Ore Geology Reviews, 4 (1989) 231-273 231

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands

THE STRUCTURE OF SHEAR-RELATED, VEIN-TYPE GOLD

DEPOSITS" A REVIEW

C. JAY HODGSON

Department of Geological Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, Ont. K7L 3N6 (Canada)

(Received July 29, 1986; revised and accepted November 12, 1987)

Abstract

Hodgson, C.J., 1989. The structure of shear-related, vein-type gold deposits: A review. Ore Geol. Rev., 4: 231-273.

The structure of vein-type gold deposits is defined by the shapes and geometrical relationships of mineralizedbodies,
the form of the mineralization making up these bodies, and the sequence of vein-forming events. Most mineralized
zones occur within, or are spatially associated with shear zones, especially shear zones in larger systems of intersecting
shear zone sets. They range in shape from tabular to linear, and in form from disseminated, to breccia, to stockwork
or sheeted veinlet zones, to single veins. There typically is a complex history of mineral deposition which overlaps,
and is genetically related to, the deformation that generated the host structural zone. The purpose of this paper is to
consider the structural features of vein-type deposits in relation to the geometrical properties and evolution of vein-
hosting fractures, particularly shear zones. The evidence indicates that veins are localized by tectonically-generated
dilatancy in an environment of low mean stress caused by high fluid pressure. It is proposed that a major cause of
tectonic dilation of shear zones is the interference between intersecting shears during bulk, inhomogeneous flattening
by movement on systems of intersecting shear zone sets.

Introduction eralized system, within the mineralized body.

This paper is concerned only with epigenetic
mineralization, formed by the localized precip-
itation of ore and associated gangue minerals
from hydrothermal fluids in, and adjacent to,
permeable fracture systems generated by tec-
tonic processes. Most zones have a tabular
shape, but some are curviplanar, such as saddle
reefs in fold hinges, or are linear, such as bodies
of mineralization formed at fracture intersec-
tions. The deposits are referred to loosely as
vein-type deposits although strictly defined,
veins are tabular mineralized bodies. The term
vein-type deposit is used without implications
as to the ratio of host rock constituents, to con-
stituents introduced from outside of the min-
There appear to be all gradations from miner-
alized bodies consisting dominantly of host rock,
with minor disseminations of introduced min-
erals, through zones of intensely altered and
mineralized rock, to bodies of replacement or
fissure-filling origin consisting almost entirely
of introduced minerals (i.e., veins, sensu
stricto). Only vein-type deposits of gold are
considered. However, geometrically similar de-
posits are important sources of a large number
of other mineral commodities, including tin,
lead, zinc, copper, silver, uranium, fluorite and
platinum.
A clear distinction, based on scale, is drawn
between the geometrical features of mineral-
ized zones (termed here the "shape" of the

0169-1368/89/$15.40 © 1989 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

232

1 zone), and the geometrical features of the min-

eralization which makes up the zones (termed
here the "form' of mineralization). The form of
mineralization in vein-type deposits of gold is
highly variable, as a result of variations in host
rocks and the conditions of mineral deposition.
Most zones of vein-type gold mineralization
are spatially associated with planar zones of
highly deformed rocks, commonly referred to as
shear zones. Bedding-controlled dilational
zones in folds commonly are associated with
limb-thrusts. The form of mineralization in
shear zones in many areas (e.g., Ferguson and
Gannett, 1932; Chace, 1949; MacGeehan and
Hodgson, 1982; Guha et al., 1983 ) indicates that
1
the emplacement of mineralization and the de-
velopment of the shear zone overlapped in time
(Fig. 1). Because of this spatial and temporal
relationship of vein-type mineralization to
shear zones, it is important to understand the
geometrical properties of shear zones and the
conditions under which they form.

Shear zones and associated structures

Fig. 1. Reconstruction of overlapping sequence of brittle- Some mechanical principles

ductile shearing and vein-forming dilation in a part of the
A Zone, a multistage, approximately foliation-parallel vein
system comprising up to eight, dominantly crustiform car-
bonate veins with auriferous, quartz-rich central zones.
Campbell Red Lake mine, Red Lake, Ontario. The oldest
vein (1) predates much of the flattening in the host shear
zone, and may have been part of an early-formed extension
vein system. Based on 1:24 scale mapping (MacGeehan and
Hodgson, 1982 ).
The structural processes which cause inho-
mogeneous strain in rocks are of critical impor-
tance to the understanding of vein-type depos-
its, since most are localized in zones of
anomalous strain and are emplaced syn-tecton-
ically. The following sections review briefly

C.J. Hodgson obtained the degrees of B.Sc. in 1957 and M.Sc. in 1960 from McGill Uni-
versity, Montreal, and was awarded the degree of Ph.D. by the University of California,
Berkeley, in 1965. Until 1972 he worked in mineral exploration in the northwestern Cana-
dian Cordillera with the Anaconda Company and Amax Exploration, Ltd. He joined Queen's
University, Kingston, Ontario, in 1972 and is an associate professor in the Department of
Geological Sciences.
 233

some mechanical principles of rock deforma- minimum shortening (or maximum elonga-
tion which are relevant to the discussion. tion) (X axis). Change in shape can be caused
by rotation, defined by the angular rotation of
Stress and strain markers in the body, and termed simple shear,
Strain, or the change in shape of a body, can or by irrotational strain, termed pure shear, or
be described in terms of a strain ellipse with by a combination of the two. In naturally de-
orthogonal axes of maximum shortening (Z formed rocks, we see only the end result of the
axis), intermediate shortening (Y axis) and deformation process, the finite strain. The state

increasing pressure, temperature ;-

increasing pore fluid pressure, 0"2,strain rate =

compression
0-1~ 0.2 ~ if'3

0'3
!' 0"3

0"1
I / '7
//

torsion
f i t > 0"2 ~ 0.3 /
i
f

_i

~ 0.3
extension 0" 1

0"3< 0"1 ~ 0"2

--V

increasing pressure, temperature

2:1 t-. increasing pore fluid pressure, a2, strain rate ,u

,~.=_
typical
.= ,-.
stress-
strain
curves
.o.~,
~fracture /
typical .=_
permanent
strain before <1 1-5 2-8 5-10 >10
fracture or
faulting (~)

relative = = = --
ductility brittle transitional ductile
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the transition in behaviour from brittle fracture to ductile flow for different loading states
and conditions of mean stress (pressure), pore fluid pressure (a2), strain rate and temperature. Sequence of five figures on
each row in top part of diagram show diagrammatically the shape-distortion and fractures developed in laboratory test
specimen as a result of experimental deformation under the indicated conditions. In lower part, stress is plotted on the
vertical axis and strain on the horizontal; the vertical ruling in the right three diagrams indicates the range of typical stress-
strain curves (Heard, 1976).
234
of stress in a body can be described in terms of
three, mutually perpendicular principle stress
axes, termed the axes of maximum stress (al
axis), intermediate stress (a2 axis) and mini-
m u m stress (a3 axis), respectively. A principle
stress is defined as the force, per unit area, act-
ing normal to a plane in the body across which
there is no resolved shear stress.
The general patterns of deformation which
result when rocks are experimentally deformed
are summarized in Fig. 2. If the mean stress and
temperature are low, or if pore pressure or strain
rate are high, rocks normally fail by the devel-
opment of extension fractures oriented parallel
to the maximum principle stress, al. As the
mean stress or pore presure a n d / o r tempera-
ture are increased, or the pore pressure and/or
strain rate are decreased, tensile fracturing gives
way to shear fracturing and this, ultimately, to
ductile flow. It should be emphasized, however,
T Coulomb Failure
\ of the material. The point P gives, by this construction, the
T°=2~I ~ Griffith Failure
I ,~~ Envelope
0~2(Y)
~(x)
(Y)~ 0~3
(Y) (Y2
that the distinction between fracturing (or
brittle behaviour) and flow (or ductile behav-
iour) is scale-dependent, and in this case refers
to the mechanical behaviour of the materials on
the laboratory test-specimen scale. Even the
deformation of ductile metals, if viewed on a
small enough scale, can be seen to be made up
of minute, discrete, catastrophic (i.e., brittle)
movements of individual dislocations within the
metal grains (Gordon, 1976).
In perfectly homogeneous, mechanically iso-
tropic materials, the inclination of shear frac-
tures to principle axes of applied stress, and the
specific conditions of differential stress under
which shear and extension fractures will form,
can be predicted from the material properties
and the mean stress at the time of deformation,
according to the Coulomb or to the Griffith fail-
ure criteria. These relationships can be illus-
Fig. 3. Relationship of fractures to applied stress. (a) Mohr
construction, showing the Griffith and Coulomb criteria
for brittle failure for plane strain, al and a2 are maximum
and minimum principle stresses, z is the shear stress, at is
the tensile strength of the material, ~ is the angle between
the plane and al, ~ is termed the angle of internal cohesion
combinationof normal stress across a plane, and shear stress
parallel to it, for the values of principle stress represented
by the Mohr circle. % is the shear strength of the material
for the condition that al is equal and opposite in sign to a3.
The envelopes represent the locus of normal stress and shear
stress acting on a plane for fracture failure, according to the
Coulomb and Griffith failure criteria, for the material. Fail-
ure will be by shear fracturing if P is on the envelope to the
right of the Y axis, and by extension fracturing if P is on
the left of the Y axis. Note that for failure in tension, the
mean stress (al + a J 2 ) must be low, which for rocks at
deeper crustal levels, requires that the pore pressure be high
(c.f., Fig. 2). (b) Block and stereo diagram representation
of conjugate shears intersecting at ~ 60 ° about al for the
condition of no strain along the intermediate or Y strain
axis (the conditions of plane strain represented by the Mohr
construction, a). (c) Block and stereo diagram represen-
tation of four sets of shears that can accommodate three-
dimensional strain. Note that the shears form an ortho-
rhombic symmetrical pattern with the principle strain and
stress axes, but that none intersect in a principal strain or
stress axis. Arrows indicate slip direction on both dia-
grams. (b) and (c) from Reches (1983).
 235

trated, for the case of two-dimensional or plane
strain, on the Mohr diagram (Fig. 3a). The
Mohr construction predicts two shear planes
inclined at about 30 ° to al, and intersecting in
a2.
In the field, shear zones consisting of schist
(brittle-ductile or ductile shears; see classifi-
cation, below) tend to be inclined at about 60 °
to the normal to the observed plane of maxi-
mum flattening, and inferred maximum prin-
ciple causative stress (Ramsay, 1980), not 30 °
like brittle shears in experiments and as pre-
dictedby the Coulomb failure criteria (Fig. 3a).
Wilson et al. (1985) have suggested that under
conditions of high mean stress, above some
critical value, materials fail at lower values of
shear stress than they do at low mean stress and,
in addition, the angle of shear fracture intersec-
tion about al increases above ninety degrees.
They concluded that shears inclined at a high
angle to a~ are formed under high mean stress
conditions. However, Cobbold et al. (1971), and
Harris and Cobbold (1984) noted that shears
form at a low angle to the layering in experi-
mentally deformed, mechanically anisotropic
materials and analogous foliated rocks under
shears is common in shear zone systems
(Reches, 1978).
The role of mechanical heterogeneities and
anisotropy
Most rock bodies are mechanically inhomo-
geneous and anisotropic, due either to the de-
formation process (e.g., deformation-induced
zones of softening), or to previous deforma-
tions or other rock-forming processes (e.g., ear-
lier-formed fabrics, bedding). Mechanical het-
erogeneities range in scale from: lattice
dislocations at the submicroscopic scale; to dif-
ferences in the strength, solubility, orientation,
etc., of grains at the microscopic scale; to dif-
ferences in the mechanical properties of beds,
bedding planes and fabrics at the mesoscopic
scale; and to differences in the mechanical
properties of map units at the macroscopic scale.
Therefore, it is pertinent to consider the con-
ditions for shear and extension fracture devel-
opment, in anisotropic and inhomogeneous rock
bodies.
The problem has been addressed by Blot
XA
A

conditions of low mean stress. Although they

offer no explanation for the observation, it is
inferred that the effect of the anisotropy is crit-
ical. Thus, it may be the mechanically effective /
i

foliation which results in the high inclination

of ductile shear zones to the inferred al, rather \X s
than the conditions of mean stress.
Plane strain (Fig. 3a,b) represents a limiting
case in which there is no strain along the Y axis
of the strain ellipse. Oertel (1965), Reches and
Dieterich (1983) and Reches (1983) have
shown experimentally, and by geometrical
analysis, that if there is strain along Y, then a
minimum of three sets of shears, or four sets of
shears if rotational strain is specified, are re-
quired to accommodate the deformation. These
sets form an orthorhombic symmetrical pat- Fig. 4. (a) A geometrical model of strain refraction; (b) a
series of geometrically-viablerefracted strain ellipses in layer
tern, but none need intersect in the Yaxis (Fig. B from a known ellipse in layer A, where B is a weak layer,
3c). This rhomboid pattern of intersecting relative to A (Treagus, 1983 ).
236

a.

minimum Stress in weak zone

line o f a c t i o n o f
maximum compressive
~' maximum principal stress
compres.,sive
~'~ -96~ ~",. /('~ matrix

1 /"

l
1
I
0° 30° 45 ° 60 ° 90o

b. O';1Mfor formation of band

as d u c t i l e s h e a r zone

l ( ~ f o r formation of band
~" higher /as brittle shear zone

Brittle..shearsBI
related to O~1 ~ lower in band
S=Plane °f flattening \~t~'\~ I .............. ~u,;:'~;;~
in band \ \ possible orientations of oi[Mif
Matrix \ ~:i!~i:::~ b a n d pre-existing

15 ° -% ,\, ~'/~ \ / 15

Band

i \ "~-\ Ductile shears related to 0~ B

Matrix
\ Necessary orientation of O';1B
(and extension fracturesIveins)
Fig. 5. (a) Stress components a3 (minimum compressive stress), a] (maximum compressive stress) and ~ (mean stress) in
a weak band, relative to the values of these variables within a stronger matrix, as a function of the angle ~ between the line
of action of al in the matrix and the boundary of the weak band. Stresses are in arbitrary, dimensionless units. Young's
modulus in the weak band is 95% of that in the matrix. Poisson's ratio is 0.45 throughout (Casey, 1980). (b) Relation
between the line of action of a M (the maximum principal stress in the matrix) and a t (the maximum principal stress in
the weak band), showing also the orientation of acute angle about a t (brittle) and obtuse angle about a t (ductile) conjugate
shears which would be expected to form if conditions appropriate for shear failure were attained in the band. Note that the
predicted brittle shear set corresponds in orientation to Riedel shears, and the shear of the predicted ductile shear set which
has the same sense of movement as the zone as a whole corresponds in orientation to a P shear (c.f., Fig. 10). Also shown
are the orientation of alM predicted if the weak band formed as a brittle and as a ductile shear. Note that the band does not
have to form as a shear or show any special orientation, relative to the stresses in the matrix, for the indicated structures
within it to form as shown. Based on relationships described by Casey (1980).

( 1965 ), Cobbold et al. (1971), Cobbold (1977), deformation process, there is a relationship be-
Casey (1980) and Treagus (1983). They have tween: (1) the mechanical properties of the
shown that in any equilibrium (i.e., reversible ) material being deformed; (2) the magnitude and

orientation of the strain; and (3) the magni-
tude and orientation of the principle stresses.
In mechanically inhomogeneous bodies con-
sisting of parts with different mechanical prop-
erties, the state of strain will vary in the me-
chanically different parts. However, in order for
strain to be compatible across the boundary be-
tween adjacent parts with different mechanical
properties, and in order for the stresses to be in
equilibrium across such boundaries so that all
moments and forces are in balance in the body,
the stress must also vary from part to part, gen-
erally in both orientation and magnitude. Trea-
gus (1983), for example, has shown how the
phenomenon of refraction of cleavage in lay-
ered rocks, where the layers have mechanically
different properties, is a requirement of strain
compatibility between the layers (Fig. 4). Casey
(1980) has applied the same reasoning to mod-
eling the orientation and magnitude of the
stresses within a mechanically weak zone in a
matrix of stronger material (Fig. 5). These
principles are applied below to the understand-
ing of the geometrical features of mineralized
structures.
The role of fluids
Fluids have a major influence on deforma-
tion. High fluid pressure tends to neutralize load
pressure so that brittle deformation styles de-
velop in rocks buried at great depth. This is the
effect of fluids referred to in Fig. 2, and is termed
the effective stress effect (Terzaghi and Peck,
1948). Increase in ductility can be caused by
metamorphic or metasomatic mineral reac-
tions which depend on fluids. Dynamic recrys-
tallization of strained grains, a ductile process,
is strongly catalyzed by water. Fluid flow
through dilatant zones generated by deforma-
tion can also transport heat into a deformed
zone, promoting ductility-enhancing mineral
reactions. These effects are termed hydrolytic
weakening ( Griggs, 1967).
Classification and characteristics of shear zones
S h e a r zones are c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y specific
237
types of fabrics and small scale structures
(cleavages, lineations, small folds, etc.) and
certain rock types (fault gouge, mylonite-series
rocks, schists, etc.). They commonly occur in
systems comprising systematic sets of shear
zones. A three-fold division can be made of the
geometrical features of shear zones and shear
zone systems: (1) internal features of shear
zones, comprising the microscopic to meso-
scopic fabrics and structures, visible in thin
section and handspecimen, developed inter-
nally within shears; (2) external form of shear
zones, comprising the macroscopic shear and
related fractures, visible on the hand specimen
to map scale, which in aggregate make up a sin-
gle shear zone; and (3) external form of shear
zone systems, comprising patterns displayed by
sets of intersecting shear zones of a shear zone
system, visible on the detailed to regional map
scale.
The geometrical patterns of structures inter-
nal to shear zones (1 and 2, above), and the
patterns of shear zones in a shear zone system
(3, above), are commonly similar. At all scales,
the characteristic pattern is anastomosing do-
mains of high deformation separating rhom-
boid domains of low deformation (Bell, 1985 ).
Classification
Ramsay (1980) has classified shear zones into
brittle, brittle-ductile and ductile types on the
basis of the shear zone or fault rocks, and the
nature of the offset across the zone (Fig. 6).
Brittle shears are characterized by gouge and
fault breccia, and displacement markers show
*\\< \
x \x .
BRITTLE BRITTLE- DUCTILE
DUCTILE
Fig. 6. Classification of shear zones {Ramsay, 1980).
238

abrupt offset across the zone. Brittle-ductile
shears are zones of schist or mylonite-series
rocks across which there is both continuous and
discontinuous offset of external markers,
whereas ductile shear zones are characterized
by mylonite series rocks and continuous offset
of external markers. The discontinuous offset
in brittle-ductile shears is along discrete slip
surfaces.
Internal features of shear zones
A recently suggested terminology of fault or
shear zone rocks is given in Fig. 7. Grain-size
reduction due to syntectonic recrystallization
associated with ductile strain or crystal-plastic
processes (Wise et al., 1984) and grain fractur-
ing where dislocations pile up along glide planes
(Mitra, 1978) is characteristic of ductile and
brittle-ductile shear zones developed in mod-
erate- to coarse-grained crystalline rocks. The
resulting rocks are generally referred to as pro-
tomylonites, mylonites or ultramylonites, de-
pending on the degree of grain size reduction
involved (Fig. 7), although the use of these
terms is controversial (Wise et al., 1984).
In the schists of ductile and brittle-ductile
shears, there is typically one dominant fabric
which bends from about 45 ° to the shear zone
boundary at its margin, to subparallel to the
zone in its central part (Ramsay and Graham,
1970; and see Fig. 8). This fabric is parallel to
the plane of flattening of the rocks (as indi-
cated by strain markers like clasts in fragmen-
tal rocks), and is commonly termed the "S"

HERENT BUT UNFOLIATED ROCKS PRODUCED BY MICRO- AND/OR MACRO-FRACTURING AND SHOWING LITTLE OR NO
ALLY PRODUCED THERMAL EFFECTS.

/ N.~OLIATED, BUT WITH SOME FRICTIONALLY PRODUCED GLASS CEMENTING A MICROBRECCIA.

~MATRIX PRODUCED BY SYNTECTONIC CRYSTAL-PLASTIC PROCESSES, HAS AT LEAST

MIIdNI~ MVI t=tMITI~ I~l"tli,l~TI/"~M t I"rT! I= mrrOVERY, AND ALMOST NO ANNEALING,
5TS, SURVIVOR MEGACRYSTS COMPRISE

-'CTONIC CRYSTAL-PLASTIC PROCESSES,

Y, POSSIBLY WITH SOME ANNEALING.
.IATION COMMON. WITH APPROPRIATE
S, SURVIVOR MEGACRYSTS COMPRISE
IE ROCK.

Z
T ICED BY SYNTECTONIC CRYSTAL-PLASTIC
SHOWS PERVASIVE RECOVERY, POSSIBLY
NSIVE ANNEALING. SURVIVOR MEGACRYSTS
: LESS THAN tO% OF THE ROCK. MATRIX
ARE LESS THAN O-SMM IN DIAMETER.

ASIVE RECOVERY, INCLUDING ANNEALING

;YNTECTONICALLY PRODUCED MATRIX WITH
TRIX GRAINS INCREASING ASOVE O.SMM.
"GACRYSTS MAY INVOLVE SYNKINEMATIC OR
NNEALING GROWTH, EITHER AS NEOCRYSTS
3R AS OVERGROWTHS ON PORPHYROCLASTS

It. MATRIX RECRYSTALLIZATION INCREASES

AVERAGE GRAIN SIZE TO EQUAL OR
0 XCEED THAT OF THE PROTOLITH.

b--
o5 ~

-'~
STICK-SLIP FAULT
MOTION (SEISMIC)
STABLE SLIDING
(ASEISMIC)

RATE OF RECOVERY )

Fig. 7. Terminology of fault- and shear zone-related rocks. Horizontal and vertical scales are variable, depending on com-
position, grain size and fluids (Wise et al., 1984).

fabric. Mechanisms, such as pressure solution
and recrystallization, and rotation of individual
inequant mineral grains into the plane of finite
flattening, are generally considered the causes
of S fabrics. A second fabric in the form of dis-
crete, spaced zones of mineral alignment and
reduced grain size (due to mylonitization) par-
alleling the shear zone boundary is common in
shear zones (Berthe et al., 1979a; and see Fig.
8). These spaced zones are small slip surfaces
within the larger shear zone, and are termed "C"
shears, from the French word ciscaillement,
which means shear. The C and S fabrics do not
normally show cross-cutting relationships;
rather, the S fabric bends into the C over a nar-
row transition zone (Fig. 8).
The bending of S into C has been interpreted
as the result of progressive rotational or simple
shear strain, and to the extent that this inter-
pretation is valid, the integrated amount of
bending of S across a shear zone is a function
of the simple shear displacement across the
zone, if no displacement discontinuities are
present (Ramsay and Graham, 1970; Ramsay,
1980). Strain in shear zones of ideal infinite
length and perfectly parallel sides must neces-
sarily involve only simple shear parallel to the
walls and/or volume change normal to the walls
(Ramsay, 1980). However, as pointed out by
Coward (1976), there is commonly a zone of
compressional pure shear at one end, and ex-
multiple
sets of ecc
boundary ecc 2
Fig. 8. Diagrammatic representation of the orientations and
mutual relations of foliations in shear zones. S -- schistosity
or flattening or shape fabric; C = shear fabric; ecc 1 and ecc
2 = conjugate sets of extensional crenulation cleavages (C'
shears or shear bands, by the terminology of Berthe et al.,
1979b), (Platt, 1984).
239
tensional pure shear at the other end, of each
side of a simple shear zone of finite length.
Therefore, if shear zones form by propagation
of their ends outwards from some localized point
of instability, they will migrate through these
end zones of pure shear so that when viewed in
their developed state, components of both pure
and simple shear strain will be observed (Cow-
ard, 1976). To the extent that there is a com-
ponent of pure shear in shear zones, the Ram-
say and Graham (1970) method for determining
displacement across ductile shear zones by
measuring the rotation of S will give displace-
ment values that are too high.
Overprinting the C and S fabrics in many
shear zones are multiple sets of extensional
crenulation cleavages (Platt, 1984); also re-
ferred to as C' fabrics or shear bands (Berthe
et al., 1979b). These cleavages form at a low
angle to the S and C fabrics in the shear zone,
and the sense of movement on them is such that
the rock is extended parallel to the C fabric (Fig.
8). Geometrically similar structures have been
generated by the experimental deformation of
layered materials in which the shear strength
parallel to the layering is low, relative to the
shear strength normal to the layering (Cobbold
et al., 1971; Harris and Cobbold, 1984). Shear
bands may be small-scale analogues of larger-
scale R and R' shears, discussed below.
In many shear zones there is a strong linear
fabric due to the intersection of C and S fabrics.
Kinematically, such a lineation is usually inter-
preted as forming normal to the direction of
simple shear or rotational strain in the rocks,
and to the direction of elongation of grains and
clasts drawn out by the simple shear process
(Fig. 9a; e.g., Berthe and Brun, 1980). How-
ever, in some areas, the intersection of C and S
fabrics is parallel to the direction of elongation
of strain markers in the rocks (Fig. 9b; e.g.,
Lister and Price, 1978; Choukroune and Ga-
pais, 1983 ). It may be, in such areas, that a lin-
ear anisotropy generated in the rock by earlier
increments of ductile strain constrained the
orientation of later increments of brittle-duc-
240

shear

••rot• "

"C" and ~S"

Fig. 9. Mechanisms for generating lineations in mylonites in an orientation (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular to the direc-
tion of simple shear strain. Lines on block top surfaces (C plane) are intersection of S on C. Modified slightly from Lister
and Price (1978).

tile strain in which the C fabric developed (Fu-
chter and Hodgson, 1986). In such cases, the
finite strain can be considered to comprise
strain increments in which the axis of maxi-
m u m elongation for the first increment is the
axis of intermediate elongation for the second.
In this regard it is significant that Reches and
Dieterich (1983) found experimentally that the
maximum and intermediate stress axes inter-
changed orientations periodically during pro-
gressive brittle yielding by shear in triaxial
compression experiments designed so that the

rate of strain along the axes of minimum and
intermediate strain in the specimen was
constant.
Slickensides recording a late, brittle phase of
movement are common on discrete slips sur-
faces in brittle and brittle-ductile shears. In the
Sigma mine of the Val d'Or area, Quebec, the
orientation of slickensides indicates subverti-
cal movement on shears, consistent with other
kinematic indicators such as the long axes of
boudinaged veins, the direction of opening of
extension veins, and the line of intersection of
C and S fabrics (Robert et al., 1983 ). Other fea-
tures which can be used to determine the sense
of simple shear are asymmetric augen struc-
tures and pressure shadows; displaced broken
grains; oblique, elongate, recrystallized grains
and subgrains; and crystallographic fabric
asymmetries, as reviewed by Simpson and
Schmid (1983). Unfortunately, strain markers
of this type are uncommon in the fine-grained
volcanic and sedimentary rocks which host most
gold deposits.
External form of shear zones
Most shear zones comprise an array of differ-
ently-oriented segments such that as a whole,
they have a complex, anastomosing geometry
with many associated branching shears and
fractures. Five main types of fractures have been
recognized in complex shear zones. These were
initially recognized in brittle shear zones (Fig.
10), but some are similar to structures identi-
fied in brittle-ductile and ductile shears (com-
pare Figs. 8 and 10).
Fractures inclined typically at about 15 ° and
75 ° to the general trend of the shear zone, and
for which the acute angle of the fractures to the
zone points in the direction of movement of the
block in which they occur, are called low angle
Riedel (R) and high angle Riedel (R') shears, re-
spectively. A set of fractures inclined at about
15 ° to the shear zone, but for which the acute
angle of intersection with the zone points in the
opposite direction to the movement of the block
in which they occur are termed "pressure" or P
241
shears. Shears which are parallel to the zone are
termed C shears. P, R and C shears have the
same sense of offset of markers across them as
the larger shear zone of which they form a part,
whereas R' shears have the opposite sense of
offset. The fifth type of fracture is the extension
fracture, symbolized T. These are oriented such
that they approximately bisect the angle be-
tween the low- and high-angle Riedel shears,
and do not have displacement across them.
Riedel, P and C shears were first identified in
the now famous experiment by Riedel (1929)
in which he put a clay cake on two boards placed
in contact, then moved one board past the other
in small increments, and observed the fractures
which progressively developed (Fig. 10). In the
initial stages of movement, the clay deformed
homogeneously, then R and R' shears formed
in an en-echelon system along a band over the
join in the boards. With more movement, P and
then C shears developed. In a more recent series
of experiments on clays in a shear box appara-
tus, Tchalenko (1968) noted that clay particles
became aligned at about 45 ° to the border of the
shear zone within the shear lenses or lithons
formed by the intersection of R and P shears
(Fig. 11). This mineral alignment Tchalenko
termed compression texture, and he likened it
to the schistosity formed in ductile shear zones
in rocks. The fracture pattern produced exper-
imentally by Riedel (1929) has been identified
by Tchalenko and Ambraseys (1970) in an ac-
tive brittle fault zone in Iran.
The formation of Riedel shears and compres-
sion texture, as described above, can be under-
stood in terms of the reorientation of stress axes
which occurs in a planar zone of weak material
(the weakening in this case being due to the ef-
fects of the deformation), in a matrix of stronger
material, as described by Casey (1980) (Fig. 5).
The R and P shears show a similar relationship
to foliation as shear bands (Fig. 10), and their
experimental analogues (Cobbold et al., 1971;
Harris and Cobbold, 1984). These fractures
correspond in orientation to the individual
shears which intersect in an acute angle about
242

R
a 100%~ ~ _ _
~ l l l W "
D = 8.9 mm
b
100% 1 aa ,m

0 ° 4 ° 8°12a16 °

D= 12.3 mm c P

,°°, 1 .
-10 ~ 4° 8° 1~6°
D= 19.5 mm 10 mm

-10 o 0 o 4° 8 ° 1Lf-~16o

D= 27.2 mm
• 100%~_
mm

-lO ° o o 4 ° 8 ° 12016 °

D= 3 6 . 0 mm

RI , T

pC
Fig. 10. Riedel experiment. Left hand set of diagrams shows fracture system which is progressively developed in clay cake
lying over join in two plates as one plate is moved in increments, relative to the other (total movement shown below each
diagram, e.g., 8.9 mm, 12.3 ram, etc. ). Right hand set of diagrams are histograms showing the inclination of fractures to the
join in the plates. Note histogram peaks at certain orientations. These correspond to R (Riedel), P (pressure) and C (dis-
placement) shears, as shown on the diagram at the bottom of the figure, and discussed in the text. T and R' on this diagram
are extension fracture and high angle Riedel shear orientations, respectively. The angle ~ has the same significance as in Fig.
3 (a) (Wilcox et al., 1973).

al (in the case of R) and the individual shears
which intersect in an obtuse angle about al (in
the case of P), and which are: ( 1 ) expected from
the orientation of the principal stress axes
within the weak zone; and (2) are those shears
of each set which have the same sense of rota-
tion as the zone as a whole (Fig. 5). With regard
to the problem, discussed above, of the effect of
anisotropy on the inclination of shears to the
principle strain axes, it is interesting that in
Tchalenko's experiment (Fig. 11), the R frac-
tures (having the orientation of brittle shears),
developed first, before significant softening and
when the compression texture was not well de-
veloped, whereas the P shears (having the ori-
entation of ductile shears), developed later,
after the compression texture had formed.
 243

" " ~.-~.~.- ~.~ "-'~""." "-'- R

.... $1 . . . .
500

Fig. 11. Structures formed in clay in a direct shear test in a shear box. P--pressure shears, R=Riedel shears, hatch-
ings = particle orientation in the zone of compression texture, white areas = particles in initial fabric attitude, shown by $1.
(Tchalenko, 1968).

n~MIN6NTI V R I M P L I= R H ~ A R

Fig. 12. Strain model showing plane strain pattern due to bulk shortening in the vertical direction and bulk stretching in the
horizontal direction by a combination of simple shear on conjugate shear zones and pure shear in the areas where the zones
intersect. Note that for three-dimensional strain, four sets of shears would be required (Fig. 3 (c)), (Bell, 1981 ).

Shear zone systems the flattening plane, and developed approxi-

A common feature of shear zones is their oc-
currence in intersecting sets forming an inter-
locking network of planar zones of high defor-
mation surrounding diamond-shaped domains
of low deformation. A group of related shear
zones of this type is referred to as a shear zone
system. As noted above, the anastomosing ge-
ometry of high strain domains within an indi-
vidual shear zone may be very similar to the
larger-scale geometry of a shear zone system.
If sets of sub-parallel shears comprising a
shear zone system have opposite senses of
movement, are symmetrically disposed about
mately contemporaneously in the same stress
regime, then the shears are termed a conjugate
system (Fig. 3b,c). The finite bulk strain which
occurs in a zone of conjugate shears must be at
least partly irrotational. Pure irrotational strain
occurs when the displacement on the conju-
gates is exactly equal and opposite. Bell ( 1981 )
termed such a deformation style, bulk, inho-
mogeneous shortening. Note that for three-di-
mensional pure shear, at least four shear sets,
potentially comprising two conjugate systems,
are necessary (Fig. 3c). In bulk inhomogeneous
shortening, mainly simple shear occurs along
the shear zones and mainly pure shear occurs
244

A B

b.

t
Fig. 13. (a) and (b) Vertical cross sections showing intersecting shear zone systems in the massive granodioritic batholith
of the Grass Valley-Nevada City gold district, California. The schistosity in the area is subvertical, which, with the dominant
trend and dip of the veins, indicates the kinematic interpretation shown for the vein-bearing fractures on the stress ellipse
in (a) with the shears intersecting in an acute angle to the direction of maximum shortening. Note, however, that the
anastomosing pattern of veins in plan on both the regional (c) and vein (d) scale indicates some component of N N W - S S E
extension, along the intermediate stress and strain axes. From Johnston, 1940.
 245

0 150 300

LEGEND

Quartz veins

[ ~ Feldspar
porphyry dykes
'oi
oQ: I Andesitic lava flows
¢2,.
I and Porphyritic diorite
J -7,

Pyroclastic rocks

3 q
...... Faults and
shear zones

,q
UJ
O
<
< 7 Z{
=J

"-I" Section
X

SURFACE MAP ""

.,~.-"" North Shear -

'. ,,,.,:.

O '\ "~'\
Z ~ ',"

VERTICAL
',
',
\ a}f---: . . . .
CROSS SECTION
Fig. 14. Vertical N-S cross section through shaft, and surface map of the Sigma mine, Yal d'Or (Robert et al., 1983). Small
strain ellipses show, in plan and section, relation of dominant steeply south-dipping shear veins and dikes, subordinate
moderately north-dipping shear veins and faults, and subhorizontal extension veins (all in solid lines) and possible conjugate
shear sets, not developed in the mine (in dashed lines). Note that the anastomosing pattern of veins and dikes in plan
indicates a component of strain along Y (see Fig. 3(c) ).

in the areas where the zones intersect (Fig. 12).
The space problem at the ends of domains of
bulk, inhomogeneous shortening are most eas-
ily resolved if the maximum finite elongation
plunges down the dip of the foliation, since the
resulting vertical elongation of the zone can be
neutralized by surface erosion (Bell, 1981).
When conjugate shear zones are developed
along a linear or planar zone, they may be dif-
ficult to distinguish from R, R', P and C shear
fractures developed in a purely rotational strain
field. The key difference is that the most com-
mon shear fractures in simple shear zones are
R, C and P shears, and these will have the same
246

rotation (Fig. 12). It also seems likely that bulk,

inhomogeneous pure shear will commonly be
three dimensional, which necessitates the de-
velopment of four shear sets, possibly compris-
ing two conjugate systems (Reches, 1983; and
see Fig. 3c). A three-dimensional, rhomboid
pattern of vein systems is shown by a compar-
Brown carbonated aodesite N
EZ] Talc-chlorite schist
ison of plan and section views in many miner-
/
Pillowed amygdaloidal andesite alized shear systems (Figs. 13 and 14), indicat-
Porphyry
Vein material ing that three-dimensional bulk, inhomoge-
30 metres '
neous pure shear may be common in such sys-
tems. In fact, the pattern of shears, and veins
within these shears, is very similar to the pat-
terns of shear fractures experimentally pro-
duced under conditions of three-dimensional
b.~,~
strain by Reches and Dieterich ( 1983 ).
As noted above, the inclination of brittle
shears to the axis of maximum shortening tends
to be near 30 ° , whereas for ductile shears, the
angle is near 60 °. Thus, the angle of intersec-
i~7 Vein / I tion of brittle conjugate shears containing the
Fault i 0 0 metres
normal to the plane of tectonic flattening is
acute for high crustal level, brittle shear sys-
tems, and obtuse for deep crustal level, ductile
Co shear systems (Ramsay, 1980). Examples of
possible obtuse angle systems are the several
gold mines illustrated in Fig. 15, the Wabigoon
subprovince of the Canadian Shield in Ontario,
• "~ o -ae.I.-r;,~-t~d Canada (Fig. 16), and the Red Lake gold camp
m l SU~l;hlde ore
~Open Cut of western Ontario (Fig. 17). An example ap-
~ Schistoslty
proximating an acute angle system is that at
o 5o Grass Valley, California (Fig. 13 ). Note that for
the Sigma mine (Fig. 14), the main veins and
Fig. 15. Mine scale intersecting shear zone systems: (a) in
dikes are in a shear fracture set at a high
the Aunor mine, Timmins area, Ontario (Buffam, 1948);
(b) in the Golden Mile Dolerite of the Kalgoorlie goldfield, ( > 45 ° ) angle to the direction of maximum
Western Australia (from Finucane and Jensen, 1953); and shortening indicated by the flat extension veins,
(c) in the Blanket mine, Gwanda, Zimbabwe (Fuchter and b u t there is a minor set of veins and shears in-
Hodgson, 1986). In each case, the plane of maximum flat- clined at a low angle ( < 45 ° ) to this axis. The
tening, as inferred fromthe schistosityand foldsin the areas,
is approximatelyhorizontal on the diagrams, i.e., the shears indicated senses of movement on these two
intersect in an obtuse angle to the direction of maximum shear sets is opposite.
shortening.
Spatial and temporal variations in shear zone
sense of displacement, which will be the same characteristics
as the displacement across the zone in which
they are contained (Figs. 10 and 11). In con- The characteristics of shear zones reflect the
trast, conjugate shears have opposite senses of temperature, pressure and fluid regime of the
 247

t ~:o .'2o ,.oo 8'8o : 8'~o

o,-
- [ <cc
< z c

"s°° i u ~" ' " ~"'% " ~::~ ""... so°-

"':: ~) ~ "" u .....

c
I 19o_
" ~'~'O I
GOLD DEPOSITS GEOLOGY

• Production of 1 , 0 0 0 - 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 o z . A u Major Faults

• Production greater t h a n 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 oz. Au Lit hologic Contact
A ~ Cluster of prospects including Metavolcanic Rocks
at least one past-producer 0 100 200Km """ .... Limit of Sub. Province
i i i

Fig. 16. Distribution of gold deposits and deposit clusters in relation to fault zones in the western Wabigoonsubprovince of
the Canadian Shield in Ontario. Only deposits with more than 1000 ounces ( ~ 31 kg) past production are shown. The fault
zones intersect in an obtuse angleto the inferred north-south direction of maximumshorteningin the area (Poulsen, 1983).

environment, as well as the rheological char-
acteristics of the host rock. Host rock theology,
in turn, depends on previous deformation his-
tory, and original lithology. The interaction of
these variables, both spatially in a shear zone
system at any one time in its development, and
temporally as conditions change at any one
place with time, may be complex. Some general
patterns are briefly reviewed as a background
to the consideration of the spatial and temporal
patterns of mineralization in shear zones.
A common spatial pattern in shear zones is
an increase in the intensity of deformation to-
wards the center of the zone (Ramsay and Gra-
ham, 1970 ). In ductile shear zones, this p a t t e r n
is manifest by a zoning in structural facies from
normal country rocks outside the zone, through
an outer zone of protomylonite, to an interme-
diate zone of mylonite, to an inner zone of ul-
tramylonite (Fig. 7). In the case of brittle
shears, the progression will be from a rock laced
with small fractures, to a fault breccia, to a cen-
tral gouge zone (Fig. 7). If a structure passes
from an incompetent lithology into a compe-
tent lithology along its length, then brittle de-
formation features commonly will occur in the
competent unit and ductile features in the in-
competent unit.
Sibson (1977) has constructed an idealized
depth-profile of a shear zone by comparing shear
zones formed in different depth-zones of re-
gional metamorphism (Fig. 18). Note t h a t the
transition from brittle to ductile features coin-
cides approximately with the temperature and
depth of the transition from sub-greenschist to
greenschist facies metamorphism.
Higgins (1971) has noted a tendency for the
superposition of an earlier and more widely dis-
tributed, higher pressure-temperature ductile
strain by a more restricted development of a
later, lower pressure-temperature ductile or
brittle strain. The later strain effects are com-
monly, but not necessarily, localized in the zone
of most intense earlier strain. The hypothetical
248

+ + + ++++ + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +
1. Cochenour Mine [~ Felsic Intrusive Rocks GRAVES ' + + + + + McDONOUGH/ BATEMAN
2. Campbe M'ne . . . . +++++TP+++++++++++++++++~:TP ~f. ~P
I I Volcanic & Seolmentsry HOCKS ~ =+ + ~ + + + / • --. +/
3. A.W. White Mine +++~./~f~--~-~ "~..~ ~/~/~/ / +
4• Howey Mine ~_ _ _ D.Z. Deformation Zone + ~
+ ~ , / ~" J/ 4"+
+ + +

1 5. Hasaga Mine - - - - - - D-.Z. Inferred 4 ++++++~/ ///~/ /~'7/ / ( + +Trout

6. Buffalo Mine : ON'c::rrence + ++ ++ +/~/ POST NARROWS D.Z. ~ / " " / ~ A ~ 4 , /++ B L I : I
7. Madsen Mine (A) McKenzie Channel ++ + +~/ Q f~, ~ ~,~/~" ,~ ~ ' .,]~'J , / + +/~+ ~+ ~
I 8. Starratt-Olsen Mine (B) McKenzie Stock + ~+. + ~ ' / + + \ )~ j/~'/.~/~ /~V// + / /+ +++
-- - - + + +~ 2" '" -- /
I 9. Lake Rowan Mine (C) Dome Stock ++ ++ +++++~ t /// / / ~ . ~ " /~{J~/. . . . . . . . . ~+ +++
10. Keeley-Frontier Mine . . . . . ,P . . . . . . +. . . . ++) t/ J / ( / , * ~ / J / =~' \\+++
+ + +++ ++++~,,~ **.+++~+.+-+-+++~o~+++- +'+~++++++'AtR~E~'b/~'__/ /~// .A~E;
+++++ +++ + +'TP + . . . . . . . . TP + . . . . . . / TPX/"ITI~-/ . ~ O ~ _ \ /'" ~ / COCHENOUR- TP,
+ + + + + + + ~ + + + + + + + + + + ~- + + + + + / --2 /'~/C~% Z" / _GULLROCK LAKE D.Z.
h + + ._.~--,.-~r-+-~4--i__÷ - ~ - - - ' ~ + + + + + . / ~ + + + + / l M f -%,,/i /
. - ,/

" ~ ' ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ .~--~ KILLALA: ~" `% +J~+\ B A I R OX'>~ F"~- L"-~--:~'~ ~"- HEYSON ~\\\\\\\'~z~ O. ~ - - BYSI'~i

/ ~" ~ + + + + + + + +\ Bay --

/ /~ - / k + + + + + + '
.a~ / K~llata.Baipd ~ ~ +~ ++ + + +~, x ~"~'-- FLAT LAKE - / ~ c.J,~
/
/
//~ Bathoiith
~ ~ ~ ~
+)% +~ + + + + + + + + '+\~ ,~'~ HOWEYBAY D.Z. /" ~'¢~,.x'~]

///9" / ". ,+++++(~++ % +++++++++++~~ ~ ~ - 1

I // ~/~
l// /
, / ~., , .
+ . +. ~. + '. .. .. .. .. .. . . /.~,'~,~ /+-~
+~.~.~: + ~,
~
-'.~" ~ I
I l i l . . ~ + + + + + + + + + + + ~ J + ~ ~ ~ I I

Fig. 17. Largescale intersectingshear zone systems,Red Lake area, northwestern Ontario. The shears intersect in an obtuse
angle to the inferred north-south direction of maximumshortening in the area. Inset map shows less intense style of defor-
mation which occurs in "undeformed"blocks between the main shears (Andrewsand Durocher, 1983, as modifiedby An-
drews and Lavigne, 1984).

~f--~ncohesiv---'e'-~ 11-4 ( aI - %) high strain-rate structures formed during the

~ ' ~ : " ~ gouge and breccia Ikm prograde regime of increasing temperature are
Cohesiv e \ : ~ . erased by later increments of ductile deforma-
r a n d.om- f a br i c ~ . . ~ - . . ~ / , tion, w h e r e a s those formed during the retro-
orush ~re~as, \~:%. 10-15 k
rocks of t h e . ' ~ m grade regime of decreasing temperature are
cata~.e s~es, ~ , ~
pseudotachyllte if dry \ ~ ' q ~ \ preserved. This may explain Higgins' (1971)
11~-3~ooc'! , ~ : ~ : I 1
1 observation t h a t brittle features are superim-
posed on ductile, rather t h a n the reverse.
Cohesive foliated rocks ~\~'~\ X~
~ ~ s \~\\ ~ ~/
. . .
& blastomylonites . . ' ~%
'~ ~'~ "
Patterns of mineralization

Fig. 18. Conceptual model of a major fault zone (Sibson, To a large degree, mineral exploration in-
1977). volves recognizing familiar patterns in incom-
plete data sets. The objective of the following
history of typical fault-related rocks, in terms section is to describe some of the common pat-
of the variables rate of strain and rate of recov- terns of mineralization related to shear zones
ery, as conceived by Wise et al. (1984), is shown and shear zone systems. Considered first are the
in Fig. 19. Note t h a t in this conceptualization, patterns of mineralization within single frac-
 249

PSEUDOTACHYLITES . form of mineralization. Finally, spatial pat-

~ \ /] PROTOMYLONITES terns of mineralization, and the common de-
velopmental sequence in multistage mineral-
BRECCIAS \ / / ized zones, is described.
/ /
Z I (B)/ / MYLONITES
- CA) ~ / / /
<
o: I ]/ i (D) / Mineralization in shear and extension fractures
oo () (
The common geometrical patterns of vein-
0 ORDINARY type mineralization are shown in Fig. 20. A
L!J METAMORPHIC
p. ROCKS classification of mineralized zones according to
Q/ the kinematic significance of the host structure
is given in Table 1. The relationship of the in-
ternal structural features of shear zones to min-
RATE OF RECOVERY eralized zones within them is shown in Fig. 21.
Of the various possibilities outlined in Table 1
Fig. 19. Hypothetical history of a typical fault-related rock
passing through a sequence of structural facies outlined in
and shown on these diagrams, the most impor-
Fig. 7 (Wise et al., 1984). tant, in terms of the proportion of mineralized
zones which are of that form, are the oblique
ture sets. Three structural environments can be shear mineralized zones. McKinstry (1948)
distinguished: mineralization within shear emphasized this when he pointed out that the
zones; mineralization in the less deformed rocks sense of en-echelon stepping of veins in normal
between shear zones; and mineralization in di- faults is most commonly like the sense of over-
lational zones related to folds. Considered sec- lapping of shingles on a roof.
ond are the patterns of mineralization related Two aspects of shear zones considered in the
to multiple sets of shear and associated exten- first part of this paper merit re-emphasis:
sion fractures, i.e. shear zone systems. Third is ( 1 ) Inhomogeneities in rocks inherited from
considered the microscopic to outcrop-scale their original volcanic, sedimentary or intru-

EXTENSION OBLIQUE CENTRAL

GASH VEIN8 SHEAR VEINS SHEAR VEIN
//

4y/i 'EY

SIGMOIDAL i'~i~ -
/

~'ll# / li ,,f(,z, Z
J i
/ ,,,' ,2V,'o.
S-TYPE SECONO OROER
/.~i¢ 2" . ~ ....... SHEAR CENTRAL
/ ~ / / ~ I~AII~N~IUN VEIN ' ,('
,'if I~ Iff. / ..

CONJUGATE
ARRAY
I , ~jr,,/Z-TYPE t/i~,//' / ¢FV"
/..,~/P'Y OBLIQUE /#;4~'Y~" j .fjlPi/ ~,,./-
i. 2, & EXTENSION Y f/f r/L _-~ t
/ ~ . ~Z'c#NEIPEDE VEIN'> ~./,~ -~"
~ - ' ~ , . ~ / ] ~ . SECOND ORDER
/~I ~t~ ~.. / ~ / j / SHEAR, OBLIQUE
//,7//:/ ".~N. " VEINS
,-/z, - - ARRAY <-'~.

Fig. 20. Common vein and vein array geometries in shear zones.
250

TABLE 1 sive environment of formation commonly exert

Classification of shear-related, structurally-controlled mineralized a strong control on the distribution of tectoni-
zones cally-formed structures, and the mineralized
Structure Vein type Notes
zones localized in these structures. The fact that
type a mineralized, highly deformed zone happens to
Shear Central shear Dilation of C shear
coincide with an original lithologic unit (e.g.,
fracture vein the ankerite veins localized in interflow sedi-
Oblique shear Dilation of P shear ments in the Dome mine, Timmins, Ontario;
vein
Holmes, 1948) does not make it any less a shear
Extension Large extension zone t h a n mineralization in a shear zone cut-
fracture veins in
ting a homogeneous granitoid (e.g., the veins of
domains
between shears the Grass Valley-Nevada City area, California,
En-echelon gash May form in initial stage of hosted by a granodiorite stock; Johnston, 1940).
vein arrays shear zone development
Ladder vein In competent unit in ductile
(2) The m a x i m u m principal stress axis
arrays matrix within a mechanically homogeneous weak zone
tends to rotate to an angle of 45 ° to the bound-
Extension + "Leather jacket" Shear veins with envelope
shear fracture veins of gash extension veins ary of the zone (Casey, 1980; see Fig. 5 ), and to
"Centipede" Extension-oblique shear an angle approaching 90 ° to the fabric within
veins vein combination
an anisotropic, mechanically weak zone (Trea-
Fold-related Saddle reef Kinematically equivalent to gus, 1983 ). This unique orientation of the prin-
zones vein-type zone at shear cipal stress axes internal to the zone occurs, ir-
intersection
Leg reef Shear vein in bedding on
respective of the orientation of the principal
fold limb stresses outside of the zone. Thus, it is common
Neck Shear vein in limb thrust to find that the internal structures developed
crossing bedding
Spur Extension vein normal to within shear zones localized in inherited weak
axial plane cleavage zones, like interflow sediment layers, including
the geometry of any contained veins, to be sim-
ilar to those in shear zones unrelated to original
lithological heterogeneities.

T Oblique and central shear vein-type zones

CENTRAL ~ ~ i"
SHEAR VEIN , ~ \ t ~ B . a u = ,-Ic Oblique shear veins are inclined to the shear
/ I N C SHEAR// "~'~i " ~ " * F~_,~'~'~ENI'NG
l N° -- zone boundaries in the same way as P shears
(Figs. 21 and 22), and they show the same sense
-- ... ~ OBLIQUE
~ ~'-~ --"'----~ E X TEN BIO
N~N~ ~ "* SHEAR of en-echelon stepping as the sense of move-
ment across the zone containing them. Thus,
oblique shear veins step to the right in right-
handed shear zones, and to the left in left-
handed shear zones (Fig. 21). Central shear
ROTATION I ~--~- - ~ - - "--] /
veins parallel C shears.
...........
~ ~ ~ S E NOOFF/\ x~-x-xx
-S' ~E'~x~"
- - ' ~ -- - " -- -
Extension veins
Extension veins occur mainly in three
settings:
Fig.21. S t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s of s h e a r z o n e s a n d a s s o c i a t e d (1) As relatively short or gash veins and
v e i n t y p e s , in r e l a t i o n to s t r a i n ellipse. veinlets, commonly with a sigmoidal shape, in
 251

J
eL

va.z ~
0 ~m.

Plan of part of the 800' level.

ROCKS

lOOm.

lOOm.

Cross section.

Fig. 22. Geological plan and section of Madsen mine, Red Lake area, northwestern Ontario, showing oblique shear veins.
The deposit is in a major (left-handed in plan, reverse in cross section ) shear zone (Andrews and Durocher, 1983 ). Simplified
from McIntosh (1948).

en-echelon arrays aligned so as to define a shear
zone, or in the walls immediately bordering a
shear zone. What may be a conjugate system of
arrays of this type, in part hosted by dikes which
occur in shear fractures, constitute the ore in
the Perron mine near Val d'Or, Quebec, Canada
(Fig. 23 ). Auriferous, en-echelon extension vein
arrays, locally known as leather jacket forma-
tions (because of their resemblance to the dec-
orative fringes on leather jackets) are aligned
along limb thrust faults localized on the east-
dipping limbs of chevron folds in the Ballerat
area of Victoria state, Australia (Fig. 24). Sim-
ilar structures related to thrusts, and involving
extension perpendicular to the steeply dipping
fabric in the Grass Valley area of California have
been called centipede veins by Farmin (1941);
(Fig. 25). Centipede veins appear to comprise
an en-echelon array of extension gash veins on
the shear border linked by short, oblique shear
veins within the shear, and so are termed Z-type
oblique + extension veins in Fig. 20.
252

cator
:es

0 50 100 150
METRES
Fig. 24. Extension vein arrays associatedwith reverse,limb
thrust faults in the Ballerat district of Victoria, Australia.
The mineralized zones are known locally as "leather jacket
formations" (Baragwanath, 1953).

• Quartz
Ej------~Dyke
~Greenstone 0 50 100
~Sheer zone metres

Fig. 23. Vertical cross section of the Perron mine, Val d'Or,
Quebec, showing conjugate extension vein arrays, shear
veins and dikes dominantly in, or associated with, reverse
shear zones related to a subhorizontally directed maximum
principle stress (kinematic interpretation shown in stress
ellipse in center). Note, however, that the orientation of
some of the dikes, shear zones and extension veins is con-
sistent with a subvertically directed maximum principle
stress (stress ellipse at top of diagram) (Ames, 1948).

A n o t a b l e f e a t u r e of m a n y e x t e n s i o n v e i n l e t s Fig. 25. En-echelon vein arrays of the "centipede" type. Note

closely a s s o c i a t e d w i t h large s h e a r zones is t h e i r
s i g m o i d a l s h a p e (Fig. 25). T h i s c a n be due to
a n i n c r e a s e in t h e a m o u n t o f s i m p l e s h e a r ro-
t a t i o n of t h e v e i n l e t t o w a r d s t h e s h e a r zone
c e n t r e ( R a m s a y , 1980), or a l t e r n a t i v e l y , c a n
reflect t h e p r o g r e s s i v e r o t a t i o n of t h e m a x i -
m u m p r i n c i p l e s t r e s s axis, el, t o w a r d s a n ori-
e n t a t i o n n o r m a l to t h e m e c h a n i c a l l y w e a k lay-
e r i n g in t h e s h e a r zone, as r e q u i r e d if s t r a i n
c o m p a t i b i l i t y is m a i n t a i n e d a c r o s s t h e s h e a r
zone b o u n d a r y ( T r e a g u s , 1983; a n d see Fig. 4).
that the long dimensions of the veinlets are composed of
segments which parallel both extension fractures and P
shears, suggesting that dilation was due to the mechanism
outlined in Fig. 36. Dash lines indicate trend of foliation.
Black and dotted pattern are vein material. Drawn from
photographs. (a) Hollinger mine, Timmins, Ontario; from
Hurst, 1935; (b) and (c) Grass Valley area, California; from
Farmin, 1941 (ladder in c is about 1 m high).
P r o b a b l y b o t h effects are r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e
s i g m o i d a l s h a p e o f veinlets.
I n m a n y m i n e r a l i z e d s h e a r z o n e s t h e r e is a n

iil
12a 12a2b 12a2b2c 1 2a2b2c2d
Fig. 26. Sequence of events in the development of typical
laddered ribbon veins in the Hollinger mine, Timmins, On-
tario. Stippled ( 1 ): early, tourmaline-bearing vein; clear (2a,
2b, etc. ): main, multi-stage, crack-seal veins; black (3): late
ladder veins (Hurst, 1935).
early set of highly deformed veins which may
have formed as en-echelon extension vein ar-
rays in the zone at an early stage in its devel-
opment, before the penetrative schistosity and
much of the strain (e.g., Yellowknife: Boyle,
1961; Kerrich and Allison, 1978; Sigma mine:
Robert et al., 1983).
(2) Short extension gash veins form ladder
vein arrays in competent rock bodies, most
commonly dikes and earlier-formed veins, but
also competent beds like quartzite beds, or ox-
ide iron formation beds, in a matrix of less com-
petent material such as the schists within a
shear zone (e.g., Sigma: Robert et al., 1983;
Dome: Holmes, 1948; Nevoria: Phillips et al.,
1984; and see Fig. 26).
(3) Large extension veins which may form
individual mining units commonly occur in the
less-deformed blocks lying between the shears
of a shear zone system (e.g., the "flat veins" of
the Sigma and Lamaque mines: Wilson, 1948;
Robert et al., 1983; and see Fig. 14).
Mineralization in folds
The form of mineralized zones related to folds
is well illustrated by the gold veins of the Bal-
lerat-Bendigo area of Victoria State, Australia
(Fig. 27). Mineralization may be concentrated
253
in the fold hinge (saddle reefs), along a bed-
ding-parallel fault zone on a fold limb (legs),
along limb thrust faults which cut across bed-
ding (necks), or in extension fracture systems
between, or in the walls of, faults (spurs). Chace
(1949) has emphasized the importance of bed-
ding-parallel faults in controlling saddle reefs,
which typically have a triangular cross-sec-
tional shape, being bounded on their hanging-
wall sides by faults parallel to bedding on the
limbs of the host fold, and on their base by a
bedding plane (Fig. 27). It appears that in ter-
rains like the slate belt of Victoria, Australia,
bedding rotation, due to progressive folding,
terminates once the bedding planes have be-
come aligned parallel to planes across which the
resolved shear stress is sufficient for shear fail-
ure to occur. At this point, further deformation
takes place by bulk, inhomogeneous shortening
on conjugate limb thrusts; it is with this stage
of deformation that the mineralization is asso-
ciated. Zones which are geometrically like sad-
dle reefs are common at the intersections of
shear zones (Fig. 28), or large-scale domains
with differently-oriented strata a n d / o r folia-
tion (Fig. 29).
/
NECK__,~1 ~
LI:u: EEF
IN:Ec KREEFS
SLATE ~ VEIN = :
QUARTZITIC QUARTZ 10 METRES
SANDSTONE ~ FAULTS
Fig. 27. Structural features and terminology of mineralized
zones associated with chevron folds (the Deborah anticline
of the M o n u m e n t Hill mine), Bendigo area, Victoria, Aus-
tralia (Chace, 1949).
254
.=='g
-f
Fig. 28. Plan and two cross sections showing simple shear zones intersecting in a zone of dominantly pure shear (see Fig.
12 ), and gold mineralized zones in the Giant mine, Yellowknife area, N.W.T., Canada
Mineralization in systems of shear zones and
related [ractures
As emphasized in the first part of this paper,
shear zones tend to occur in systems compris-
ing differently oriented sets of shears separat-
ing diamond-shaped lozenges or lithons of less
deformed rock (Figs. 13-18). A very similar
pattern of mineralized zones is evident in many
gold deposits, with the mineralization occur-
ring as shear veins in the highly deformed zones
and extension veins in the less deformed lith-
ons (Figs. 13-15). In some cases, only one set
of intersecting shears is well developed (Fig. 14 )
or is economically mineralized (Fig. 15b).
."
rientation
schistosil
O 50 100 m.
LEGEND
Massive to slightly
schistose greenstone
Shear zone, chlorite schist
Shear zone, sericite schist
M i n e r a l i z e d z o n e s < . 2 5 oz. A u / t o n
Ore>.25 oz. A u / t o n
Cana (Boyle, 1961).
However, in the latter case, high grade zones
may occur at the intersection of the mineral-
ized and unmineralized structures, suggesting
that both were present at the time of minerali-
zation, but one dilated and the other did not
(e.g., Kalgoorlie, Australia; Finucane and Jen-
sen, 1953).
An important aspect of mineralized fracture
and shear zone systems is the distribution of
gold within them. Typically, the economically
best mineralization occurs as ore shoots (also
termed chutes) which are highly elongate in one
direction within a larger planar to curviplanar
mineralized body. In most cases, ore shoots in
vein deposits are localized at the intersection of

/// ~ / J.J?.
0 5km _ ~J~ll,',
~LME'RR
LEGEND
Stratigraphic and dominant foliation trends
Facing direction
Folds with plunge
Shear zones
eea Boundary of highly carbonatized zone
Granitic rocks
Mafic and ultramafic intrusives
I Cochenour mine mineralized area
2 Campbell and Dickenson mines mineralized area
Fig. 29. Large, saddle reef-shaped zone of highly altered rock
and smaller areas of minable gold concentration in veins
and replacement bodies in the eastern part of the Red Lake
area. The alteration and mineralization are localized in the
area of intersection of domains of differently oriented rock
type contacts and contact-subparallel schistosity (An-
drews and Wallace, 1983 ).
planar zones, for example, the intersection of
conjugate shears (Yellowknife area, N.W.T.,
Canada: Boyle, 1961; and see Fig. 28), or a main
mineralized shear with cross shears having an
unknown kinematic relationship to the main
shear (Kolar Gold Field, India; Hamilton and
Hodgson, 1986), or branch shears with a main
mineralized shear (Lac Shortt mine, Quebec;
Morasse et al., 1986), or extension fractures in
a relatively undeformed domain between shears
with a shear (Sigma mine, Val d'Or, Quebec;
Robert et al., 1983). Bends in shears, as where
a shear is refracted in passing from a unit of one
rheology to a unit of another (Amador mine,
Mother Lode area, California: Knopf, 1929 ), or
255
bends in bedding, as in the hinges of chevron
folds (Ballerat area, Victoria, Australia: Bar-
agwanath, 1953; and see Fig. 27), also com-
monly control linear ore shoots.
Form of mineralization
The term "form" is used here to refer to the
microscopic to mesoscopic geometrical features
of mineralization due to mineral distribution
and orientation. Included in form are textural
features defined by the geometrical relation-
ships of mineral grains. Primary features, i.e.,
those formed during vein growth, provide im-
TP.
portant insights into the processes of vein for-
mation. Unfortunately, many aspects of the
form of mineralized veins are the result of re-
crystallization during the complex, multistage
process that appears to be characteristic of their
origin.
Classification
A classification of forms of mineralization is
outlined in Table 2. Mineralization can be ini-
tially grouped according to its origin by fissure-
filling or replacement processes. Replacement-
type mineralization can be divided, on the basis
of increasing ratio of introduced minerals to
original, rock-forming minerals, into the gra-
dational series: disseminated-, streaky dissemi-
nated- and pervasive replacement-types. It
should be emphasized, however, that the dis-
tinction between pervasive replacement and
fissure-filling may be difficult, in practice. Fis-
sure-filling mineralization (veins, sensu stricto)
can be divided, on the basis of scale, into veins
and veinlets. On the basis of internal mineral
distribution, veins and veinlets can be divided
into layered, brecciaand massive types. Fissure-
filling veins can also be grouped according to
vein mineral orientation, as outlined in Table
2.
Most mineralized zones consist of combina-
tions of these geometrically distinctive facies,
formed either in a single mineralizing event, or
more commonly, in a multistage mineralizing
256

TABLE 2

Textures of vein-type mineralization

Criteria for Major classes Special types Probable generating

classification subclasses processes
sub-subclasses
Mineral or Vein-parallel layering
rock-type Crustiform layering Open space fill
distribution Single vein-wall crust
Multiple stacked crusts
Phantom veinlets Open space fill of late cracks
Lamination Crack-seal
Sheeted veinlet zone (Listed in order of
Book texture decreasing width of scepta)
Ribbon texture
Crinkly banding Pressure solution
Vein-normal layering Open space fill
Ladder veinlets
Breccia Shattering,
Massive matrix followed by
Crustiform Matrix open space fill
Massive Various
Mineral Fibrous Crack-seal
orientation Syntaxial and continuous
Antitaxial mineral
Stretch crystal overgrowth
Foliated Mylonitization
Cockade Open space fill
Massive Various
Ratio of Disseminated Increasing
introduced/ extent of
original rock Streaky disseminated replacement of
minerals original rock
Pervasive replacement
(Replacement vein )
Ghost breccia Replacement of wall rock
Ghost banding inclusions in open space fill

event. A particularly common combination is
zones of disseminated mineralization in altered
wall rock forming envelopes on veins or zones
of veinlet mineralization, the two forms of min-
eralization generally appearing to have formed
synchronously (e.g., Robert and Brown, 1987).
In the case of massive, essentially monominer-
alic veins and veinlets, the small contrast in
colour between the later- and earlier-formed
vein material may make the recognition of mul-
tistage origin difficult. Gradations between the
major forms are common, with veins grading
into zones of multiple veinlets, and veinlets into
lenticular trains of disseminated sulfides and
gangue minerals.
Layering
Most mineralized veins show some type of
layering. Crusts on vein contacts with wall rocks
are particularly common (Figs. 30c and 31).
Progressive infilling of open fractures by suc-
cessive layers of texturally a n d / o r mineralogi-
cally different precipitate results in crustified
veins (Fig. 32a). Vugs, or cavities filled with late

a. b. ' ~A,~O~ " -' " <",~--Z_, S
] ':
:..~. 7". "<: °" ":
Fig. 30. Breccia vein textures: (a) zone of wall rock inclu-
sions on the bottom of a gently dipping, homogeneous, sin-
gle-stage shear vein; (b) wall rock inclusions in various
stages of replacement by carbonate and sericite, but not by
quartz; (c) early breccia vein phase in the development of
a shear vein system. Stippled is crust of fibrous quartz on
vein wall, intermediate zone is compositionally zoned (par-
allel to vein wall) fibrous dolomite-ferrodolomite and vein
centre (interior zone in lower left cavity) is very fine grained
"cherty" quartz: (d) brecciated white quartz cemented by
later dark quartz. (a) (b) and (d), from photographs of
veins hosted by granodiorite the Grass Valley area, Califor-
nia in Johnston, 1940; (c) from photograph of a sample of
the A-F-South C Vein system in the Campbell Red Lake
and Dickenson mines, Red Lake, Ontario, in MacGeehan
and Hodgson, 1982.
Fig. 31. Ribbon quartz-ankerite vein cut by en-echelon
phantom quartz veinlets (black). Chloritized wall rock
laminae (clear), which are crusted, and partly replaced by
ankerite (dash pattern), are separated by quartz layers
(stippled). Monument Hill mine, Bendigo, Victoria, Aus-
tralia (Chace, 1949).
257
/I
. . . . . --P"---I I I J, . b,_ ^
~ ~ I I /I I, ,
Fig. 32. (a) Crustiform vein texture. Hatched, wall rock;
clear, cyclic units of banded dolomite-ferrodolomite, each
band consisting of sheaf-like crystal aggregates flaring to-
wards vein center and generally zoned from iron-poor at
their base to iron-rich at their ends. However, within each
band, there are numerous, varve-like minor reversals and
discontinuities in the compositional zoning which can be
matched on either side of the central zone. Vein center is
filled with angular fragments of dark coloured, sulfidic, ear-
lier vein center fill (black) and polycrystalline bodies of
coarse carbonate (=pattern), which are, in part, of the vein
wall zone, in a matrix of very fine grained quartz (stippled).
All the gold and sulfides occur in the siliceous central zone;
(b) Crustified orbicular structure in dolomite-ferrodolom-
ite vein. Orbicules are finely banded as in a, and are nu-
cleated on siliceous or coarsely crystalline carbonate aggre-
gates. Last-filled interstices are fine grained quartz
(stippled) and coarse carbonate crystal aggregates ( = pat-
tern). South C-Zone, Dickenson mine, Red Lake area, On-
tario (From photographs in MacGeehan and Hodgson,
1982).
m i n e r a l s a n d lined with i n w a r d - p r o j e c t i n g
crystals, are typical o f crustified veins (Fig.
32b). Crustified t e x t u r e s are p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m -
m o n in e p i t h e r m a l vein s y s t e m s f o r m e d at shal-
low c r u s t a l levels, b u t also o c c u r in veins w h i c h
a p p e a r to have f o r m e d at relatively deep c r u s t a l
levels; for example, t h e gold veins of the C a m p -
bell a n d D i c k e n s o n m i n e s o f the R e d L a k e area
of O n t a r i o ( M a c G e e h a n a n d H o d g s o n , 1982)
a n d t h e a n k e r i t e veins o f the D o m e mine, T i m -
m i n s ( i n t e r p r e t e d b y F r y e r et al., 1979, as sea
floor c h e m i c a l s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s ) .
L a y e r i n g c a n also be c a u s e d b y o p e n i n g a n d
258
SHEAR
mm mm mm mm m mmm m m m Immmm m m m m l m mm mm i
15 cm
I I
NO G O U G E \
( ~,~,,~L CRUSHED
CRINKLY ~X
BANDING ~'/'~ \ \~. ~.
I lm I
t
RIBBON QUARTZ
Fig. 33. Relationship of ribbon banding to vein margins,
and crinkly (stylolitic) banding to ribbon banding. Note
that ribbons are truncated against vein walls which appear
to be "sealed", but may have been early faults which shuf-
fled vein segments. Vein sub-parallel faults in many areas
double vein thicknesses. "Crinkly banding" is commonly
developedin structurally complexareas like that in the lower
sketch, suggesting it originated by tectonically-induced
pressure solution of the vein. Alleghany district, California
(Ferguson and Gannett, 1932).
filling of new fractures within a vein. Such sec-
ond generation veins most commonly form
either sub-parallel (Fig. 31 ) o r sub-normal (Fig.
26 ) to the old vein walls, and often are respon-
sible for the bulk of the gold (Campbell and
Dickenson mines, Red Lake, Ontario: Mac-
Geehan and Hodgson, 1982; Bendigo, Victoria:
Chace, 1949; Sigma mine, Val d'Or, Quebec:
Robert and Brown, 1987; Erikson mine, Cas-
siar, British Columbia: Anderson and Hodgson,
in preparation). Chace (1949) has used the
term phantom veinlets for second generation
veinlets which are difficult to see because they
are mineralogically similar to the first genera-
tion veins they cut.
Very common in veins of moderate to deep
FAULT WITH
GOUGE
Fig. 34. (a) "Magpie (replacement) texture", Bendigo area,
Victoria, Australia. Massive coarse-grained quartz with
scattered fragments of slate (clear) replaced by chlorite
(=pattern) which in turn is partly replaced by quartz
(stippled); (after photograph in Chace, 1949); (b) sheeted
veinlet to book textured vein. Stippled is quartz, clear is
wall rock. No. 16 Vein, 2500 foot level, McIntryre mine,
Timmins, Ontario; (c) ribbon textured vein. Black is wall
rock, clear is quartz. No. 3 Vein, 1625foot level, McIntryre
mine, Timmins, Ontario. (b) and (c) from photographs in
Hurst (1935).
crustal origin is layering of the types termed
book texture and ribbon texture, as well as crinkly
banding. The term laminated texture has been
applied to these types of layering, to distinguish
them from crustification-type layering (Chace,
1949). Lamination is typically slightly trans-
gressive to the vein walls (Fig. 33). Book tex-
ture is gradational into ribbon texture with de-
crease in the thickness of wall rock septa
included in the vein, and into sheeted veinlet
zones with increase in the thickness of wall rock
septa (Fig. 34b,c). Crinkly banding is ribbon
texture with a stylolitic form (Fig. 33).
The septa of laminated veins commonly show
slickensides which are cut across by unde-

formed vein minerals (McKinstry and Ohle,
1949). This textural feature establishes that the
septa boundaries were once through-going shear
fractures, and were incorporated into the vein
after the slickensides developed.
In much of the older literature, the favoured
mechanism for the formation of wall rock septa
in veins was progressive replacement out from
fractures (McKinstry and Ohle, 1949). How-
ever, some geologists argued for the inclusions
being fragments of vein wall torn off in succes-
sive episodes of vein accretion by a crack-seal
process localized at the vein wall (Hulin, 1929;
Ferguson and Gannett, 1932). Modern opinion
favours the the crack-seal mechanism (Ram-
say and Huber, 1983 ). It is common for the first-
formed septa in vein centers to be thinner and
more discontinuous than the last-formed septa
near vein walls (Fig. 26), which is attributed to
progressive replacement of septa by vein min-
erals with increased time of exposure to vein-
forming fluids (Hurst, 1935). Crusts of wall rock
minerals lining wall rock septa in laminated
veins are evidence that the successively-formed
cracks filled in each of the crack-seal events
may have had widths in the order of the spacing
between the septa.
Ferguson and Gannett (1932) interpreted
crinkly banding as the result of the continua-
tion of the replacement process which caused
the progressive development of ribbon from
book texture. They also pointed out, however,
that crinkly banding may have formed by the
same process of solution and recrystallization
as stylolitic banding, which, they noted, implies
that the internal textures of veins containing
such banding would have to be interpreted as
the result of this recrystallization process, not
primary, vein forming processes. In fact, in the
light of the recognition in recent years of the
importance of pressure solution and recrystal-
lization processes in the generation of meta-
morphic tectonites, and the recognition that
moderate to deep crustal level mineralized veins
are syntectonic, it seems likely that Ferguson's
and Gannett's alternative explanation for
259
crinkly banding, not favoured by them at the
time, may be the correct one.
Breccia
Breccia veins may contain fragments of wall
rock (Fig. 30a,b,c), or previously-formed vein
(Fig. 30d), or both. In a very common type of
breccia vein, aptly termed domino veins (Chace,
1949), rectangular- to parallelogram-shaped,
tabular wall rock blocks are only slightly dis-
placed from each other, such that if the matrix
material were removed, the blocks would fit
back together again (Fig. 30c).
The matrix of breccia veins may be massive
or show crustiform layering. Crustiform tex-
tures are evidence that the interclast space of
breccia veins remained open for the length of
time required for the vein minerals to be pre-
cipitated, which limits the probable mecha-
nisms for generating dilatancy in vein deposits,
as discussed below.
Oriented mineral growth textures
A second dimension in the classification of
the form of mineralization involves orientated
mineral growth fabrics. Fibrous veins consist of
elongate mineral grains, and have been classi-
fied into syntaxial, antitaxial and stretched crys-
tal veins by Ramsay and Huber (1983; and see
Fig. 35 ). Syntaxial veins are filled with mineral
grains which are attached to, and in optical
continuity with like mineral grains in the vein
walls, and which grew inwards to the vein
centre. The vein minerals are characteristically
free of wall rock inclusions. In contrast, anti-
taxial veins are filled with minerals which are
different from those in the wall rocks, and
growth occurs by a cyclic process of cracking
and subsequent sealing by vein material at the
vein-wall contacts, resulting in bands of rock
minerals aligned parallel to the walls being in-
cluded in the growing vein. Stretched crystal
veins form like antitaxial veins, but the crack-
seal process occurs internally in the vein, which
consists of one crystal linking the broken parts
260
A Syntaxlal B Antltaxlal
- wo/l~ ~ vein~:*wotl -- 3 rnt
12-~3growth sense
C Composite D 'Stretched' crystals
Fig. 35. Principal features of the main types of fibrousvein
systems showingthe relationship of the composition and
crystallographicorientations of vein and wallrock crystals.
The black and white unstippled areas are crystals of the
same species but with differing crystallographic orienta-
tions. The stippled areas are crystals of another species,
and their crystallographicorientations are indicatedby dif-
fering intensities of stippling (Ramsay and Huber, 1983).
of a wall rock crystal on either side of the vein.
Ramsay and Huber (1983) note t h a t fibrous
veins can be divided into extension and shear
veins, on the basis of the type of fracture, shear
or extension, forming the longest dimension of
the vein, but t h a t in both types, the fibres are
oriented parallel to the extension direction, i.e.,
the X axis of the strain ellipse (Fig. 36). Min-
eralized veins elongate parallel to shear frac-
tures ("shear veins" by the terminology of both
R a m s a y and Huber and this paper) and with
laminated texture are interpreted to form by the
B C
f " ~s
cpack s ~
lines
8 h o a r vein
Fig. 36. Features of shear fibre veins. (A) shows an initial
fracture surface with irregular form due to alternating P
shear and extension sectors. (B) shows the type of fibre
geometry inducedby sliding movementson the shear sec-
tors with fibres connectingpoints originallyin contact (a-
a' ). There is often a geometricallink between fibres devel-
oped in en-ecbelon extension fissures and the shear fibres.
(C) illustrates the build up of relativelythick shear fibre
packets with increasingshear displacement. (D) showsthe
type of inclusion structure which may be developed as a
result of progressivecrack-seal activity. Note the similar-
ity to the "centipede structures" illustrated in Fig. 25
(Ramsayand Huber, 1983).
same type of crack-seal process as the fibrous
shear veins discussed by Ramsay and Huber
(1983). However, inmineralized veins, the wall
rock septa are typically inclined at very low an-
gles (Figs. 26, 33), rather t h a n at high angles
(Fig. 36) to the vein margin, and fibrous tex-
tures appear not to be common in mineralized
veins.
A foliated texture due to mylonitization oc-
curs in some veins (Chace, 1949; Sreenivas and
Sreenivasa Rao, 1966; Hamilton and Hodgson,
1986). Crustiform veins are characterized by
c o c k a d e texture, characterized by radiating
growths of crystals projecting inwards to the
vein centre. A diagnostic characteristic of crus-
tiform layering is the increase in the size of
crystals inwards towards the vein center, due to
some crystals crowding out others as growth
proceeds. A large proportion of gold-mineral-
ized veins are massive, without oriented min-
eral textures.
 261

b. lOOm ~~I~~~F
I ore~~,~
Hard
Rock~ ~ "1
Porp~

Cm
metawack~==~
, ~

300m

Fig. 37. F-Zone ore body of the McLeod-Cockshutt and Consolidated Mosher mines, Geraldton area, Ontario. The miner-
alization consists of veinlets and disseminated mineralization, as shown in (a) (from a photograph in Horwood and Pye,
1955), in a saddle reef-form mineralized zone localized on the folded contact of an albite porphyry with clastic metasedi-
ments, as shown in longitudinal section (b) and cross section (c) (Ferguson, 1967 and MacDonald, 1983 ).

Replacement textures and disseminated
mineralization
Intensity of replacement is gradational, from
zones of disseminated mineralization in only
slightly chemically modified host rocks, to zones
of pervasive replacement consisting entirely of
introduced sulfide and gangue minerals. There
are also all gradations from zones consisting
entirely of fissure-fillings to zones consisting
entirely of replaced wall rocks. For example, at
the Blanket mine, Gwanda, Zimbabwe, the
Quartz Reef, a fissure-filling vein, grades over
a narrow transitional zone at about 300 m depth,
into a zone of veinlets in altered rock, and this
into a zone of massive, replacement-type mi-
neralization. The replacement-type minerali-
zation is zoned in terms of the intensity of re-
placement, comprising a massive core of quartz-
carbonate rock with disseminated arsenopy-
rite, an intermediate zone of weakly foliated,
biotitic quartz-carbonate rock, and an outer
zone of streaky, foliation-parallel impregna-
tions and veinlets (Fuchter and Hodgson,
1986).
The primary textural characteristics of veins
formed by open space filling are commonly
modified by recrystallization and progressive
replacement of wall rock inclusions and adja-
cent wall rocks by vein minerals. Replacement
typically proceeds outwards from contacts and
from irregularly-distributed patches within wall
rock inclusions, resulting eventually in the
clasts being defined by the distribution of scat-
tered whispy remnants of alteration minerals
(e.g., Chace, 1949). Ultimately, the only evi-
dence of replacement may be the occurrence of
discrete domains in the vein of a slightly differ-
ent colour, due to inclusions of insoluble min-
erals like rutile (Robert and Brown, 1987).
Ghost bands defined by a dusting of minerals
refractory to replacement can be replaced wall
rock septa. The amount of replacement in veins
is difficult to determine, and has long been the
subject of considerable controversy (Mc-
262
Kinstry and Ohle, 1949). Certainly the irregu-
lar shape of many massive vein bodies strongly
suggests that pervasive replacement played a
major role in their formation (Fig. 34b).
The gold-bearing saddle reefs of the Austra-
lian slate belt are dominantly large quartz veins,
whereas the large F-Zone saddle reef gold ore-
body at the McLeod-Cockshutt and Consoli-
dated Mosher mines in the Geraldton area of
Ontario consisted of a complex of small veinlets
and altered rock (Fig. 37). Replacement, as well
as open space filling was important in the de-
velopment of the Bendigo saddle reefs, accord-
ing to Chace (1949), and this also appears to
have been the case at Geraldton.
Spatial patterns of mineralization
Spatial variations in the form of mineraliza-
tion which are related to the nature of host rocks
or structure are extremely common in vein-type
gold deposits. For example, in the Hollinger
mine at Timmins, Ontario, "vein ore" in schist
zones in basalt passes along strike into dissem-
inated, replacement-type, "sulfide ore" in
"dacite" (bleached and strongly carbonatized
basalt; see Jones, 1948). At depth in the same
deposit, the width of the zone of altered rock
enveloping veins decreases, as does the amount
of gold in the alteration envelopes, relative to
that in the veins (P. Walford, pers. commun.,
1983; Wood et al., 1986). In the Red Lake area,
Andrews and Wallace (1983) have suggested
that there is a regional zoning from dissemi-
nated replacement-type and parallel veinlet-
type mineralization in the mines showing the
highest metamorphic grade mineral assem-
blages and closest to the granitoids surround-
ing the greenstone belt, to large veins and vein-
let stockwork mineralization in the mines with
the lowest metamorphic grade mineral assem-
blages, and farthest from the granitoids. In
many vein-type deposits, veins occur outwards
and upwards, and commonly slightly post-date,
stockwork mineralization spatially and geneti-
cally related to a central "porphyry" intrusion
(e.g., Butte, Montana: Meyer et al., 1968; E1
Salvador, Chile: Gustafson and Hunt, 1975;
Hollinger-McIntyre mine, Timmins, Ontario:
Mason and Melnik, 1986).
Developmental sequences in multistage
mineralized zones
Most vein-type gold mineralized zones show
a complex developmental sequence. Scattered
evidence suggests a common theme to this evo-
lution. In some mineralized ductile and brittle-
ductile shear zones, the earliest form of miner-
alization is highly folded, small, gold-barren
veinlets which are confined to shear zones
{Sigma mine, Val d'Or, Quebec: Robert et al.,
1983 ). These veinlets appear to have been em-
placed before most of the strain in the host
shears and at a high angle to the shear zone fab-
ric. It is possible that they formed as en-echelon
extension gash vein arrays aligned along the
trace of the shear zone, such as are illustrated
in Fig. 20, and the shear zone subsequently grew
outwards to envelope them.
The main stage of shear vein-formation in
most deposits appears to have occurred after the
host shear zone was established as a zone of high
strain, judging from the state of deformation
and orientation of the veins (Red Lake, On-
tario: MacGeehan and Hodgson, 1982; An-
drews et al., 1986; Timmins, Ontario: Wood et
al., 1986; Allegeny, California: Ferguson and
Gannett, 1932). A common sequence of shear
vein-formation involves the progression from:
(1) discontinuous breccia vein; to (2) compos-
ite vein, commonly laminated or crustiform; to
(3) late rebrecciation, emplacement of phan-
tom veinlets and ladder veins. For example, in
the Campbell and Dickenson mines (Mac-
Geehan and Hodgson, 1982; Rigg and Helm-
steadt, 1982), the first event in the opening of
vein structures was the formation of discontin-
uous, irregular zones of breccia vein. This was
followed by the formation of laterally-continu-
ous crustiform veins in which the initial filling
was mainly carbonate, and the final, vein-cen-

ter filling was carbonate and very fine-grained
quartz with sulfides and gold. In many areas of
these mines, fracturing and brecciation of the
early carbonate vein-fill preceded the deposi-
tion of the auriferous, fine grained quartz fill,
and a siliceous, gold-rich mineralization occurs
as wide replacement zones which are superim-
posed on the rock fabric and crustiform veins.
The best gold mineralization is commonly, but
not invariably (e.g., Hollinger-McIntyre mine:
Wood et al., 1986) associated with late-stage
ladder and phantom veinlet-formation. For ex-
ample, approximately 85% of the gold at the
Sigma mine occurs in association with late
phantom veinlets of quartz, calcite and pyrite
formed following a period of ductile deforma-
tion of the main-stage quartz veins (Robert and
Brown, 1987).
In laminated veins formed by the crack-seal
mechanism, probably the most common main-
stage type of auriferous shear vein, the grada-
tion outwards from relatively massive vein cen-
ters, to ribbon texture vein, to book texture vein,
to sheeted veinlet zones in the vein walls (e.g.,
Hurst, 1935) can be viewed as a progressive in-
crease in the width of the slab of wall rock which
remains stuck to the vein wall. This textural
zoning also implies a progressive increase in the
spacing between cracks formed in each succes-
sive stage of opening and sealing. These pat-
terns may have something to do with increase
in the extent of wall rock alteration during vein
growth, the effect of alteration being to
strengthen the altered zone and so favour
cracking outside of it.
Comparing the temporal and spatial rela-
tionship of vein deposits to host shear zones,
the general pattern appears to be that miner-
alization, and igneous rocks temporally and
spatially associated with mineralization, are
emplaced into shear zones in association with
later phases of deformation in the zones, pre-
sumably during their exhumation. The condi-
tions most commonly associated with emplace-
ment of mineralization correspond to the brittle
263
regime, and the transition of ductile to brittle
regime of strain.
Mechanisms for generating dilatancy
Introduction
Most vein-type gold mineralized zones are
hosted by shear fractures, and to a lesser extent
by associated extensional fractures. As well,
there is abundant evidence that the minerali-
zation formed synchronouslywith, although late
in, the deformation in which the shear zone was
formed. Yet the stress across a shear fracture is
always greater than the stress across a tensile
fracture in the stress regime in which they are
formed. Therefore, why is the mineralization
not dominantly in tensile fractures, rather than
shear fractures?
Hypotheses explaining this enigma are of two
types: those attributing an active role to tecton-
ism in opening structures; and those attribut-
ing a passive role to tectonism, i.e., tectonic
forces generate mechanically weak zones which
then are pumped open by excess pressure of the
vein-forming fluid. The following evidence fa-
vours an active role for tectonism:
(1) Vein deposits show a very close spatial
relationship to shear zones. If the only signifi-
cance of shear zones is that they represent weak
zones, why are not other types of weak zones,
like weak rock units (shale beds, etc.) more
commonly dilated?
(2) The temporal overlap of deformational
and mineralizing processes is difficult to ex-
plain if the role of deformation is passive.
(3) It seems unlikely that fluid over-pres-
sures could persist for the time required for ma-
jor volumes of fluid to pass through fracture
systems and deposit the thick, and in some cases
delicately banded, veins seen in many deposits.
(4) As noted above, unless the differential
stress is zero at the time of vein formation, it is
difficult to understand why a shear fracture
should open, no matter how little cohesion there
is between the walls, relative to an extension
264
fracture. Yet most veins are in shear fractures.
This is assuming, as the evidence indicates, that
both types of fractures existed in the rocks at
the time of fluid migration, and therefore the
cohesive strength of the rocks was not signifi-
cantly different across shear and extension
fractures.
Several features of deposits indicate that fluid
pressure must have been high, and at least tem-
porarily at, or very close to, lithostatic pressure
during the mineralizing process:
(1) Extension veins are widespread (even
though in most deposits they are not the dom-
inant source of ore), and fluid inclusion and
mineralogical data indicate that in at least some
deposits, the fracturing and vein formation oc-
curred at considerable depths in the earth's
crust (Colvine et al., 1984; Smith et al., 1985).
However, extension fractures can only form
under conditions of low effective mean stress
([al-a3/2]-pore fluid pressure; Fig. 3a).
Therefore, the fluid pressures in the environ-
ment of fracture and vein formation must have
been close to the lithostatic, so that the effec-
tive mean stress was close to zero. Many geol-
ogists consider hydrofracturing, due to fluid
pressure exceeding mean stress by an amount
equal to the tensile strength of the rock, an im-
portant process of vein formation (Phillips,
1973).
(2) In order for an economic mineralized sys-
tem to form, there must be enormous volumes
of auriferous fluids available at a relatively lo-
calized site. It is unreasonable to expect that
tectonically generated dilatancy could in itself
"attract" such high fluid volumes, which im-
plies that the fluids collected at a site indepen-
dantly of the tectonic dilation mechanism. Once
localized in a fluid reservoir, the difference in
density between the fluids and rocks will tend
to cause the fluids to escape upwards to the
surface.
It should be emphasized, however, that the
existence of high fluid pressures (even fluid
pressures which temporarily exceed lithostatic
pressure) during the ore-forming process, and
the operation of the hydrofracturing process, do
not mean (as is commonly assumed, e.g., Wood
et al., 1986) that shear fracture dilation was
caused and maintained by high fluid pressure,
without directed tectonic forces playing an ac-
tive role. In the writer's opinion, the weight of
the evidence indicates that shear zone dilation
depends critically on tectonic forces operating
in a high fluid pressure environment. Accord-
ingly, the rest of the discussion will be con-
cerned only with structurally generated
dilatancy.
At least six principal deformational mecha-
nisms can cause dilatancy, and are discussed in
the following paragraphs: (1) opening of exten-
sion fractures; (2) rotation, during the progress
of deformation, of fractures formed at < 45 ° to
the axis of maximum shortening; (3) simple
shear along non-planar surfaces; (4) variable
external rotation of mechanically effective lay-
ering; (5) dilation on the convex side of bent
layers; and (6) dilation as a component of bulk,
inhomogeneous shortening.
Opening of extension [ractures
Some veins, although not the majority, form
by dilation of extension fractures, i.e., fractures
formed parallel to the Z Y plane of the strain
ellipse representing the deformation. Such veins
require no special explanation, since a stress re-
gime which will generate extension fractures
will also cause them to dilate. This is because
for extension fractures to form, the normal
stress across the fracture must be less than the
least compressive stress for the deformation
(Fig. 3a). Veins of the "centipede" type (Fig.
25 ) probably form by dilation in the extension
direction, as outlined by Ramsay and Huber
(1983; and see Fig. 36). This model could be
tested by measuring the amount of displace-
ment across such a structure, which should be
approximately equal to the length of the vein
segments bounded by P shears (Fig. 36).
 265

Rotation of fractures formed at < 45 o to the

axis of maximum shortening

In the initial stages of creep and strain soft- <

ening of rocks, it has been suggested that grain-
scale fractures, controlled in their orientation
by the strength anisotropy and orientation of
minerals in a rock, form where the migration of
dislocations is blocked by grain boundaries
(Mitra, 1978; and see Fig. 38). Any such frac-
tures which form in the volume subjected to in-
finitesimal shortening will either dilate a n d / o r
I FELDSPAR GRAIN-SCALE
/ / ~ STRAIN
BULK STRAIN
C'
buckle during progressive deformation as they L ,ALEAvAGE ~ F I B E R S
\ ""-- ~_~TcBACKS
are rotated towards the plane of no infinitesi-
mal longitudinal strain (Ramsay, 1967). This
type of dilation is probably the major cause of ~ CcLEAVAGE

~-ORIENTATION OF
FRACTURES SUBJECTED
the grain-scale penetrative permeability which TO SHORTENING,AND THUS
EXTENSION NORMAL
results in the formation of pervasively altered TO THEIR WALLS

and mineralized zones (Mitra, 1978) (Fig. 39). Fig. 39. Drawing from photomicrograph of outer part of a
Soula (1984) has illustrated the phenomenon ductile deformation zone in coarse quartz monzonite, from
with clay cake experiments in a shear box, photograph in Mitra, 1978. Note the control of the orien-
tation of grain-scale fractures in feldspar by the anisotropy
showing that fractures cut in the cake so they of the feldspar, with shear (C, C') and extension (Tc,acks)
are oriented between 0 ° and 90 ° to the shear fractures preferentially forming in the two, orthogonal
box boundary in the quadrants containing the cleavages and at about 45 ° to the cleavages, respectively.
direction of maximum shortening (e.g., R and The bulk strain of the rock, on the other hand, is indicated
by the orientation ofthe quartz fibresin the fractures (T~b~s
R' shears) will dilate as they rotate. A possible
on strain ellipse, dash lines between feldspar grains in pho-
tomicrograph). As a result of the difference in the orien-
tation of the grain-scale and bulk strain ellipse, shear frac-
grainsto
~c r a c k s grow tures in the grains are in the quadrant of bulk infinitesimal
shortening, and will therefore tend to dilate as they rotate
towards the planes of no infinitesimal longitudinal strain
(c.f. Ramsay, 1967, p. 119). This phenomenon will result
in a pervasive increase in the permeability of ductile shear
W
W zones, at least in the initial stages of their formation, allow-
eL_ ing ingress of fluids which cause metasomatic alteration of
u) shear zone rocks (Beach, 1976).
catastrophic
~..~ failure
~¢p--~ dislo cat ion s example is the vein system in the Sigma mine
multiply
(Fig. 14). The dominantly south-dipping vein
system lies in a block between unmineralized,
"new" dislocations
move vertically dipping shears comprising the North
Shear on the north and a number of parallel
Strain shears on the south of the mine (Robert et al.,
Fig. 38. Schematic diagram showing the relationship be- 1983; and see Fig. 14). The shears hosting the
tween dislocation behaviour and grain-scale fracturing to
macroscopic stress-strain curve in the steps leading to veins have the orientation of R shears, relative
macroscopic fracture (Sujata and Conrad, 1961, in Mitra, to the bounding shears (Fig. 10). South-block-
1978). up movement on the bounding shears, then,
266

would tend to rotate the block between t h e m in
a counter-clockwise sense (as seen in Fig. 14)
and dilate the R shears within the block, allow-
ing access of the vein-forming fluids and the
feldspar porphyry magma.
Movement on non-planar shear surfaces
Probably the most popular explanation for
dilation of shear fractures involves opening on
the lee side of asperities when there is move-
ment along non-planar shear surfaces (Robert
and Brown, 1987; Guha et al., 1983; Johnston,
1940). The lenticular openings fill with vein
material as they form. Further movement on
the fracture then forces open the zones between
the initial lenses, and by a repetition of the pro-
cess, a composite vein is formed (Fig. 40). The
non-planarity may be due to the overall shear
fracture being made up of different types of
fractures along its length (e.g., R, C, or P shears:
Figs. 10 and 11; P shears and extension frac-
tures: Fig. 36), or to refraction of the shear
where it passes across the contact of rocks with
different mechanical properties (e.g., Knopf,
1929, his fig. 12). This model predicts that the
opening vector of shear veins will be parallel to
the portion of the fracture on which the blocks
are sliding. The vector will be close to parallel
to the length of the overall fracture in cases
where the differently-oriented segments are in-
clined at a low angle. This geometrical require-
ment is clearly fullfilled in the case of the fi-
brous shear veins described by Ramsay and
Huber (1983; and see Fig. 36). However, as de-

A B

C D

E F

G H

Fig. 40. How a thick vein may be formed by alternating episodes of simple shear on an irregular fracture, and filling of the
dilatant zones which develop on the lee side of asperities after each increment of movement. Note, however, that if a fibrous
or crustiform vein forms continuously as open space is generated by this mechanism, the fibres will be inclined sub-parallel
to the vein boundary, and the crustiform bands will be inclined at a high angle to the vein boundaries (c.f., Fig. 36), which
appears rarely to be the case in mineralized veins (Johnston, 1940).
 267

a. Chevron fold model I I II

t-III I
IIIll
I
I 111111ir j II iI II III
BOUNDSARIY. ~
INTERNALSLIPS r , ~

,
t
/I I Ii1~
'1 I~/~._x..~, I
[
,, ,,,
i
• III I t

fl/z// /~
: I/,'1,(

", 7 'I ',,'l,'"' ', ,,,r[/,It,:,

ii i.],i ll I'
[ IJ//Iflfllr
II/
,d,,,'
I II1\\~'~['
,%
b. Kink model where ~i¢/~2
2',"'
[ 11'
II
I i /~ I I I II I II tl Irl il I I
1// / III / /

\ Fig. 42. Variation in orientation of maximum principal

Fig. 41. (a) Generation of saddle reef dilational zone in fold
hinge as a result of the increase in the cross-sectional area
which occurs in the development of chevron folds; (b) fab-
ric or bedding delamination, possibly resulting in the gen-
eration of a leg vein, due to variation in the extent of rota-
tion of the limbs of a kink or chevron fold in laminated
rocks where there is slip along the fabric. Note that these
dilational mechanisms would operate equally well if the
planar domains Y were intersecting shear zones and do-
mains X were unsheared rock, and the rotation were due to
progressive pure shear or flattening of the relatively un-
strained domains separated by the shear zones, as a result
of a continuation of stresses which initially generated the
shears (Ramsay, 1967; © McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y.).
s c r i b e d above, in m o s t m i n e r a l i z e d s h e a r veins,
l a m i n a t i o n s a n d c r u s t i f o r m b a n d i n g are p a r a l -
lel, or close to p a r a l l e l to v e i n walls. T h i s sug-
gests ( b u t does n o t n e c e s s i t a t e ) t h a t t h e o p e n -
ing v e c t o r w a s a t a h i g h a n g l e to t h e v e i n walls,
w h i c h is n o t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h d i l a t i o n b y m o v e -
m e n t on a f r a c t u r e c o m p o s e d o f slightly m i s a -
ligned s e g m e n t s . F u r t h e r p r o g r e s s o n t h i s p r o b -
l e m requires field d a t a o n t h e o p e n i n g v e c t o r s
of m i n e r a l i z e d veins.
stress axis in a model of folds in a relatively strong layer in
a weak matrix. The hinge areas of the folds in the strong
layer will tend to dilate normal to the plane of bulk flatten-
ing (the axial surface of the folds). Under conditions fa-
vouring brittle failure, the dilation will tend to occur either
by development of extension fractures at low mean stress
or shear fractures (normal faults) at high mean stress
(Dieterich and Carter, 1969).
Variable external rotation of mechanically
effective layering
R a m s a y (1967) p o i n t e d out t h a t t h e r e is a
t e n d e n c y for t h e b e d d i n g to d e l a m i n a t e , f o r m -
ing d i l a t a n t zones in t h e hinges o f all s t r a i g h t -
limbed, a n g u l a r folds in l a y e r e d or foliated se-
q u e n c e s (e.g., k i n k b a n d s , c h e v r o n folds a n d
c o n j u g a t e folds) due to t h e t e n d e n c y for t h e
profile s e c t i o n of s u c h folds to i n c r e a s e in a r e a
as t h e fold d e v e l o p s (Fig. 4 1 a ) . R a m s a y (1967)
also n o t e d t h a t if t h e angle b e t w e e n t h e axial
p l a n e a n d t h e l i m b s is n o t t h e s a m e for b o t h
limbs, t h e n t h e l a y e r i n g on t h e l i m b inclined to
t h e axial p l a n e at t h e larger angle will be subject
to e x t e n s i o n a l s t r e s s e s n o r m a l to t h e layering,
a n d t h e b e d s on t h i s l i m b will t e n d to d e l a m i -
268

A. NO DILATION B. DILATION

~dl --~-- I ,i ~dl :=: I .I

1-5 SEQUENCE OF PLANES

ALONG WHICH SLIPPAGE
HAS TAKEN PLACE

Fig. 43. Two ways in which bulk, inhomogeneous shortening can be achieved by successive, alternating increments of move-
ment on sets of intersecting shears. Note that method B can lead to the development of a crack-seal ribbon vein in which
each ribbon is slickensided before being incorporated into the vein, as is commonly the case in such veins (McKinstry and
Ohle, 1949). With method B, all of the movement occurs on the same two shears, with movement on one of the shears
consisting only of simple shear, and on the other shear, of alternating increments of simple shear parallel to, and dilation
sub-normal to, the shear fracture. Method A requires that after each increment of movement on one of the shears, a new
shear fracture must be propagated through one of the blocks before movement can occur on the other shear. As a result, the
body being strained by this process becomes progressively disaggregated into increasingly smaller, diamond-shaped, un-
strained domains separated by increasingly closer-spaced high strain domains, as the deformation proceeds.

n a t e (Fig. 4 1 b ) . L e g v e i n s on t h e l i m b s of folds canic r o c k s a t R e d L a k e (Fig. 29) c a n be c o m -

(Fig. 27) p o s s i b l y f o r m b y t h i s process. T h e
s a m e effect w o u l d be e x p e c t e d if a v o l u m e of
r o c k c o n t a i n i n g i n t e r s e c t i n g sets of s h e a r z o n e s
w e r e f l a t t e n e d . A v e r y large scale e x a m p l e of
t h i s m a y o c c u r in t h e R e d L a k e a r e a o f O n t a r i o .
T h e large, t r i a n g u l a r s h a p e d zone of a l t e r e d r o c k
localized at t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e n o r t h e a s t -
a n d w e s t - n o r t h w e s t - t r e n d i n g d o m a i n s of vol-
p a r e d to t h e saddle r e e f zone in a fold hinge a n d
t h e highly m i n e r a l i z e d , n o r t h w e s t - t r e n d i n g
limb, t h e leg v e i n zone. A n o t h e r e x a m p l e m a y
be t h e G i a n t m i n e a t Yellowknife, N . W . T . ,
C a n a d a (Fig. 28). T h e p r o c e s s is a n a l o g o u s to
t h a t giving rise to p r e s s u r e - s h a d o w d i l a t i o n a l
zones o f f t h e e n d s of c o m p e t e n t c r y s t a l s in a
ductile schist m a t r i x .

Dilation on the convex side of bent layers
Another effect associated with folding de-
pends on the tendency for strong layers to be-
have as isolated sheets. Most folds form by a
combination of simple shear on bedding sur-
faces, and both pure and simple shear within
beds. To the extent that slip occurs on bedding,
individual beds will have a tendency to act like
isolated sheets, and be subjected to extensional
stresses on the outer, and compressional
stresses on the inner arc of any folds in them
(Fig. 42). This can result in the development
of extension a n d / o r shear fractures (which type
depends on the mean stress), and the genera-
tion of dilatant zones, which can become min-
eralized, on the outer hinge of the fold. The di-
latancy will be best developed in the most
competent beds and where the curvature of the
fold hinge is maximal. A possible example is the
F-Zone orebody at Geraldton, Ontario (Fig. 37 ).
Dilation as a component of bulk,
inhomogeneous flattening
Dilation may arise as a consequence of bulk,
inhomogeneous flattening on intersecting sets
of shear planes. Flattening can occur by alter-
nating increments of movement on first one,
and then the other set of shears by two possible,
end-member mechanisms (Fig. 43). No dila-
tancy is developed by the first mechanism,
which involves the breaking through of new
segments of fractures on one shear set after each
increment of movement on the other shear set
(Fig. 43a). In the second mechanism, all the
successive increments of movement take place
on the same fractures, but for this to happen,
there must be dilation across one of the shear
sets during each increment of movement on the
other (Fig. 43b). An integral aspect of the pro-
cess is that an increment of slip occurs on one
wall of the dilating shear fracture between each
increment of dilation. This mechanism readily
explains the common laminated texture of shear
veins, and the fact that the ribbons commonly
269
show slickensides. The mechanism would op-
erate equally well for conjugate shears devel-
oped in homogeneous media, or shear sets de-
veloped as a consequence of limb thrusting in
the final stages of chevron folding. An addi-
tional feature explained by the mechanism is
the common occurrence of mineralization in
only one set of an intersecting shear system
(Fig. 15b).
Conclusions
Vein-type mineralization most commonly
occurs in brittle and brittle-ductile shear zones,
and less commonly in extension veins in the
walls of shear zones or between shear zones in
a shear zone system. It also occurs in bedding-
controlled dilational zones on the hinges, or on
the limbs of folds, commonly in association with
limb-thrusts. Vein textures indicate that vein
filling and the deformation which caused the
vein-hosting shear zones developed synchro-
nously in overlapping stages under conditions
of low mean stress due to high fluid pressure.
The mechanical anisotropy and inhomogeneity
of most natural rocks have a strong control on
the distribution of shear zones, which are me-
chanically weak zones, relative to their host en-
vironment. But once localized, the rotation of
the maximum principle stress axis to approxi-
mately 45 ° to the boundary of a mechanically
homogeneous weak zone, and approximately
90 ° to the foliation in a mechanically aniso-
tropic weak zone, results in the internal struc-
ture of most shear zones, including the struc-
ture of any contained veins, being similar.
Brittle shear zones are characterized by ca-
taclasite fault rocks, and commonly consist of
a variety of shear fracture types, termed R, R',
P and C shears, as well as extension fractures.
Experiments indicate that conjugate brittle
shears intersect in an acute angle, commonly
~-60 °, about al. However, brittle deformation
of mechanically anisotropic, layered materials
in which the weak layering is normal to al, re-
270
sults in shear fractures intersecting in an ob-
tuse angle about al. R and R' shears correspond
in orientation, and sense of movement to con-
jugate shear fractures developed at an acute an-
gle about a s , the reoriented attitude of maxi-
m u m principle stress expected in a mechanically
weak zone within a stronger matrix. P shears
correspond to the shear of the shear set inter-
secting in an obtuse angle about a s, and with a
sense of movement which is the same as the
overall zone it occurs within. Ductile shears are
characterized by mylonite series rocks and
schists, and where in conjugate sets, the con-
jugate shears typically intersect in an obtuse
angle about the normal to the plane of tectonic
flattening in the host rocks.
At all scales, shear zones and shear zone sys-
tems are characterized by an anastomosing ge-
ometry, in m a n y cases three-dimensional, in
which a network of high strain zones surrounds
low strain rhomboids. The boundaries of these
rhomboids may comprise a complex system of
intersecting shear zone sets, e.g., the P, R, R'
and C shears of brittle shear zones. To the ex-
tent that the sense of movement on any inter-
secting set of shears is opposite (e.g., R and R'
shears), there will be a component of bulk
shortening or pure shear across the rock body
containing the shears. If this pure shear is three-
dimensional, at least four sets of intersecting
shears are necessary to effect pure shear by
movement on the component shears. This
probably accounts for the three-dimensional,
anastomosing geometry of shear zones.
Most veins within shears are oriented sub-
parallel to the shear zone length, most com-
monly in zones of en-echelon veins inclined to
the shear zone boundaries in the same sense as
P shears are. The most common forms of min-
eralization are breccia, with homogeneous or
crustiform filling, and banded, with crustiform
banding, or a laminated form which ranges from
ribbon texture, to book texture, to sheeted vein-
let zones. Sheeted veinlet zones grade into zones
of streaky disseminated mineralization with
decrease in the size, and increase in the homo-
geneity of distribution, of the introduced min-
eral aggregates. The laminations of laminated
veins locally show stylolitic crinkling, due to
pressure solution and recrystallization. Exten-
sion veins may occur as ladder vein arrays lo-
calized in competent beds, or dikes, or earlier
veins, or they may occur as large veins in the
unsheared domains lying between shears in a
shear zone system, or they may form a fringe on
shear veins. Extension veins may show breccia
and crustiform textures, but apparently do not
show lamination, nor are extension vein zones
of disseminated mineralization known to the
writer, except zones of disseminated minerali-
zation in extension vein envelopes. Many veins,
or ore shoots in veins, are localized at the inter-
section of sets of shear zones. Geometrically
similar zones, commonly associated with con-
jugate limb thrusts, occur in the hinges of folds,
and are termed saddle reefs.
Vein mineralization changes in its geometri-
cal and mineralogical character both during the
evolution of the mineralized area, and from
place to place within the area as conditions
change. A common pattern is early, gold-bar-
ren, en-echelon extension vein arrays, perhaps
aligned along a brittle fracture zone, which are
then incorporated as highly folded veins in a
superimposed zone of ductile shearing. Then,
late in the history of ductile shearing, the zone
dilates, and shear vein-type mineralization is
emplaced. The last phase of mineralization is
commonly ladder and p h a n t o m veinlets, local-
ized in the previously-formed shear veins. In
most deposits, the bulk of the gold, and in m a n y
cases the associated sulfides, are late in the par-
agenesis. Within a single vein, different forms
of mineralization may be developed where the
vein crosses mechanically different rock types,
perhaps being a breccia vein in the most com-
petent, a laminated vein in the next most com-
petent, and a zone of disseminated mineraliza-
tion in the least competent of the host rocks.
The same progression of forms may be related
to changes in the mechanical properties of a
single rock type with change in the pressure and

temperature environment of vein emplace-
ment, with the disseminated mineralization
forming in deeper and hotter environments than
the breccia and banded vein mineralization.
It is proposed that the dilatancy which re-
sults in the development of vein mineralization
is caused by tectonic forces, and not primarily
by pumping open pre-existing weak zones by
excess fluid pressure, even though fluid pres-
sure in gold vein-forming environments must
be high, and be close to, or for short periods of
time exceed, lithostatic pressure. The most im-
portant tectonic mechanisms for generating di-
latancy are: opening of extension fractures; ro-
tation, during progressive deformation, of
fractures formed at < 45 ° to the axis of maxi-
m u m shortening; simple shear along non-planar
surfaces; variable external rotation of mechan-
ically effective layering; dilation on the convex
side of bent layers; and dilation as a conse-
quence of bulk, inhomogeneous shortening on
intersecting shear zone sets with different sens-
es of movement across them.
Acknowledgements
This paper was prepared while the author was
on sabbatical leave at the Mineral Deposits
Section of the Ontario Geological Survey, and
the hospitality of Sandy Colvine, Section Head
and the other members of the MDS is gratefully
acknowledged. Jayanta Guha was involved in
the planning of the paper, but was not able to
participate in the writing due to pressure of
other responsibilities. A.J. Macdonald, P.M.
Smith and H. Helmstaedt made many useful
suggestions on an early draft of the manuscript.
K.H. Wolf and J.V. Hamilton are thanked for
making extensive comments on a later draft,
and Joan van Kralingen for preparing illustra-
tions. Many of the ideas came from discussions
with Howard Poulsen, Herb Helmstaedt and
John Summers at Queen's; some of these were
presented in a paper by Hodgson, Poulsen and
Helmstaedt at the 1983 Geological Association
of Canada Annual Meeting. The author is par-
271
ticularly indebted to John Summers for intro-
ducing him to the world of modern structural
geology, and for many hours of intense and
stimulating discussion about structural pro-
cesses in shear zones. A National Engineering
and Sciences Research Council Operating Grant
provided financial support, which is gratefully
acknowledged.
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