MODULE TITLE ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING I

MODULE CODE EENG213

MODULE LECTURER
LECTURE HOURS-LAB/PRACTICALS-
CREDIT HOURS
OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES
Mr. FRANCIS PEACOCK-COLE
3-0-3
This module will serve as an introductory level in electronics. The student will be able to
learn about the materials used in the manufacture of diodes and other semiconductor
devices. They will also develop their knowledge of diodes in a variety of configurations
using models appropriate for different types of its application

Semiconductor Diode: Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor materials, Energy levels,

Conditions of semiconductor diode, Resistance levels.
Diode Application: Load line analysis, Diode approximation, Series diode configuration
MODULE DESCRIPTION with DC input, Parallel and series-parallel configuration, Half-wave rectification, Full-wave
rectification, Clippers, Clampers, Zener diode.

SUGGESTED
READING/REFERENCE/MANUALS/WEBSITES Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by Robert Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky

LECTURE NUMBER 02
LECTURE DURATION (HOURS) 01
 After completing this lesson, the student will be able to:
• Develop an understanding on the types of resistance level in a diode.
SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES • Understand the Load line analysis of a diode.
AND LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Understand the series and parallel diode configuration.
Introduction

This lesson and subsequent lessons will be guided towards developing a working knowledge of diodes in a variety of configurations.
The range of diode application is endless and yet the characteristics and model remains the same so the functions and response in
a variety of configurations can be determined. The analysis of the diode will not only employ the actual diode characteristic but also
utilizes the approximate models. However, the result obtained using ideal model is slightly different from that obtained using the
approximate model.

Resistance Level

When the operating point of a diode moves from one region to another the resistance of the diode will change due to the non-linear
shape of its characteristic curve.

Static Resistance
When a dc voltage is applied to a circuit containing diode, it will result in an operating point on the characteristic curve that will not
change with time.
The resistance of the diode at the operating point can be found by:

𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝐷 =
𝐼𝐷

The dc resistance level at the knee and below will be greater than the resistance levels obtained for the vertical rise section of the
characteristics.
The resistance levels in the reverse-bias region will naturally be quite high.

Example:

Determine the resistance level for the diode of the figure shown below at a. ID = 2mA, b. ID = 20mA, c. VD = -10v
a. From the curve at ID =2mA, VD = 0.5v
𝑉𝐷 0.5𝑣
𝑅𝐷 = = = 250Ω
𝐼𝐷 2𝑚𝐴

b. From the curve at ID = 20mA, VD = 0.8v

𝑉𝐷 0.8𝑣
𝑅𝐷 = = = 40Ω
𝐼𝐷 20𝑚𝐴

c. From the curve at VD = -10v, ID = -IS = -1µA

VD 10v
RD = = = 10MΩ
ID 1µA
Dynamic resistance
The dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the characteristic in the region surrounding the point of interest whiles in
the case of a dynamic resistance the varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up and down a region of the
characteristics, thus defines a specific change in current and voltage as shown on the curve below. With no applied varying signal,
the point of operation would be the Q-point determined by the applied dc level. A tangent is drawn through the Q-point to determine
the dynamic resistance.

Defining the Dynamic resistance

𝞓𝑽𝒅
𝒓𝒅 =
𝞓𝑰𝒅
Example:

Determine the following resistance for the characteristic shown below: a. ID = 2mA, b. ID = 25mA
a. Tangent line at ID = 2mA
At ID = 4mA, VD =0.76v and at ID = 0mA, VD = 0.65v
𝞓Id = 4mA – 0mA = 4mA
𝞓Vd = 0.76v – 0.65v =0.11v
ΔVd 0.11v
rd = = = 27.5Ω
ΔId 4mA

b. Tangent line at ID = 25mA

At ID = 20mA, VD = 0.8v and at ID =20mA, VD = 0.78v
𝞓Id = 30mA – 20mA = 10mA
𝞓Id = 0.8v – 0.78v = 0.02v
 ∆Vd 0.02v
rd = = = 2Ω
∆Id 10mA

Average AC resistance
When the input signal is large to produce a broad swing, the resistance associated with the device for the region is called the average
ac resistance. This resistance is that which is determined by a straight line drawn between the two intersections established by the
maximum and minimum values of the input voltage.

∆𝑉𝑑
𝑟𝑎𝑣 = (point to point)
∆𝐼𝑑

Example:

Determine the average ac resistance from the figure shown below

∆Id = 17mA − 2mA = 15mA

∆Vd = 0.725v − 0.05v = 0.075v
 ∆Vd 0.075v
rav = = = 5Ω
∆Id 15mA

Load-Line Analysis

An applied load normally has an impact on the region of operation of a device and the analysis is performed in a graphical manner. A
line can be drawn on the characteristics of the device that represent the applied load. The intersection of the load line with the
characteristic will determine the point of operation of the system.

Consider the network below, the battery establish a current through the series circuit in the clockwise direction. Since the current and
the diode defined direction of conduction are a ‘match’, it reveals that the diode is in the ‘ON’ state which established its conduction.

Apply KVL to the series circuit will result in the following equation:

E − VD − VR = 0
E = VD + ID R
The Load-Line can be determined as follows:

With VD = 0v
E = 0v + IDR
E
ID =
R
With ID =0A
E = VD + (0)R
VD = E

The point of intersection between the characteristic curve and the load line is the point of operation of the circuit which is shown on
the diagram below.

Drawing Load-Line and finding the point of intersection

Example:

For the series diode configuration shown below employing the diode characteristics also shown below, determine
a. VDQ and IDQ
b. VR
 E 10v
a.ID = = = 10mA
R 1K
VD = E = 10v

From the graph, when the load-line has been plotted on the characteristics curve, VDQ ≈ 0.78v and IDQ ≈ 9.25mA

b. VR = IRR = IDQR = (9.25mA)(1K) = 9.25v

Series Diode Configuration

In each configuration the state of each diode must first be determined i.e. which diodes are ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’. It is in its ‘ON’ state if the
current established by the applied source ‘matches’ the direction of the arrow in the diode symbol and VD ≥ 0.7v for silicon
and VD ≥ 0.3v for germanium.
 Series Diode configuration

In determining the relevant parameters of the network configuration shown above, we can consider the following:
1. Mentally replace the diode with resistive element and note the current direction establish by the applied voltage.
2. If the resulting direction is a ’match’ with the arrow in the diode symbol, provided E > VT the device is in the ‘ON’ state.
3. If the diode is in the ‘ON’ state, place a 0.7v drop across the element or draw a line through each diode for an ideal case.
4. If the diode is in the ‘OFF’ state, there will be an open circuit between elements.
5. The resulting voltage and current levels are as follows:
VD = VT ........................(1)

VR = E – VT ...................(2)
VR
ID = IR = R
.................(3)

If the diode is reversed in the network configuration, it will reveal that the resulting current direction does not ‘match’ the arrow in the
diode symbol, hence the diode is in the ‘OFF’ state resulting in an open circuit. The diode current is 0A and the voltage across the
resistor R is VR = IRR = IDR = (0A)R = 0v.

Example:

For the series diode configuration shown below:

a. Determine VD, VR, and ID,
b. Repeat the question by reversing the diode direction
a. E establish current in clockwise direction to ‘match’ arrow symbol i.e. diode is in ‘ON’ state
VD = 0.7v
VR = E – VT = 8v – 0.7v = 7.3v
V 7.3v
ID = IR = RR = 2.2k = 3.32mA

b. Reversing the diode direction, the current direction establish by E is opposite to the arrow symbol i.e. diode is in OFF state
Since there is an open circuit, ID = 0A
Apply KVL around the closed loop
E - VD – VR = 0
VD = E – VR = E – 0 = E = 8v

Parallel and Series-Parallel configuration

In this case the sequential series of steps applied to series diode configuration analysis can also be used.

Example:

Determined Vo, I1, ID1, and ID2, for the parallel diode configuration shown below. D1 and D2 are silicon diodes.
The resulting current direction ‘matches’ the arrow in each symbol
The applied voltage is greater than 0.7v
Both diodes are in ‘ON’ state
The voltage across the parallel element is the same so VO = 0.7v
VR E − VD 10v − 0.7v
I1 = = = = 28.18mA
R R 0.33k
Assume the diodes are of similar characteristics
I1 28.18mA
ID1 = ID2 = = = 14.09mA
2 2
Question Set
 Determine the dc or static resistance of the diode of figure shown below at a forward current of 20mA

 Determine the average ac resistance for the diode of the figure shown in the above question for the region between 0.5 and 0.8v

 Determine the ac resistance at a current of 1mA and 15mA for the diode of the figure shown below. Compare the solutions and
develop a general conclusion regarding the ac resistance and increasing levels of diode current.
 Determine Vo and ID for the series circuit of the figure shown below