Title: Navigating the Challenges of Crafting a Research Paper on Radiation

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In order to understand the reality about flight attendants, there is a need to do an extensive research
on this profession. For example, radium has chemical properties similar to those of calcium, and the
alpha-particle emitter radium-226 ( 226 Ra) will accumulate with calcium in bone. Vaishnav, A. R.
(1994). Task force reports on Fernald studies. Most thyroid cancers would be expected to appear
within 10-20 years after exposure; in some people, the delay could be much longer. If the damage is
not critical, cell will eventually recover and start functioning normally. However, radiation therapy is
also well-known for the treatment of disease or cancer. Vaishnav, 1994). Both Downs-syndrome
patients and their parents received radioactive iodine. A given dose delivered within 1 h often will
have different consequences than the same total dose delivered over a period of one year. That is
called enrichment, and the desired product is enriched uranium. We use cookies to create the best
experience for you. Indeed, the IRB is entirely dependent upon this committee to. No Immediate
Danger, Prognosis for a Radioactive Earth, The Book Publishing Company -- Summertown,
Tennessee, p. 25-29, 150-151. The tables are available as Web-based calculators for 22 specific
cancers at. Although most therapeutic uses of radiation involve the treatment of cancer, therapeutic
doses may also be used to treat conditions such as clogged blood vessels. Few incident cases of
pancreatic and lung cancer are missed in a longitudinal study. Probable Health Effects resulting from
Exposure to Ionizing Radiation. Regulations and ethical guidelines: The Nuremberg code. In the
latter cases, fewer cells are likely to be killed or lethally damaged at one time. Those and other
bodies have used the risk estimates as input data to develop dose limits for radiation-protection
purposes (ICRP, 1991; NCRP, 1997). The non-ionizing radiations are low energy radiation that are
not powerful enough to disintegrate atom structures. The decreasing ERR estimates, however, do not
necessarily imply that EAR is also decreasing with age. For example, cesium-137 ( 137 Cs) deposited
in soft tissues, and the entire body is exposed uniformly to gamma rays. However, ionizing radiation
is more likely to damage both strands of DNA simultaneously than are normal metabolic processes. A
more extensive description of these maps and dose calculators is presented in Chapter 4. Alpha
particles lose energy rapidly and stop in a very short distance. Such situations are described as
natural experiments, and the studies are described as observational. Later versions used either 235 U
or plutonium-239 ( 239 Pu) to produce fission yields over 1,000 kilotons. The concepts of ethics are
illustrated in this chapter. Their induction and development follow a multistage process that is not yet
fully understood but is known to be influenced by many factors inside and outside the body. The
topics are even more complicated in the context of the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act
(RECA) and the Radiation Exposure Screening and Education Program (RESEP).
Case-control studies have two major disadvantages: they. According to Soviet estimates, between
300,000 and 600,000 people were involved in the cleanup of the 30 km evacuation zone around the
reactor, but many of them entered the zone two years after the accident. Comparisons are made
between cases and controls with respect to their exposure. Treatment entails surgery followed by
iodine-131 therapy for any metastases. Such work can yield a more direct measure of the risk posed
by low doses of radiation. Current research projects are investigating Germanium beta-gamma
coincidence detectors for application s in radioxenon detectors, which hold further advantages over
present radioxenon detectors. Register for a free account to start saving and receiving special
member only perks. Others have half-lives of days (for example, 131 I) or years (for example, 90 Sr,
and 137 Cs). Understanding the nature of those various measures of comparative risk is important for
comprehending epi-. These studies generally involve large samples, compare multiple outcomes
(different causes of death or disease), are the least susceptible to bias, and examine changes in
outcome patterns over time, so they are considered the most informative studies. For example, Cohen
(Cohen, 1995) has attempted to link average radon exposures in US counties to county lung-cancer
rates. This is the result arrived at independently by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences
Committee on Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (NASC Report, 1990, p. 55) and the United
Nations Scientific Committee on Effects of Atomic Radiation(UNSC Report, 1988, p. 21). There are
other units to represent radiation exposure. However, because the risks of radiation-induced disease
are generally low at the exposure levels of concern in RECA populations, in most cases it is unlikely
that exposure to radioactive fallout was a substantial contributing cause of cancer. Inhaled radon is
rapidly exhaled whereas radon decay products can deposit in the airways. Linear energy transfer,
LET, is a measure of the rate of energy loss and therefore ionization along the track of a particle.
This design is also referred to as a prevalence study. I am searching for the following four original
papers. High voltage devices like the x-ray machines are used to produce radiation. It differs,
however, in that most clinical rules are applied prospectively to predict the likelihood of an outcome
or event whereas the PC is applied retrospectively to analyze the likelihood that a known cancer was
caused by radiation. Thus, isotopes with short half-lives decay rapidly and those with long half-lives
decay more slowly. After final analysis, it was determined that the maximum dose of radiation
received by a. An absorbed dose can be delivered by any type or combination of types of radiation in
any type of material. V, E. Use of radioactive materials and X-rays Retrieved June 2, 2009, from.
Marked destruction of bone marrow, lymph nodes and spleen causes decrease in blood cells
especially granulocytes and thrombocytes. It does not measure each particle but describes the energy
deposited in a specified region. Later, in 1998 the Aviation safety Research Act brought out
recommendations on the airworthiness of old aircraft and unsafe human practices. Such effects,
which are not peculiar to radiation, occur randomly with frequencies and probabilities that increase
with increasing dose. Other represents the contribution from man-made sources of ionizing radiation,
such as the nuclear-power industry and consumer products (for example, smoke detectors, CRT
monitors, porcelain, and tobacco). The best fit curve using the data for solid tumors at high and
intermediate doses for the atomic-bomb survivors is linear and the extrapolation to low doses is
considered to be conservative such that it does not underestimate the low-dose risk (Pierce and
Preston, 2000). Even where dosimeters were used, dosimetric procedures varied.
Although the cohort study is often described as prospective, there are also retrospective or historical
cohort studies where the cohort and its exposures are defined from records. OHRP’s IRB guidebook
does not even offer CFR regulations that must be reviewed or answered. The article also discusses
the effectiveness in terms of side effects found in IMRT and 3D conformal treatment techniques.
One property is the type of particles emitted, and another is the energy of the particles emitted. It is
this excess mass or energy that is called as radiation. Experiments list: OT-19 Radioisotope studies at
the Fernald State. Thus, 1 WLM is equivalent to 1 WL for 170 h, 2 WL for 85 h, 5 WL for 34 h, and
so on. The RRs for solid cancers appear to increase to a plateau at about 25 years after exposure and
to remain at that level for an extended period—possibly for life, depending on the type of cancer.
Blackbody radiation the term black body was introduced by gustav kirchhoff in 1860. 2 paper on
special relativity by einstein. Some workers are thought to have been given more accurate estimated
doses than others. Recent tests (1997) have shown that caesium-137 levels in trees of the area are
continuing to rise. As is discussed later in this chapter, attribution of cancer in general or of specific
cancer types to radiation therefore must depend on the observation of statistical differences between
their frequencies in populations exposed and those not exposed to radiation (other than background
exposures). Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it
easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website. This design, however, is
expensive, and it generally takes a long time for cases to accumulate, particularly in a cancer study.
In other words, radiation can be electromagnetic or particulate. In ve papers 1897 1899 planck tried
to explain the origin of irreversibil ity in the physics of thermal radiation. 3 paper on general relativity
by einstein. In recent years, when these analytic likelihoods (PCs) have been applied to individuals,
they have been called the assigned share (AS) of the risk, and the sum of all such assignments (base
plus excess) equals unity. The author outlines that there is very less confusion on the view of the
public that radiation is very hazardous to human health. This often leads to the breaking of the bonds
and hence the molecules. Upload Read for free FAQ and support Language (EN) Sign in Skip
carousel Carousel Previous Carousel Next What is Scribd. Such an association has been termed the
probability of causation (PC), although it expresses strength of association rather than a mechanism
of causation. Now place in the second selve the thinnest lead shield and take a reading. Over
300,000 people were resettled because of the accident; millions lived and continue to live in the
contaminated area. For the purposes of this definition, 1 month is considered to be 170 h. I'm just a
student and novice writer so go easy on the criticism please. When used in this way, they are most
often intended to kill cancerous tissue, reduce the size of a tumor, or reduce pain For example,
radioactive iodine is frequently used to treat thyroid cancer, a disease that strikes about 11,000
Americans every year. This allows doctors and dentists to spot broken bones and dental problems. X-
rays and other forms of radiation also have a variety of therapeutic uses. While some forms of
radiation are useful or beneficial, other forms, particularly high-dose radiations, are associated with
adverse biological effects. This category includes radiation-induced cataract, fibrosis, fibrovascular
atrophy, thyroid dysfunction, and effects in an exposed embryo or fetus. Report on search for human
radiation experiment records.
In time, such mutations may result in other adverse health effects, primarily cancer. One millirem of
the radioactive exposure corresponds to being struck by approximately 7 billion particles of radiation
(Novick 1969, p. 90). During the Three Mile Island accident, average exposures in the surrounding
area (President Commission Report, 1979) were 1.2 mrem. For each millirem of radiation we receive,
our risk of dying from cancer is increased by about 1 chance in 4 million. The nature of these effects
and their severity are related to the radiation dose to the embryo or fetus and the period of the
pregnancy (gestation) in which the exposure occurred (Brent, 1999) (see Chapter 7 ). Furthermore,
radiation protection principles include time, dispersal, source barrier, distance, source reduction,
decorporation, personal barrier, optimal technology, effect mitigation. External emission of low-
energy beta particles, as in the decay of tritium, which is an isotope of hydrogen ( 3 H), or carbon-14
( 14 C) is not considered a health hazard, whereas external emission of high-energy beta particles
from strontium-90 ( 90 Sr) reach some regions of the body that are sensitive to radiation. National
Cancer Institute, one does not exist within OHRP. A more extensive description of these maps and
dose calculators is presented in Chapter 4. The rate at which atoms are decaying is proportional to
the number of atoms divided by the half-life. This initiates a prompt series of decays that occur
within a matter of minutes. There are two basic types of radiation, namely the ionizing radiation and
the nonionizing radiation. As mentioned earlier, uranium is radioactive and has a very long half-life.
Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever
to read thousands of publications on our website. For purposes of radiobiology and radiation
protection, the concept of absorbed dose, D, is most commonly used. Proof of the efficacy of such a
system lies within the DPRK nuclea r test of 2006. This category includes radiation-induced cataract,
fibrosis, fibrovascular atrophy, thyroid dysfunction, and effects in an exposed embryo or fetus.
Ionizing radiations originate from X-ray tubes, radioactive materials, particle accelerators, and some
also naturally exist in the environment. Independent Radiation Advisory Committee, to provide the
appropriate risk assessment for a. The CTBT offers a policy framework for nuclear event detection
and international coordination. One property is the type of particles emitted, and another is the
energy of the particles emitted. As in the case of alpha-emitters, the distribution of internal beta-
emitters depends on the chemistry of the radioactive element. A mortality study of thyroid cancer
could be biased and have marginal statistical power because most of the incident cases would be
missed. The National Cancer Institute has developed maps that show concentrations of radioactivity
deposited in the United States from fallout during the period of atmospheric. For example, radium
has chemical properties similar to those of calcium, and the alpha-particle emitter radium-226 ( 226
Ra) will accumulate with calcium in bone. The radiation exposure may also lead to somatic effect
which may be immediate or delayed. Blackbody radiation the term black body was introduced by
gustav kirchhoff in 1860. 2 paper on special relativity by einstein. RECA is related specifically to
diseases found to have an association with exposure to ionizing radiation. Exposure to external
radiation and radon decreases rapidly with distance from the tailings. This chapter will give
concerned readers an opportunity to become familiar with the terminology and concepts used in the
radiological sciences. To date, such treatment appears to have been successful in the vast majority of
cases. There is a lot of concern growing today on the ethical issues in the electric and nuclear
radiation.
In the first year after the accident, the number of cleanup workers in the zone was estimated to be
211,000, and these workers received an estimated average dose of 165 millisieverts (16.5 rem) (Hart,
2005, p. 34). The plume of radioactive debris has been said to be equal to the contamination of 400
Hiroshima bombs. Upload Read for free FAQ and support Language (EN) Sign in Skip carousel
Carousel Previous Carousel Next What is Scribd. A similar conclusion holds when the new dosimetry
system of the atomic-bomb survivors, DS02, is used (Preston et al., 2004). In contrast, Figure 3.3
illustrates a hypothetical situation where ERR is a constant 0.50; that is, RR is 1.5 for all ages above
40 y, before which lung cancer is extremely rare. Instructor Submission Date The Radiation Safety
Radiation is a term commonly used in physics. It differs, however, in that most clinical rules are
applied prospectively to predict the likelihood of an outcome or event whereas the PC is applied
retrospectively to analyze the likelihood that a known cancer was caused by radiation. The final
product, uranium oxide (U 3 O 8 ), often called yellowcake, is used for the production of weapons or
as fuel for nuclear reactors. Use the equipment to count the amount of radiation detected in one
minute. There are difficulties, however, in conducting cancer-incidence studies in the United States.
Weapons are designed to generate enough fissions to initiate an explosion in a fraction of a second
following detonation. Radon is an inert gas that escapes from the rocks and begins to accumulate in
the mine. Thus, for the range of doses estimated for the great majority of environmental and
occupational exposures, no increase in deterministic noncancer effects is expected. The main effect of
the bomb was the direct radiation from the gamma blast. In this report, the cancers and diseases are
sufficiently rare that any cited OR is considered to be a good estimate of RR. Those values need to
be considered in the context of a background lifetime risk of about 15% of dying as a result of one
of the cancers listed as being radiogenic in RECA. Survivors experience keloids, ophthalmological
disorders, blood dyscrasis, malignant tumours, and psychoneurological disturbances. In
epidemiologic studies, AR is often discussed in terms of the difference in risks or rates, in contrast
with RR which is a ratio of risks or rates. The risk of radiation-induced lung cancer is related to the
exposure in WLM. However, radioactive materials can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion,
or transfer through cuts and wounds. Epidemiology is the study of determinants and distributions of
disease in human populations. Radioactivity taken into the body persists until it decays away or the
radioactive element is eliminated from the body. Indeed, the IRB is entirely dependent upon this
committee to. The four types of epidemiologic studies commonly used in radiation research are
cohort, case-control, cross-sectional, and ecologic designs. Disruption to central nervous system,
bone marrow, intestinal tract. Sources of background radiation can be outside the body (external
radiation) or inside the body (internal radiation). An increased incidence of thyroid cancer among
children in areas of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia affected by the Chernobyl accident has been firmly
established as a result of screening programs (Hart 2005, p. 102) and, in the case of Belarus, an
established cancer registry. The emitted particles are a form of radiation originating from
radioactivity. The remaining byproduct is called depleted uranium and is almost exclusively 238 U.
Radiation-induced atrophy of the endocrine glands including the pituitary, thyroid and adrenal
glands. However, few of the many interactions that occur result in DNA damage, because most of
the free radicals disperse and deposit their energy without interacting with DNA.
By 2000, the FAA set up the safety Management System to develop and implement a
comprehensive policy on aviation safety taking various factors into account that affect the aircraft's
performance both in the air and on the ground. Apart from this feared disease, the other significant
impact of low-level radiation is the genetic disorders (in case if the affected cells are the reproductive
ones) which can range from color blindness to mongolism (Bertell 2000, p. 150). Other effects of
radiation include developmental abnormalities among children exposed to radiation in uterus. A
similar conclusion holds when the new dosimetry system of the atomic-bomb survivors, DS02, is
used (Preston et al., 2004). NCRP Report No. 138. College of William and Mary, Chemistry
Department RMIT University, Department of Medical Radiations Science. In some cases,
particularly with internal emitters, only one or two organs receive a dose, and the other organs are
not at risk. Keep on browsing if you are OK with that, or find out how to manage cookies. The
shadow of the pencil is revealed because most light has enough energy to pass through the paper,
but the denser pencil stops all the light. I131 ablation therapy using different doses as determined by
postoperative thyroid scan uptake. It is naturally present in our environment and has been since the
birth of this planet. Apparent improvement for about two weeks thereafter. Atoms are divisible into
particles, such as electrons, protons, and neutrons. To understand the problem better we have to
know what radiation is and how dangerous it can be. The information regarding these experiments
(Robert S. In addition, the paper will explore in great detail the history as to the naming of the
cancer and the specific parts of the body it affects. Fallout can be responsible for both external and
internal exposures of people in the vicinity. View black body radiation research papers on
academiaedu for free. Since this inconsistency may be confusing to the reader of the committee’s
literature review, we will adopt the convention of reporting the SMR as a ratio, regardless of the
metric used by the author(s). Virtually all lung-cancer and pancreatic-cancer studies are mortality
studies, because these cancers are often rapidly fatal. Analytic studies can then be used to test the
hypotheses and to estimate exposure-specific risks of disease or death. In recent years, when these
analytic likelihoods (PCs) have been applied to individuals, they have been called the assigned share
(AS) of the risk, and the sum of all such assignments (base plus excess) equals unity. By continuing
we’ll assume you’re on board with our. The rate at which atoms are decaying is proportional to the
number of atoms divided by the half-life. On December 3, 1984, a Union Carbide plant in Bhopal,
India leaked 40 tons of toxic methyl isocyanate gas, which killed at least 15,000 people, and injured
anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000 others (Hart, 2005, p. 15). The good news is that normal cells are
more likely to recover from the effects of radiation. These atoms release excess mass or energy in an
attempt to gain stability. Because radon is a noble gas, it can escape from the sands and is a potential
route of exposure of persons residing near the mill or of exposure later when the tailings are used for
construction or landfill around homes. The risk of radiation-induced lung cancer is related to the
exposure in WLM. Marked destruction of bone marrow, lymph nodes and spleen causes decrease in
blood cells especially granulocytes and thrombocytes. The Chernobyl incident has also been
compared to the Bhopal disaster. Cancer and the Carcinogenic Effect of Radiation Cancer is a
collective term used to describe many types of malignant diseases.