC A

Page 2

EL-057 Maarij Raheem

1kLSSUkL GUAGLS

Def|n|t|on
9ressure gauges lndlcaLe Lhe relaLlve dlfference beLween Lhe pressure of Lhe medlum and Lhe
surroundlng aLmosphere

f|brft|on
Many lnsLrumenLs have been lnvenLed Lo measure pressure wlLh dlfferenL advanLages and
dlsadvanLages 9ressure range senslLlvlLy dynamlc response and cosL all vary by several orders of
magnlLude from one lnsLrumenL deslgn Lo Lhe nexL 1he oldesL Lype ls Lhe llquld column (a verLlcal Lube
fllled wlLh mercury) manomeLer lnvenLed by LvangellsLa 1orrlcelll ln 1643 1he u1ube was lnvenLed by
ChrlsLlan Puygens ln 1661
A mfnometer could also be referrlng Lo a pressure measurlng lnsLrumenL usually llmlLed Lo measurlng
pressures near Lo aLmospherlc 1he Lerm f ls ofLen used Lo refer speclflcally Lo llquld column
hydrosLaLlc lnsLrumenLs

1LS CI kLSSUkL GUAGLS

A|r ressure Gfuges Alr pressure gauges measure Lhe amounL of alr needed Lo malnLaln Lhe opLlmum
use of Lhe ob[ecL conLalnlng Lhls gas A common conLalner of alr ls a Llre uslng an alr pressure gauge
ensures Lhe correcL amounL of alr fllls Lhe Llre for opLlmum performance 1oo llLLle alr ln a Llre evenLually
makes lL flaLLen whlle Loo much alr makes lL wear unevenly or even explode
C| ressure Gfuges Machlne englnes use oll Lo lubrlcaLe Lhe movlng parLs whlle ln moLlon Lo prevenL
Lhe naLural frlcLlon from damaglng Lhe moLor componenLs Cll pressure gauges lndlcaLe safe or unsafe
levels of oll
nydrostft|c Gfuges PydrosLaLlc gauges (such as Lhe mercury column manomeLer) compare pressure Lo
Lhe hydrosLaLlc force per unlL area aL Lhe base of a column of fluld PydrosLaLlc gauge measuremenLs are
lndependenL of Lhe Lype of gas belng measured and can be deslgned Lo have a very llnear callbraLlon
1hey have poor dynamlc response
|stontype Gfuges 9lsLonLype gauges counLerbalance Lhe pressure of a fluld wlLh a sprlng (for example
Llrepressure gauges of comparaLlvely low accuracy) or a solld welghL ln whlch case lL ls known as a
deadwelghL LesLer and may be used for callbraLlon of oLher gauges
D|fferent|f ressure Gfuges ulfferenLlal pressure gauges such as a llquldcolumn manomeLer
(measurlng vacuum pressures) show Lhe varlaLlon ln pressure beLween Lwo polnLs by observlng Lhe fluld
used ln a uLube Such lnsLrumenLs conLaln Lwo enLrance porLs wlLh each connecLed Lo one of Lhe
monlLored pressure capaclLles uslng Lhls Lype of pressure gauge allows operaLors Lo monlLor pressure aL
one polnL raLher Lhan havlng Lo check Lwo pressure gauges and calculaLe Lhe dlfference
L|qu|d ressure Gfuge 1he dlfference ln fluld helghL ln a llquld column manomeLer ls proporLlonal Lo Lhe
pressure dlfference Llquld column gauges conslsL of a verLlcal column of llquld ln a Lube whose ends are

Page 3

EL-057 Maarij Raheem
exposed Lo dlfferenL pressures 1he column wlll rlse or fall unLll lLs welghL ls ln equlllbrlum wlLh Lhe
pressure dlfferenLlal beLween Lhe Lwo ends of Lhe Lube A very slmple verslon ls a ushaped Lube halffull
of llquld one slde of whlch ls connecLed Lo Lhe reglon of lnLeresL whlle Lhe reference pressure (whlch
mlghL be Lhe aLmospherlc pressure or a vacuum) ls applled Lo Lhe oLher 1he dlfference ln llquld level
represenLs Lhe applled pressure 1he pressure exerLed by a column of fluld of helghL and denslLy ls
glven by Lhe hydrosLaLlc pressure equaLlon 9 1herefore Lhe pressure dlfference beLween Lhe
applled pressure 9
f
and Lhe reference pressure 9
0
ln a uLube manomeLer can be found by solvlng 9
f
- 9
0


D|g|tf ressure Gfuges used ln a varleLy of lndusLrles dlglLal pressure gauges converL applled pressure
lnLo slgnals LhaL read ouL ln numerlcal dlsplays 1hese gauges have pharmaceuLlcal food processlng and
auLomoLlve appllcaLlons as well as use for conLalnmenL and monlLorlng of hazardous maLerlals
Anero|d Anerold gauges are based on a meLalllc pressure senslng elemenL whlch flexes elasLlcally under
Lhe effecL of a pressure dlfference across Lhe elemenL Anerold means wlLhouL fluld and Lhe Lerm
orlglnally dlsLlngulshed Lhese gauges from Lhe hydrosLaLlc gauges descrlbed above Powever anerold
gauges can be used Lo measure Lhe pressure of a llquld as well as a gas and Lhey are noL Lhe only Lype of
gauge LhaL can operaLe wlLhouL fluld lor Lhls reason Lhey are ofLen called mechanlcal gauges ln modern
language
D|fphrfgm ressure Gfuges lnsLead of uslng a llquld level Lo measure Lhe dlfference beLween an
unknown and a reference pressure as wlLh Lhe dlfferenLlal pressure gauge Lhe dlaphragm pressure gauge
uses Lhe expandable deformaLlon of a dlaphragm or membrane 1hls pressure gauge conLalns a capsule
dlvlded by a dlaphragm open Lo Lhe exLernal LargeLed (unknown) pressure whlle Lhe oLher slde of Lhe
dlaphragm connecLs Lo Lhe known pressure Mechanlcally Lhe undeslrable pressure dlfference exhlblLs
wlLh Lhe deflecLlon of Lhe dlaphragm from a leveled poslLlon lL uses Lhe deflecLlon of a flexlble
membrane LhaL separaLes reglons of dlfferenL pressure 1he amounL of deflecLlon ls repeaLable for known
pressures so Lhe pressure can be deLermlned by uslng callbraLlon 1he deformaLlon of a Lhln dlaphragm ls
dependenL on Lhe dlfference ln pressure beLween lLs Lwo faces 1he reference face can be open Lo
aLmosphere Lo measure gauge pressure open Lo a second porL Lo measure dlfferenLlal pressure or can
be sealed agalnsL a vacuum or oLher flxed reference pressure Lo measure absoluLe pressure 1he
deformaLlon can be measured uslng mechanlcal opLlcal or capaclLlve Lechnlques Ceramlc and meLalllc
dlaphragms are used
Usefu rfnge above 10
2
1orr (roughly 1 9a)
lor absoluLe measuremenLs welded pressure capsules wlLh dlaphragms on elLher slde are ofLen used
8ourdon 1he 8ourdon pressure gauge uses Lhe prlnclple LhaL a flaLLened Lube Lends Lo change Lo a more
clrcular crosssecLlon when pressurlzed AlLhough Lhls change ln crosssecLlon may be hardly noLlceable
and Lhus lnvolvlng moderaLe sLresses wlLhln Lhe elasLlc range of easlly workable maLerlals Lhe sLraln of
Lhe maLerlal of Lhe Lube ls magnlfled by formlng Lhe Lube lnLo a C shape or even a hellx such LhaL Lhe
enLlre Lube Lends Lo sLralghLen ouL or uncoll elasLlcally as lL ls pressurlzed




Page 4

EL-057 Maarij Raheem
2kLSSUkL 1kANSMI11Lk
Def|n|t|on 9ressure LransmlLLers LranslaLe lowlevel elecLrlcal ouLpuLs from pressure senslng devlces Lo
hlgherlevel slgnals LhaL are sulLable for Lransmlsslon and processlng
rocedure 1hey use many dlfferenL senslng Lechnologles and can measure Lhe pressure of llqulds and/or
gases
O Mechanlcal deflecLlon devlces such as dlaphragms 8ourdon Lubes or bellows conslsL of an elasLlc or
flexlble elemenL LhaL ls deflecLed mechanlcally by a change ln pressure
O uevlces LhaL use sealed plsLons or cyllnders are also avallable
O SLraln gauges are ofLen bonded Lo a larger sLrucLure LhaL deforms as pressure changes
O 9lezoreslsLlve devlces sense shlfLs of elecLrlcal charges wlLhln a reslsLor 9lezoelecLrlc pressure
LransmlLLers measure dynamlc and quaslsLaLlc pressures 1helr common modes of operaLlon are
charge mode whlch generaLes a hlghlmpedance charge ouLpuL and volLage mode whlch uses an
ampllfler Lo converL Lhe hlghlmpedance charge lnLo a lowlmpedance ouLpuL volLage
O 1hln fllm devlces conslsL of an exLremely Lhln layer of maLerlal usually LlLanlum nlLrlde or polyslllcon
deposlLed on a subsLraLe
O 9ressure LransmlLLers LhaL use mlcroelecLromechanlcal sysLems (MLMS) varlable capaclLance and
vlbraLlng elemenLs are also avallable
f|brft|on 9ressure LransmlLLers are capable of performlng varlous pressure measuremenLs and
dlsplaylng amounLs ln dlfferenL unlLs
O AbsoluLe pressure ls a pressure measuremenL LhaL ls relaLlve Lo a perfecL vacuum 1yplcally vacuum
pressures are lower Lhan Lhe aLmospherlc pressure
O Cage pressure Lhe mosL common Lype of pressure measuremenL ls relaLlve Lo Lhe local aLmospherlc
pressure 8y conLrasL sealed gauge pressure ls relaLlve Lo one aLmosphere of pressure (oz) aL sea
level
O ulfferenLlal pressure reflecLs Lhe dlfference beLween Lwo lnpuL pressures
O Compound pressure lnsLrumenLs can dlsplay boLh poslLlve and negaLlve pressures
O Some pressure LransmlLLers dlsplay values ln pounds per square lnch kllo pascals bars or mllllbars
lnches or cenLlmeLers of mercury or lnches or feeL of waLer
O CLher devlces dlsplay measuremenLs ln ounces per square lnch or kllograms per square cenLlmeLer
erformfnce frfmeters 9erformance speclflcaLlons for pressure LransmlLLers lnclude worklng pressure
range vacuum range accuracy and operaLlng LemperaLure Worklng pressure ls Lhe maxlmum allowable
pressure aL whlch pressure LransmlLLers are deslgned Lo operaLe 1yplcally devlces should noL exceed
73 of Lhelr maxlmum raLed range vacuum range anoLher lmporLanL measuremenL covers Lhe lowesL
vacuum pressure and Lhe hlghesL vacuum pressure Accuracy Lhe dlfference beLween Lhe Lrue value and
Lhe lndlcaLlon ls expressed as a percenLage of span ln cases where Lhe accuracy dlffers beLween Lhe
mlddle span and Lhe flrsL and lasL quarLers of Lhe scale Lhe largesL percenLage error ls reporLed

Page 5

EL-057 Maarij Raheem
1ypes9ressure LransmlLLers dlffer ln Lerms of dlsplay Lypes and feaLures
AnALCC ML1L8S Analog meLers use a slmple vlsual lndlcaLor such as a needle
l ulCl1AL ML1L8S ulglLal dlsplays presenL numerlc or appllcaLlonspeclflc values
ll CA1PCuL 8A? 1u8LS (C81)
lll LlCulu C8?S1AL ulS9LA? (LCu) and oLher mulLlllne dlsplays are also avallable
ln Lerms of feaLures some pressure LransmlLLers lnclude LemperaLure compensaLlon or provlde
LemperaLure measuremenL and negaLlve pressure ouLpuLs CLhers lnclude bullLln audlble or vlsual
alarms and an ouLpuL swlLch compaLlble wlLh LranslsLorLranslsLor loglc (11L) 9ressure LransmlLLers LhaL
are raLed for hazardous maLerlals are also avallable

31LMLkA1UkL 1kANSMI11LkS
Def|n|t|on
An lnLelllgenL LemperaLure LransmlLLer ls deflned as a LransmlLLer LhaL comblnes Lhe Lechnology of Lhe
LemperaLure sensor wlLh addlLlonal elecLronlcs Cenerally Lhese elecLronlcs allow for remoLe monlLorlng
and conflguraLlon of Lhe LransmlLLer parameLers

rocedure A LemperaLure LransmlLLer works by connecLlng Lo lL some form of LemperaLure sensor lor
example a 81u (8eslsLance LemperaLure devlce) or 1hermocouple ln Lhe case of a 81u connecLed Lo Lhe
LransmlLLer Lhe LransmlLLer measures a change ln reslsLance of Lhe 81u proporLlonal Lo Lhe change ln
LemperaLure measured 1he LransmlLLer Lhen derlves a currenL ouLpuL (generally 420mA) whlch can be
measured by an lnsLrumenL such as a 9LC loop lndlcaLor ecL ln Lhe case of a Lhermocouple a Mllll
volLage ls produced aL a [uncLlon of Lwo dlsslmllar meLals Lhls change ln Mllll volLage agaln proporLlonal
Lo Lhe change ln LemperaLure and Lhe LransmlLLer agaln derlves a currenL ouLpuL measurable by a
lnsLrumenL
f|brft|on
O 1he LransmlLLer wlll be ranged by a programmlng devlce say for example an appllcaLlon where
process LemperaLures need Lo be measured beLween 0100 degrees Lhe LransmlLLer wlll be ranged 0
100 degrees and Lhus glve an ouLpuL proporLlonal Lo Lhe LemperaLure measured by Lhe senslng
elemenL 0 degrees 4mA 100 degrees 20mA
O An exclLaLlon supply wlll be connecLed Lo Lhe LransmlLLer and Lhe 420mA wlll flow ln Lhls loop back Lo
Lhe measurlng lnsLrumenL
O lL ls necessary Lo use Lhe correcL Lype of sensor for Lhe appllcaLlon Lo geL Lhe besL accuracy when
measurlng 81us are generally used for measurlng lower LemperaLures where as Lhermocouples are
used for measurlng hlgher LemperaLures 1here are several Lypes of 81us such as 2 wlre 3 wlre and 4

Page 6

EL-057 Maarij Raheem
wlre and an even greaLer range of Lhermocouples dependlng on Lhe LemperaLures and measurlng
envlronmenL
Usfge 1he LemperaLure LransmlLLer ls one of Lhe mosL wldely used fleld devlces ln Lhe lndusLry wlLh
lnnumerable funcLlonallLles and feaLures Accordlng Lo a ConLrol Lnglneerlng Magazlne focus sLudy 92
of respondenLs lndlcaLed Lhey use LemperaLure LransmlLLers Lo conLrol Lhelr processes Lven more
lmpresslve LemperaLure ls a baslc meLrlc used ln Lhe measuremenL of flow denslLy and oLher
mulLlvarlable measuremenLs 1hus LemperaLure LransmlLLers exLend Lhelr lnfluence lnLo mulLlple process
varlables
1ypes

1) Lxpos|on roof fnd Wefther roof 1rfnsm|tters
1hls Lype of LransmlLLer ls normally used ln crlLlcal appllcaLlons wlLh hlgh performance requlremenLs 1he
LransmlLLer ls enclosed ln a sealed exploslon proof comparLmenL 1hls enclosure ls generally made of
sLalnless sLeel buL can be any approved exploslon proof maLerlal



2) DIN kf| fne Mount 1rfnsm|tters
1hls Lype of LransmlLLer can be mounLed Lo a uln rall and ls generally used for cenLrallzed conLrol room
lnsLallaLlons 9anel mounL LransmlLLers are low cosL allow easy lnsLallaLlon and malnLenance and can be
conflgured for use wlLh a dlverse selecLlon of sensor Lypes

3) nefd Mount 1rfnsm|tters
1hls Lype of LransmlLLer can be mounLed dlrecLly ln uln connecLlon heads 1he prlmary advanLage Lo Lhls
ls a low cosL of lnsLallaLlon small slze and compaLlblllLy wlLh a dlverse selecLlon of sensor Lypes 8ecause
Lhe LransmlLLer ls lnsLalled dlrecLly ln Lhe connecLlon head elecLrlcal connecLlons and sensor wlrlng ls
slmpllfled
4LLVLL MLASUkING DLVILS
Def|n|t|on Leve mefsurement refers Lo lnsLrumenLaLlon Lechnlques deslgned Lo measure Lhe helghL of a
fluld or solld wlLhln a conLalnlng vessel
rocedure Accordlng Lo Lhe conLrol process ln many lndusLrles level measuremenL sensors fall lnLo Lwo
maln Lypes
1 9olnL level measuremenL sensors are used Lo mark a slngle dlscreLe llquld helghLa preseL level
condlLlon Cenerally Lhls Lype of sensor funcLlons as a hlgh alarm slgnallng an overflll condlLlon or as a
marker for a low alarm condlLlon
2 ConLlnuous level sensors are more sophlsLlcaLed and can provlde level monlLorlng of an enLlre
sysLem 1hey measure fluld level wlLhln a range raLher Lhan aL a one polnL produclng an analog ouLpuL

Page 7

EL-057 Maarij Raheem
LhaL dlrecLly correlaLes Lo Lhe level ln Lhe vessel 1o creaLe a level managemenL sysLem Lhe ouLpuL slgnal
ls llnked Lo a process conLrol loop and Lo a vlsual lndlcaLor
f|brft|on lollowlng are Lhe Lechnlques used for level measuremenL
O 8adar
O Culded radar
O LlecLromechanlcal
O ulLrasonlc
O CapaclLance
O PydrosLaLlc pressure
O ulfferenLlal pressure
O WelghL
O 8adlaLlon
So|ds mefsurement techn|ques
O 8adar
O Culded radar
O WelghL
O ulfferenLlal pressure (fluldlzed)
O 8l 1ransmlsslon llne meLhods
1ypes
Ioft Sw|tches ln Lhese polnL level sensors a magneLlc floaL moves wlLh Lhe llquld surface acLuaLlng a
hermeLlcally sealed reed swlLch ln Lhe sLem 1he slmple lowmalnLenance deslgn lnsLalls readlly
mlnlmlzes shock vlbraLlon and pressure and works wlLh a varleLy of medla 1he reed swlLch can be
slngle pole slngle Lhrow (S9S1) or slngle pole double Lhrow (S9u1)
Nonontfct Utrfson|c Sensors 1hese sensors lncorporaLe an analog slgnal processor a mlcroprocessor
blnary coded declmal (8Cu) range swlLches and an ouLpuL drlver clrculL 1ransmlL pulses and a gaLe slgnal
from Lhe mlcroprocessor rouLe Lhrough Lhe analog slgnal processor Lo Lhe sensor whlch sends an
ulLrasonlc beam Lo Lhe llquld surface 1he sensor deLecLs Lhe echo from Lhe surface and rouLes lL back Lo
Lhe mlcroprocessor for a dlglLal represenLaLlon of Lhe dlsLance beLween Lhe sensor and Lhe surface level
1hrough consLanL updaLlng of recelved slgnals Lhe mlcroprocessor calculaLes averaged values Lo measure
llquld level
ontfct Utrfson|c Sensors A lowenergy ulLrasonlc devlce wlLhln Lhese sensors measures llquld level aL
a cerLaln polnL ConslsLlng of a fleldmounLed sensor and lnLegral solld sLaLe ampllfler conLacL ulLrasonlc
sensors have no movlng parLs and requlre no callbraLlon 1yplcally Lhey are equlpped wlLh Lermlnal
blocks for connecLlon of a power source and exLernal conLrol devlces 1he ulLrasonlc slgnal crosses a one
half lnch gap ln Lhe sensor conLrolllng relay swlLches when Lhe gap conLalns llquld 1he senslng level ls
mldway along Lhe gap for horlzonLally mounLed sensors aL Lhe Lop of Lhe gap for verLlcally mounLed

Page 8

EL-057 Maarij Raheem
sensors As llquld falls below Lhls level Lhe ulLrasonlc slgnal aLLenuaLes and ulLlmaLely swlLches Lhe relay
Lo lLs prlor sLaLe
fpfc|tfnce Leve Sensors Llke ulLrasonlc sensors capaclLance sensors can handle polnL or conLlnuous
level measuremenL 1hey use a probe Lo monlLor llquld level changes ln Lhe Lank elecLronlcally
condlLlonlng Lhe ouLpuL Lo capaclLlve and reslsLlve values whlch are converLed Lo analog slgnals 1he
probe and Lhe vessel wall equaLe Lo Lwo plaLes of a capaclLor Lhe llquld Lo Lhe dlelecLrlc medlum
8ecause Lhe slgnal emanaLes from level changes alone maLerlal bulldup on Lhe probe has no effecL non
conducLlve fluld vessels may dlcLaLe dual probes or an exLernal conducLlng sLrlp
SILCW MLASUkING DLVILS
Def|n|t|on
Iow mefsurement ls Lhe quanLlflcaLlon of bulk fluld movemenL
1he deLermlnaLlon of Lhe quanLlLy of a fluld elLher a llquld vapor or gas LhaL passes Lhrough a plpe
ducL or open channel
llow may be expressed as a raLe of volumeLrlc flow (such as llLers per second gallons per mlnuLe cublc
meLers per second cublc feeL per mlnuLe) mass raLe of flow (such as kllograms per second pounds per
hour) or ln Lerms of a LoLal volume or mass flow (lnLegraLed raLe of flow for a glven perlod of Llme)
rocedure MeasuremenL ls accompllshed by a varleLy of means dependlng upon Lhe quanLlLles flow
raLes and Lypes of flulds lnvolved Many lndusLrlal process flow measuremenLs conslsL of a comblnaLlon
of Lwo devlces a prlmary devlce LhaL ls placed ln lnLlmaLe conLacL wlLh Lhe fluld and generaLes a slgnal
and a secondary devlce LhaL LranslaLes Lhls slgnal lnLo a moLlon or a secondary slgnal for lndlcaLlng
recordlng conLrolllng or LoLallzlng Lhe flow CLher devlces lndlcaLe or LoLallze Lhe flow dlrecLly Lhrough
Lhe lnLeracLlon of Lhe flowlng fluld and Lhe measurlng devlce LhaL ls placed dlrecLly or lndlrecLly ln conLacL
wlLh Lhe fluld sLream
1ypes
1 Mechanlcal flow meLers
O 8uckeLandsLopwaLch
O 9lsLon meLer/8oLary plsLon
O varlable area meLer
O 1urblne flow meLer
O WolLmann meLer
O Slngle [eL meLer
O 9addle wheel meLer
O MulLlple [eL meLer
O 9elLon wheel
O Cval gear meLer
O nuLaLlng dlsk meLer
O CurrenL meLer
2 9ressurebased meLers
O venLurl meLer
O Crlflce plaLe
O uall Lube
O 9lLoL Lube
O MulLlhole pressure probe

Page 9

EL-057 Maarij Raheem
3 CpLlcal flow meLers
4 Cpen channel flow measuremenL
O Level Lo flow
O Area / veloclLy
O uye LesLlng
O AcousLlc uoppler veloclmeLry
3 1hermal mass flow meLers
6 vorLex flowmeLers
7 LlecLromagneLlc ulLrasonlc and corlolls flow
meLers
O MagneLlc flow meLers
O ulLrasonlc (uoppler LranslL Llme) flow
meLers
O Corlolls flow meLers
8 Laser uoppler flow measuremenL
f|brft|on
In S|tu f|brft|on CfLen measuremenL errors orlglnaLe from lncorrecL lnsLallaLlon or oLher envlronmenL
dependenL facLors ln SlLu meLhods are used when flow meLer ls callbraLed ln Lhe correcL flow condlLlons
A 1ranslL Llme meLhod lor plpe flows a socalled LranslL Llme meLhod ls applled where a radloLracer
ls ln[ecLed as a pulse lnLo Lhe measured flow 1he LranslL Llme ls deflned wlLh Lhe help of radlaLlon
deLecLors placed on Lhe ouLslde of Lhe plpe 1he volume flow ls obLalned by mulLlplylng Lhe measured
average fluld flow veloclLy by Lhe lnner plpe cross secLlon 1hls reference flow value ls compared wlLh Lhe
slmulLaneous flow value glven by Lhe flow measuremenL Lo be callbraLed
8 1racer dlluLlon meLhod 1he radloLracer dlluLlon meLhod ls used Lo callbraLe open channel flow
measuremenLs A soluLlon wlLh a known Lracer concenLraLlon ls ln[ecLed aL a consLanL known veloclLy lnLo
Lhe channel flow uownsLream where Lhe Lracer soluLlon ls Lhoroughly mlxed over Lhe flow cross secLlon
a conLlnuous sample ls Laken and lLs Lracer concenLraLlon ln relaLlon Lo LhaL of Lhe ln[ecLed soluLlon ls
deLermlned 1he flow reference value ls deLermlned by uslng Lhe Lracer balance condlLlon beLween Lhe
ln[ecLed Lracer flow and Lhe dlluLlng flow


6NLUMA1I SWI1nLS
Def|n|t|on A pneumaLlc swlLch ls a form of swlLch LhaL makes elecLrlcal conLacL when a cerLaln seL
pressure has been reached on lLs lnpuL 1hls ls used Lo provlde on/off swlLchlng from a pneumaLlc source
1he swlLch may be deslgned Lo make conLacL elLher on pressure rlse or on pressure fall
rocedure A pneumaLlc swlLch ls a snap acLlng devlce AL a cerLaln pressure Lhe swlLch snaps over cenLer
AL Lhls polnL lL Lakes pressure (force) Lo conLlnue lLs movemenL 1he pressure swlLch seL polnL ls a
funcLlon of Lhe swlLch 1he elecLrlcal swlLch ls ln a flxed poslLlon and ls synchronlzed Lo Lhe movemenL of
Lhe pneumaLlc swlLch
App|cft|ons 9neumaLlc swlLches are used ln Alr brakes Alr compressors Alr englnes and barosLaL eLc

Page 10

EL-057
Maarij Raheem
f|brft|on 9neumaLlc swlLches ln flxed lnsLallaLlons such as facLorles use compressed alr because a
susLalnable supply can be made by compresslng aLmospherlc alr 1he alr usually has molsLure removed
and a small quanLlLy of oll added aL Lhe compressor Lo avold corroslon of mechanlcal componenLs and Lo
lubrlcaLe Lhem SwlLches ln pneumaLlcpower sysLem ensure no alr leakages Smaller or sLandalone
sysLems can use oLher compressed gases whlch are an asphyxlaLlon hazard such as nlLrogen ofLen
referred Lo as Cln (oxygenfree nlLrogen) when supplled ln cyllnders 9neumaLlc swlLches ln small
vehlcles such as 8oboL Wars machlnes and oLher hobbylsL appllcaLlons are ofLen powered by compressed
carbon dloxlde because conLalners deslgned Lo hold lL such as soda sLream canlsLers and flre
exLlngulshers are readlly avallable and Lhe phase change beLween llquld and gas makes lL posslble Lo
obLaln a larger volume of compressed gas from a llghLer conLalner Lhan compressed alr would allow
Usfge
uses of pneumaLlc pressure swlLches lnclude
O SwlLchlng off an elecLrlcally drlven gas compressor when a seL pressure ls achleved ln Lhe reservolr
O SwlLchlng off a gas compressor whenever Lhere ls no feed ln Lhe sucLlon sLage
O lncell charge conLrol ln a baLLery
O SwlLchlng on/off an alarm llghL ln Lhe cockplL of an alrcrafL lf cabln pressure (based on alLlLude) ls
crlLlcally low
Advfntfges of pneumft|c sw|tches
O S|mp|c|ty of Des|gn And ontro
4 Machlnes are easlly deslgned uslng sLandard cyllnders oLher componenLs ConLrol ls as
easy as lL ls slmple Cn Cll Lype conLrol
O ke|fb||ty
4 9neumaLlc sysLems Lend Lo have long operaLlng llves and requlre very llLLle malnLenance
4 8ecause gas ls compresslble Lhe equlpmenL ls less llkely Lo be damaged by shock 1he gas
ln pneumaLlcs absorbs excesslve force whereas Lhe fluld of hydraullcs dlrecLly Lransfers force
O Storfge
4 Compressed Cas can be sLored allowlng Lhe use of machlnes when elecLrlcal power ls losL
O Sffety
4 very low chance of flre (compared Lo hydraullc oll)
4 Machlnes can be deslgned Lo be overload safe