Scientific African 12 (2021) e00743

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Scientific African
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sciaf

Impacts of changes in temperature and exposure time on the

median lethal concentrations (LC50 ) of a combination of
organophosphate and pyrethroid in the control of Culex
quinquefasciatus, say (Diptera: Culicidae)
Kayode Lawrence Akinwande a,∗, Adeola Roseline Arotiowa a, Ayodele John Ete b
a
Department of Biology Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
b
Forest Research Institute of Nigeria, Forest Hill, Jericho, Ibadan, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Climate change factors such as rainfall, heat waves, rising temperatures and flooding have
Received 26 June 2020 positively impacted insect vector population. This scenario poses considerable demand on
Revised 26 January 2021
chemical control. This study was carried out with the specific aim to examine the influ-
Accepted 13 March 2021
ence of changes in temperature and exposure time of C. quinquefasciatus to toxicities of
pyrethroid (Cypermethrin), organophosphate (2, 2- dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate) and
Editor: Dr B. Gyampoh their mixtures. Eggs of C. quinquefasciatus were collected at the Federal University of Tech-
nology, Akure, Nigeria, in an area far from residential and cultivated zones, with a re-
Keywords:
mote chance of the mosquitoes being exposed to insecticides. The eggs were allowed to
Cypermethrin
hatch into larvae/pupae in the field at 27–29 °C temperature, 70–85% RH, 14:10 (L: D)
DDVP
Mortality photoperiod. F3 adult generation reared were transferred to the Entomology Laboratory
Median lethal concentration and exposed to different concentrations of Cypermethrin and DDVP applied singly and in
Temperature mixtures at varying temperatures and exposure time with mortality recorded. The median
Mosquito lethal concentration (LC50 ) values for the insecticides were higher when the insecticides
were applied singly than when applied as mixtures. Therefore, mixtures of cypermethrin
and DDVP have enhanced toxicity. Again, temperature changes also affect insecticide tox-
icity and because climate change has a characteristic temperature variability, it poses a
barrier to insecticide toxicity. Hence, it is expedient to have a climate change adaptation
policy in synergy with modality of chemical applications. Further study of toxico-kinetic of
the insecticides in mosquito control is also recommended.
© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of
Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Introduction

Climate change in the tropics have resulted in decreased precipitation, shift in seasonal rainfall, heat waves, rising tem-
peratures and flooding. These factors have triggered the population of water borne insect vectors and diseases they trans-

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: klakinwande@futa.edu.ng (K.L. Akinwande).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2021.e00743
2468-2276/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
K.L. Akinwande, A.R. Arotiowa and A.J. Ete Scientific African 12 (2021) e00743

mit. In the tropics, mosquitoes are more predominant in terms of species diversity and numbers and it is the causative
agent of several deadly diseases such as filariasis, malaria and encephalitis. It is projected that by year 2100, there will
be approximately 1.0–3.5 °C increase in temperature due to global warming [1,2]. The global temperature rise poses con-
siderable increase in mosquito population and survival and it has necessitated effective control measures. Several control
measures have been employed, but the use of insecticides is the most common [3] among the insecticides, pyrethroids and
organophosphate groups have been the most favorite [4] and recommended by World Health Organization (WHO) for indoor
and outdoor use because of their effectiveness and relatively low health risk to man [5].
Organophosphate groups of compounds are mostly associated with nerve agents or chemical weapons and pesticides for
the control of some stored pests [6]. Tricresyl phosphate (TPC) are organophosphates widely employed both in the natural
and synthetic forms because of the ease with which the organic groups can be linked together. Similarly, Dichlorvos or 2, 2-
dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate (DDVP) is widely used to control household pests, in public health, and protecting stored
products from insect’s pests. Although its use has been controversial because it contaminates urban waterways and it has a
wide toxicity which extends beyond insects [7]. Dichlorvos is both contact and stomach poisons, acts on acetylcholinesterase,
associated with the nervous systems of insects [7] could also damage the insect’s DNA [8].
The second group of insecticides commonly used are ‘pyrethroids’. They are among the most successful synthetic chem-
ical similar to the pyrethrin derivatives of pyrethrum “naturally occurring insecticides extracted from the dried flowers
of Chrysanthemum cinerariafolium” [9, 10]. It acts as both stomach and contact poison and affects the central nervous
system [11]. They are highly non polar chemicals, non-volatile and insoluble in water [12]. Pyrethroids and organophos-
phates have been recommended as insecticides for Treated Nets (ITN) [5]. Pyrethroids are mostly preferred because of their
quick knockdown effect, high insecticidal potency, low mammalian toxicity compared to organochlorines and organophos-
phates and poor bioaccumulation [13, 14, 15]. Cypermethrin is a synthetic pyrethroid which was first synthesized in 1974
and first marketed in 1977 [16]. Furthermore, WHO recommended Bendiocarb, Propoxur, DDT, Fenitrothion, Malathion,
Pirimiphos-methyl, á-Cypermethrin, Bifenthrin, Cyfluthrin, Deltamethrin, Etofenprox, Lambdacyhalothrin for indoor residual
spraying against mosquito. á-Cypermethrin, Cyfluthrin, Deltamethrin, Etofenprox, Lambdacyhalothrin, Permethrin are be-
ing used for impregnation of bednets. Fenitrothion, Malathion, Pirimiphos-methyl, Bioresmethrin, Cyfluthrin, Cypermethrin,
Cyphenothrin, d,d-trans-Cyphenothrin, Deltamethrin, d-Phenothrin, Etofenprox, Lambdacyhalothrin, Permethrin, Resmethrin
for thermal fog and space spraying . Fuel oil, Bacillus thurigiensis, Diflubenzuron, Methoprene, Novaluron, Pyriproxyfen, Chlor-
pyrifos, Fenthion, Pirimphos-methyl, Temephos are recommended as larvicides.
Indiscriminate application of insecticides has led to resistance mechanism developed by mosquito populations which
negatively impacts the environment, human health and non-target organisms [17, 18]. Insecticide mixtures can delay or re-
duce development of resistance mechanism [19]. Theoretically, if the resistance to each compound is independent and slow,
therefore associated probability to the compound mixtures will be extremely rare [20]. In West Africa, combination use
of organophosphates and pyrethroids for more than 20 years have shown to prevent development of pyrethroid resistance
in Cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera Hubner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidea) [21] and in Dipterans, synergistic interactions
between pyrethroids and organophosphates or carbamates have been reported [22] Again, the prevailing abiotic and insect
biotic factors to which the insecticides are applied play significant roles in insecticide toxicity; Temperature, rainfall and light
[23] are some abiotic factors that affect insecticide toxicity while insect biotic factors such as chemical uptake, metabolism
in insects; and the biting rate and incubation/replication time of viruses in the mosquitoes increase with temperature in-
crease [24]. Hodjati and Curtis [25] observed a positive temperature coefficient between 16 °C and 22 °C for susceptible and
resistant strains of adult Anopheles gambiae exposed to permethrin in contrast to a negative temperature coefficient between
20 °C and 30 °C observed by Hadaway and Barlow [26] in adult A. stephensi exposed to DDT, an insecticide known to have
a similar toxicity-temperature relationship as pyrethroid insecticides. The present study examines the influence of changes
in temperature on the susceptibility of adult C. quinquefasciatus exposed to singly and combined toxicities of pyrethroid
(cypermethrin) and an organophosphate (dichlorvos).

Methodology

Culex mosquito rearing

Bait containing mixture of water and yeast was used as attractant for the adult C. quinquefasciatus mosquitoes to lay
eggs in the insectarium at Federal University of Technology Akure (70.5 N and 50.15 E). The mosquitoes were collected in
an area on the Campus far from residential and cultivated areas where insecticides are heavily used, there is a great chance
of the mosquitoes collected not being previously exposed to insecticides. The eggs laid by the adults were allowed to hatch
in the field to larvae/pupae in rearing cages held at 27–29 °C, 70–85% RH and 14:10 (L: D) photoperiod and transferred to
the Entomology Laboratory, where they were nurtured to adult stage. The adults were allowed to lay eggs and the rearing
process continued till F3 generation adult C. quinquefasciatus mosquito were produced for the experiment. The adults were
fed with 10% sucrose solution daily as source of carbohydrate [27], while blood meals from shaved white albino rats were
supplied.

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K.L. Akinwande, A.R. Arotiowa and A.J. Ete Scientific African 12 (2021) e00743

Test chemicals

Commercially formulated chemicals purchased from an OTC agrochemical retail shop in Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria were
used. These include Pyrethroid (Cypertex 10%EC) containing cypermethrin [CYM, (±) -cyano-3- phenoxybenzyl (±) cis, Trans-
3-(2, 2-dichlorovinyl)−2, 2- dimethylcyclopropane carboxylate and Dichlorvos (Snipper) containing active ingredient Perme-
thrin, Tetramethrin d-Phenohrin and a synergist ’PiperonylButoxide’.

Bioassays

Preparation of doses of cypermethrin and dichlorvos

Trial dose-mortality response were carried out to determine the serial dilution concentrations. 1 ppm stock solution
of the Cypermethrin (Cypertex 10%EC) was prepared using acetone as solvent. And serial dilutions of concentrations of
1250 ppm, 625 ppm, 310 ppm, 31 ppm, 16 ppm were prepared. Similarly, Dichlorvos (Sniper 10 0 0EC) with acetone as
diluent made to 1 ppm stock solution and serial dilutions of other concentrations of 2.5 ppm, 0.5 ppm, 0.25 ppm, 005 ppm
were prepared from it. The solutions were kept at room temperature in a Bjol bottles until adult bioassay.

Preparation of impregnated paper [28]

Cypermethrin and dichlorvos impregnated paper for adult bioassays were prepared according to WHO [28] method. A
Whatman No 1 filter paper with size of 4 cm by 4 cm, giving an area of 16cm2 was cut off and each were treated with 1 ml
of each dose of both insecticides’ solutions prepared. The impregnated papers were allowed to air dried for 24 h wrapped
in aluminum foils and refrigerated at 4 °C. A Whatman No 1 filter paper of the same size was treated with 1 ml of acetone
which served as the control.

Range finding bioassays

Before the temperature-toxicity relationship for adult Culex mosquitoes was characterized, a range of concentration at
which median mortality (LD50 ) occurred was determined at 27 °C, 60–80% humidity, and 14:10 [L/D] photoperiod. The best
range of concentrations of the median lethal concentration (LC50 ) were obtained using WHOPES (Cone bioassay on mosquito
nets method). 20 starved female C. quinquefasciatus mosquitoes were aspirated from the breeding cages to all labelled cotton
wool sealed plastic cones. The mosquitoes were allowed to acclimatize for 30 min before the bioassay. This preparation was
replicated thrice per dose concentration giving a total of 60 mosquitoes per dose. Whatman No 1 filter papers impregnated
with cypermethrin and dichlorvos were gently introduced into each of the plastic cone mosquito nettings at stipulated
conditions for 30, 60 and 90 min of exposure. The number of mosquitoes knocked down were counted, when the cup was
tapped and air blown into it.

Experimental bioassays

Bioassay was done at varying temperatures to determine if changes in temperature affect mosquito response to insecti-
cides exposure [28] WHOPES. All the adult mosquitoes in three replicates were subjected to different concentrations of the
serially diluted test chemicals separately and dilutions of the chemicals in mixture, at variable temperature conditions of
32 °C ± 5 °C, RH 60–80% and photoperiod of 14:10 [L/D]. The temperatures were regulated in an incubator (FisherbrandTM )
and mortality recorded after 30, 60 and 90 min of exposure.
The median lethal concentrations (LC50 ) were obtained from the probit analysis of the mortality data of cypermethrin
(Cypertex 10%EC) and dichlorvos (Snipper 10 0 0EC) and the insecticides mixture in the ratio 1:1 of their LC50 . The mor-
tality values obtained when the chemicals were used singly and as mixtures were compared to determine antagonistic or
synergistic relationship.

Statistics data analysis

All the data obtained were subjected to descriptive and inferential statistics. Mortality data were subjected to probit
analysis to obtain the median lethal concentration (LC50 ) for the two insecticides. Comparisons were drawn between the
lethal concentrations at different temperature on the probit values and significant differences were evaluated using ANOVA
at 95% confidence interval.

Results

Effect of temperature on the median lethal concentrations of cypermethrin and DDVP for C. quinquefasciatus cypermethrin

The median lethal concentration values from probit analysis of cypermethrin under variable temperature were 575 (1090
−304) ppm at 27 °C, 354 (672 – 187) ppm at 32 °C and 89 (168 - 47) ppm at 37 °C (FL at 95%) (Table 1). The LC50 values

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K.L. Akinwande, A.R. Arotiowa and A.J. Ete Scientific African 12 (2021) e00743

Table 1
LC50 (ppm) of Cypermethrin at varying temperature on C. quinquefasciatus.

Temperature Slope (±S.E) Intercept (±S.E) LC50 (95% FL)

27 °C 0.697 (±0.14165) −2.42 (±0.142) 575 (1090–304)

32 °C 0.702 (±0.14165) −1.64 (±0.142) 354 (672–187)
37 °C 0.901 (±0.14165) −2.33 (±0.142) 89 (168–47)

S.E: Standard error; FL: Fiducial limits = Antilog(Log10 Dose ± 1.96(S.E).

Fig. 1. Effect of change in temperature on the LC50 of Cypermethrin on C. quinquefasciatus.

Table 2
LC50 (ppm) of 2- dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate at varying temperature on
C. quinquefasciatus.

Temperature Slope (±S.E) Intercept (±S.E) LC50 (95% FL)

27 °C 0.793 (±0.02751) 0.92 (±0.027) 1.52(1.71–134)

32 °C 0.801 (±0.2751) 1.30 (±0.0275) 1.45(1.66–1.28)
37 °C 0.736 (±0.2751) 0.55 (±0.0275) 1.28 (1.46–1,14)

S.E: Standard error; FL: Fiducial limits = Antilog(Log10 Dose ± 1.96(S.E).

between and within the groups were significantly different (F2,33 =8.140, Sig =0.001 (p< 0.05). However, posthoc test with
LSD (Alpha 0.05) showed that the median lethal concentration at 27 °C were not significantly different at 32 °C (Sig = 0.268,
p>0.05) while the LC50 values at 27 °C and 32 °C were significantly different at 37 °C (Sig = 0.009, p <0.05) Therefore, at
37 °C, the LC50 value of cypermethrin was higher and optimum (Fig. 1).

2, 2- dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate (DDVP)

Similarly, the median lethal concentration values from Probit analysis of DDVP at temperature of 27 °C, 32 °C and 37 °C
were 1.52(1.71–134), 1.45(1.66–1.28) and 1.28 (1.46–1.14) ppm respectively (FL at 95%) (Table 2). These concentration values
between and within the groups were not significantly different (F2, 21 = 0.849, Sig =0.442 (P> 0.05). Similarly, posthoc
test with LSD (Alpha 0.05) showed that the median lethal concentration at 27 °C were not significantly different at 32 °C
(Sig = 0.750, p>0.05) and at 37 °C (Sig = 0.223, p >0.05). Therefore, temperature has limited impact on the LC50 value of
DDVP (Fig. 2).
The median lethal concentration of DDVP and Cypermethrin combined in the ratio of 1:1 LC50 at room temperature was
tested at 27, 32 and 37 °C. At 27 °C, the LC50 value was 0.0316 (0.0097–0.102)ppm on Culex quinquefiastus, while 0.0178
(0.0 0 06–0.0577)ppm and 0.0 0 01(0 −0.0 0 04) (FL at 95%) ppm values were obtained for 32 °C and 37 °C respectively. These
median lethal concentration values for the combination of the chemicals were lower at all temperatures when compared
with the median lethal concentration values of the chemicals used singly at similar temperature. The values between and
within the groups were significantly different (F2, 8 = 5. 810, Sig =0.039 (p < 0.05). Similarly, posthoc test with LSD (Alpha
0.05) showed that the median lethal concentration values were significantly different. The mixtures of DDVP and cyperme-
thrin has synergistic effect at all temperature (Fig. 3).

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K.L. Akinwande, A.R. Arotiowa and A.J. Ete Scientific African 12 (2021) e00743

Fig. 2. Effect of change in temperature on the LC50 of 2, 2- dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate on C. quinquefasciatus.

Fig. 3. Temperature and toxicity relationship of a combination of Cypermethrin and DDVP on C. quinquefasciatus.

Effect of change in temperature and exposure time on the LC50 toxicity of cypermethrin and DDVP when used singly and in
combination

With Cypermethrin, under 30 min of exposure as temperature increases, median lethal toxicity value increases signifi-
cantly (F4, 14 = 3.50, Sig = 0.035, (p < 0.05). Optimum toxicity value was recorded at 37 °C (Table 3). Similarly, for DDVP,
under 30 min of exposure as temperature increases, median lethal toxicity value also increases significantly (F4, 14 = 388.33,
Sig = (0.001), p < 0.05). Optimum value was recorded at 37 °C (Table 4). In 60 and 90 min of exposure, at varying tem-
perature for both cypermethrin and DDVP, the LC 50 toxicity values increase significantly. However, the insecticides mixture
recorded low median lethal values as temperature and duration of exposure increases (Fig. 3) compared to the chemicals
used singly. Therefore, the median lethal concentration values were impacted by duration of exposure and temperature
(Tables 3 and 4)

Discussion

Climate change poses a threat to the control of insect pests and disease infestations. As climate variables continue to
change, more insect pests and vectors may become adaptable to invade previously uninhabitable areas and insecticidal
control which is a wide spectrum control strategy become less potent due to the interaction of temperature with the mech-
anisms of the insecticide action [2, 29]. Climate factors that aid in insect vectors and pest invasions are mostly temperature

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K.L. Akinwande, A.R. Arotiowa and A.J. Ete Scientific African 12 (2021) e00743

Table 3
Effects of increase in temperature and exposure time on the LC50 toxicity of Cypermethrin to C. quinquefasciatus.

27 °C 32 °C 37 °C
Log of Duration of exposure (min)
Conc.
(ppm) 30 60 90 30 60 90 30 60 90

3.096 76.67±3.33b 80.00±2.89c 90.00±5.7c 66.67±3.3c 83.33±8.82b 87.33±6.5b 91.67±4.1b 94.00±3.46b 100.00±0.0b
2.795 68.33±9.28b 75.00 ± 8.66c 85.00±5.0c 33.33±8.3b 58.33±10.1b 83.67±3.1b 88.33±4.1b 100.00±0.00b 100.00±0.0b
2.494 21.67 ± 3.33a 35.00 ± 2.89b 38.33±1.6b 13.33±3.3ab 23.33 ± 6.00a 74.67±1.7b 83.33±8.3b 100.00±0.00b 100.00±0.0b
1.491 8.33 ± 4418a 26.00±10.14b 36.00±4.4b 6.67±1.67a 16.67 ± 4.41a 33.67±8.8a 91.67±8.3b 98.00±2.00b 100.00±0.0b
1.204 0.00 ± 0.00a 6.67 ± 1.67a 10.00±0.0a 15.00±7.6ab 23.33 ± 4.41a 23.00±9.0a 83.33±4.1b 100.00±0.00b 100.00±0.0b
Control 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00±0.00a 0.00±0.0a 0.00 ± 0.00a 7.50±2.89a 0.00±0.0a 0.00±0.00a 15.00±0.67a

The means ± Standard Error represent three (3) replicates. The mean having the same alphabet down the column are not significantly different from one
another using Tukey’s HSD (Highest Significant Difference) at p>0.05.

Table 4
Effects of increase in temperature and exposure time on the LC50 toxicity of DDVP to C. quinquefasciatus.

27 °C 32 °C 37 °C

Log of Conc. (ppm) 30 60 90 Duration of exposure (Min) 30 60 90 30 60 90

Control 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00±0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 0.00±0.00a 6.67±1.67a 0.00±0.00a 0.00 ± 0.00a 16.67±1.6a
−1.287 0.00±0.00a 8.33±4.41ab 18.33±1.67b 5.00 ± 0.00a 20.00±1.1b 23.67±0.3b 78.33±3.3b 92.67±3.6b 100.00±0.0b
−0.596 6.67 ± 3.33a 16.67±4.41b 30.00±2.89b 10.00±0.0b 43.00±3.3c 48.67±0.3c 81.67±3.3b 92.00±4.0b 100.00±0.0b
−0.295 63.33±1.67c 70.00±2.89c 71.67±1.67c 10.00±0.0b 75.00±0.0d 83.67±3.1d 90.00±2.8b 98.00±2.0b 100.00±0.0b
0.100 68.00±1.23c 75.00± 1.55c 86.00±1.45d 45.00±0.0c 80.00±0.0d 90.00±0.0e 90.00±2.8b 98.00±2.0b 100.00±0.0b
0.400 71.67±1.67c 81.67±1.67d 91.67±1.67d 75.00±0.0d 86.67±4.4e 98.00±2.0e 90.00±5.7b 94.00±6.0b 100.00±0.0b

The means ± Standard Error represent three (3) replicates. The mean having the same alphabet down the column are not significantly different from one
another using Tukey’s HSD (Highest Significant Difference) at p>0.

related and include: increasing ambient temperatures, warmer winter minimum temperatures, changes in precipitation pat-
terns, and water shortages [30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
Temperatures measured on land and at sea for more than a century show that earth’s globally averaged surface tempera-
ture is rising. Though warming has not been uniform across the planet, the upward trend in the global averaged temperature
shows that more areas are experiencing warming than cooling. This phenomenon has led to the development of insecticides
resistance that varies from region to region [29]. Resistance to pyrethroids and organophosphates has been widely reported
and pyrethroids in particular have been used since the early 1980 to control insect pests in public health through indoor
spraying and in mosquito treated nets [35].
Results obtained from this study showed that toxicity of both cypermethrin and DDVP varied with changes in tempera-
ture. USGCRP [2], Woiwod and Harrington [30] and Zhou and Harrington [31] have reported the interaction of temperature
with the mechanisms of insecticide action as a major obstacle in the control of insect vectors particularly with the contin-
uous increase in the earth temperature due to climate change and global warming. For cypermethrin, toxicity was found to
increase with increase in exposure temperature. Lower concentration of cypermethrin produced higher toxicity on C. quin-
quefasciatus at 37 °C in comparison with exposure at 27 °C and 32 °C temperature. This study confirmed the findings by
Hodjati and Curtis [25] which showed a positive temperature coefficient for toxicity when susceptible and resistant strains
of adult Anopheles gambiae were exposed to permethrin for 24 h at temperature of 16 °C and 37 °C. However, our findings
contradicted the work of Boina et al. [36] who reported a negative temperature coefficient for toxicity when adult Diapho-
rina citri (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) were exposed to the Type I pyrethroid (Bifenthrin) between 17 °C and 27 °C, although, the
insects subjected to the bioassay was not a Diptera. Laetz et al. [24] had suggested differences in the susceptibility of insect
at different temperature may be attributed to the rate of chemical uptake, binding affinity, metabolism and excretion of
insecticides in this insect with changes in temperature [29].
Furthermore, Weston et al. [37] reported temperature affects metabolic function and toxico- kinetic rates in many insects,
they emphasised that greater uptake of pyrethroids (permethrin) occurred at higher temperature when they studied the ef-
fect of permethrin on Chironomus dilutes (Diptera: Chironomidae) at 23 °C and 33 °C. In this study, low mortality recorded
at lower temperature may be attributed to less penetration of the parent compound, decreased in the rate of parent com-
pound bio-transformation to fewer toxic metabolites even at higher temperature in corroboration with Weston et al. [37].
The earlier explanation by Weston et al. [37] justifies the effect of increase in exposure temperature in the case of low dose
rate of DDVP which recorded high mortality value after 90 min of exposure at 37 °C as against the highest concentration of
DDVP which recorded a lower mortality value at room temperature even after 90 min of exposure period.
There is a positive relationship between DDVP efficacies in the control of C. quinquefasciatus with increasing temperature,
this is responsible for suitability of organosphosphates such as DDVP, fenthion, malathion and temephos as major class of
insecticides widely used in the vector control program in Nigeria. They are applied by space sprays mainly for the control of
adults (adulticide) [38]. The strong positive relationship between the toxicity of DDVP to C. quinquefasciatus at all the tem-

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K.L. Akinwande, A.R. Arotiowa and A.J. Ete Scientific African 12 (2021) e00743

perature examined could be associated with heat stress, high mortality recorded at lower concentration of DDVP at higher
temperature compared to lower mortality recorded at higher concentration of DDVP at room temperature. Horn [39] further
corroborated the observation, claiming organophosphate (OP) action is affected by changes in temperature and its toxicity
increases with increasing temperature, claiming the chemicals are positive temperature coefficient. For example Diazinon, an
organophosphate killed more mosquitoes (Anopheles stephensi) at higher temperatures [26]. A contrary report by Patil et al.
[40] revealed that exposing the larvae of the mosquitoes (A. stephensi) to high temperatures resulted in increased tolerance
to insecticide Bendiocarb, another organophosphate. This tendency is a negative temperature coefficient.
Findings on synergistic toxicity of cypermethrin and DDVP to adult C. quinquefasciatus increases with increase in tem-
perature and exposure time. The synergistic relationship is confirmed by the 100% mortality values recorded in all the
temperature values and exposure time. The mechanism of synergism between insecticides could be linked to the ability of
one toxicant to interfere with the metabolic detoxification of the second toxicant, thereby increasing the toxicity of the latter
compound. Kulkrani and Hodgson [41] demonstrated that pyrethroid and organophosphate insecticides may be competitive
substrates for the same oxidase process, thus increasing the toxicity of the mixture.
Temperature variability due to climate change may constitute a major barrier to insect vector control. Therefore, climate
information through access to weather forecast information, climate change adaptation policy in synergy with modality of
chemical applications and further study of toxico-kinetic of insecticides may offer interesting perspective for controlling the
upsurge of insect vectors, particularly mosquitoes so as to alleviate the global burden of mosquito transmitted diseases.

Author’s contributions

AKL conceived the research, analysed the data, wrote and proofread the scripts, ARA performed the experiments, analysed
the data under the supervision of AKL while EJA proofread the script.

Declaration of Competing Interest

None

Acknowledgment

We are grateful to Mr Olorunfemi O. Sunday (PhD student in Applied Entomology) for his contributions.

Funding information

The research did not receive any grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or not for profit sectors.

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