A Paper on

Dalit/Tribal/Adivasi Reconstruction of Feminist Theology

Subject: Feminist Theology

Facilitator: Mrs. Jessy Santhosh

Submitted by: Ishi M Dass (BD IV)

1. Introduction

Dalit, Tribal, and Adivasi communities are among the most discriminated in India. When it
comes to women of these communities, they are doubly or triply oppressed due to the
marginalization of their communities as well as patriarchal standards of society. This paper is
an attempt to understand the Dalit, Tribal, Adivasi reconstruction of Feminist Theology:
What it is? Why is it needed? How can it be applied? And what is its implication?

2. Definition of Terms
2.1. Dalit

The present usage of the term dalit goes back to the nineteenth century, when a Marathi
social reformer and revolutionary Mahatma Jotirao Phule used it to describe the outcastes and
untouchables as the oppressed and broken victims of the caste-ridden society. Today, this
term is used frequently and has become popular among the Dalit people of various protest
movements in our country.1 It may comprise of all those people of different castes and sub-
castes among the Depressed Classes who were traditionally subjected to invidious
discriminations on grounds of untouchability, and categorised as the untouchables,
downtrodden, exterior classes, Depressed Classes or the Scheduled Castes.2
2.2. Tribal

According to Herbert Hope Risley, the people of India were composed of seven basic racial
types: the Mongoloid, the Dravidian, the Indo-Aryan, the Turko-Iranian, the Mongolo-

1
James Massey, “Historical Roots,” in Indigenous People: Dalits, Dalit Issues in Today’s Theological Debate,
ed. James Massey (Delhi: ISPCK, 1994), 6.
2
R. K. Kshirsagar, Dalit Movement in India and its Leaders (New Delhi: M D Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1994), 4.
Dravidian, the Aryo-Dravidian, and the Scytho-Dravidian. Most of those thought to be tribals
were described as being of Dravidian or Mongolian stock, whilst the agricultural or peasant
classes of north India were either of mixed stock, or were Aryan in origin.3

Many find fault with the term ‘tribal’ itself, a term allegedly used to denote primitivity and
backwardness. Before its usage, ‘Scheduled Tribe’ was used. Being designated as so in 1950,
they were referred to at various stages as ‘forest tribes,’ ‘primitive tribes,’ backward tribes.’
Moreover, the tribal’s inclusion in the Schedule Tribes category in the constitution
categorically equates them as one among the lowest with an ugly status in an already caste
ridden society.4
2.3. Adivasi

Adivasi is a term that bears both complexity and universality. Adivasi cultures have a variety
of customs and traditions. On the other hand, the Adivasi groups have a common experience
in different contexts.5 The term Adivasi did not originate with the Adivasis and it originally
did not have any negative connotations at the time. It is the word used by Anthropologists to
describe a group of people who speak the same language, follow the same social standards,
and collaborate for a common goal such as business, agriculture, or warfare’. The use of the
phrase in India is the worst. In India, the word Adivasi is an imposed label with a connotation
of disapproval. It refers to people who live in the hills and forests, who are primitive and
economically backward.6
2.4. Historical Reconstruction

In hermeneutical terms, historical reconstruction refers to the method of interpretation in

which the interpreter attempts to reach behind a historical text to find out the purpose behind
it, the factors that influenced it, and the main train of thought that gave rise to it. Emilio Betti
affirms Friedrich Schleiermacher’s dictum that the interpreter’s reconstruction might include

3
Crispin Bates, “Race, Caste and Tribe in Central India: The Early Origins of Indian Anthropometry,”
Edinburgh Papers in South Asian Studies, no. 3 (1995): 21.
4
Aosenla, “Re-visiting the Communitarian Aspect of Land in Building a Relevant Tribal Theology,” in Building
Theologies of Solidarity: Interfacing Feminist Theology with Dalit Theology and Tribal/Adivasi Theologies, eds.
Hrangthan Chhungi, Raj Bharath Patta, and P. Mohan Larbeer (Bangalore: BTESSC, 2012), 15.
5
Sathianathan Clarke, "Viewing the Bible Through the Eyes and Ears of Subalterns in India", Biblical
Interpretation 10, 3 (2002): 251, https://doi.org/10.1163/156851502760226266
6
A. Alangaram, Christ of the Asian Peoples: Towards an Asian Contextual Christology: Based on the
Documents of Federation of Asian Bishops' Conferences (India: Asian Trading Corporation, 1999), 160.
factors of which author was not fully aware; as a result of which in a sense, the interpreter
can understand the author better than the author himself.7

When it comes to Feminist Theology, it takes feminist critique and reconstruction of gender
paradigms into the theological realm. They question patterns of theology that justify male
dominance and female subordination, such as exclusive male language for God, the view that
males are more like God than females, that only males can represent God as leaders in church
and society, or that women are created by God to be subordinate to males and thus sin by
rejecting this subordination.8 According to Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza, a major feminist
approach to the Pauline texts has been historical reconstruction of the history of early
Christianity. It seeks not to reiterate men’s views about women but to discover evidence for
women’s participation in the early church.9

3. The Pathos of Dalit/Tribal/Adivasi Women

Gabriele Dietrich notes that Dalit women suffer triple oppression under caste, class, and
gender nexus because they are Dalit, poor and women.10 They also suffer due to multiple
patriarchies such as Brahminical patriarchy and Dalit patriarchy.11 In the case of Tribal and
Adivasi women, they face severe discrimination of all forms due to which they suffer from
identity crisis. They are always considered a property of one male or the other and are not
given the personhood they deserve.12

4. The Need for Dalit/Tribal/Adivasi Reconstruction of Feminist Theology

Theological discourses and articulations in the history of the Tribals in India, both past and
present are the perspective of the dominant i.e., men. Such a patriarchal perspective doesn’t
acknowledge women’s articulations of faith. Therefore, reconstructing of Tribal

7
Anthony C. Thiselton, New Horizons in Hermeneutics: The Theory and Practice of Transforming Biblical
Reading (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992), 252.
8
Rosemary Radford Ruether, “The Emergence of Christian Feminist Theology,” in The Cambridge Companion
to Feminist Theology, ed. Susan Frank Parsons (UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 3.
9
Letty M. Russell and J. Shannon Clarkson, eds., Dictionary of Feminist Theologies (USA: Westminster John
Knox Press, 1996), 208.
10
Gabriele Dietrich, A New Thing on Earth: Hopes and Fears Facing Feminist Theology (Theological
Ruminations of a Feminist Activist) (Delhi: ISPCK, 2001), 242.
11
Antony John Baptist, Together as Sisters: Hagar and Dalit Women (Delhi: ISPCK, 2012), 25.
12
Asangla Lemtur, “Towards a New Horizon of Developing Tribal Feminist Faith Articulation,” in Building
Theologies of Solidarity: Interfacing Feminist Theology with Dalit Theology and Tribal/Adivasi Theologies, eds.
Hrangthan Chhungi, Raj Bharath Patta, and P. Mohan Larbeer (Bangalore: BTESSC, 2012), 67.
historiography from a feminist perspective becomes very important for doing theology.13 The
same can be said about the Dalit and the Adivasi women. In India, even though the feminist
theological writings are getting momentum, special issues of Dalits, Tribals, Adivasis
(especially the women among them) are not taken up in the proper manner. The style of
language, imageries used, and aesthetics of the Dalit women’s theological writings are not
much different from the mainstream writings. The voices of Dalit women have just recently
been heard in ecumenical circles. There has not yet been a strong Dalit woman scholarly
movement in India. Study on Dalit feminism is still in its initial stage and very little has been
done and written in this area.14

Antony John Baptist also points out that the Bible holds a significant authority on the
religious life of people. Although, many times it has been misused as a tool of oppression,
subjugation and internalization and to ensure the secondary status of women, particularly
Dalit women, it is believed by millions of Christians to be the Word of God, life-giving
Sacred Scripture. So, it can and should be used for their liberation, well-being and survival.15

5. A Dalit/Tribal/Adivasi Feminist Methodology

By the help of correlation theory, Dr. Margaret Kalaiselvi has located the common
denominator between Dalit, women and Tribal/Adivasi people i.e., experience. According to
her, following are the various avenues which can be used for a Dalit/Tribal/Adivasi Feminist
theology: (a) Singing; (b) Story Telling; (d) Dancing; (e) Healing.16

6. Dalit/Tribal/Adivasi Feminist Reconstructions

N. G. Prasuna has attempted to present a Dalit Feminist theology of the cross. She affirms
Luther’s outlook of the cross as a mirror that shows us what should have been our state in sin,
for Christ became sin for our sake. She also states that Dalit women bear their cross every

13
Lemtur, “Towards a New Horizon,” 70.
14
Sunil Raj Philip, “A Semiotic Approach to Dalit Women Theologians’ Writings, as an Affirmation of
Identity, Juxtaposing with Elitist Theological Writings,” in Building Theologies of Solidarity: Interfacing
Feminist Theology with Dalit Theology and Tribal/Adivasi Theologies, eds. Hrangthan Chhungi, Raj Bharath
Patta, and P. Mohan Larbeer (Bangalore: BTESSC, 2012), 63.
15
Antony John Baptist, “Feminist Biblical Scholarship from the Dalit Women Lens,” Vidyajyoti Journal of
Theological Reflection 85, no. 7 (2021): 510.
16
Dr. Margaret observes the commonality in experiences of Dalit/Tribal/Adivasi women in all these avenues.
She mentions how deeply involved they are in all these areas and how they can be used to liberate them from
their bondages. For further reading refer, Margaret Kalaiselvi, “Strategies for Creating Solidarity towards
Integrating Feminist, Dalit, and Tribal Community Theologies – Communication Perspective,” Arasaradi
Journal of Theological Reflection XXIV, no. 1 & 2 (2011): 28-34.
day and suffer injustice just like Christ suffered. Moreover, they sacrifice their life so that
other may have life in abundance. Therefore, the revelation of God in Christ is reflected in
the pathos of Dalit women.17

On the other hand, Antony John Baptist has used the Biblical character Hagar to re-read and
re-vision her life as the life of a Dalit woman. He studies both their horizons separately and
then fuses them together using both to empathise with one another. He underlines three
aspects to their liberation:

a) Utopia: The oppressed and the subjugated have a vision for a better society, place, and
time.
b) Struggle for Survival: Both Hagar and Dalit women live in desolate conditions and
struggle to survive.
c) Well-being: Once survival is ensured, there is an effort to raise their standard of life
gradually.18

Another outstanding example of such reconstruction is given by Evangeline Anderson-

Rajkumar who compares the unnamed woman of Mark 5:21-34 with the dominated and
oppressed women of the Dalit, Tribal and Adivasi communities. This hemorrhaging woman
has no name, no dignity, no identity and is deemed insignificant just like several suffering
women of these communities. No matter what everyone said in reference to her diseased
body, she loved it and built it up with faith, hope and love. She breaks the social stigma of
being “unclean” herself and touching a “clean” Jewish rabbi i.e., Jesus. She does this with
faith and is restored and healed.19

7. Implication of Reconstruction

Asangla Lemtur comments that Re-affirmation of the dignity of women especially the most
violated should come to the forefront of our theologizing. This can be done by resisting the

17
N. G. Prasuna, “On Becoming a Dalit Feminist Theologian of the Cross,” Gurukul Journal of Theological
Studies XXII, no. 2 (2011): 28-29.
18
Baptist, Together as Sisters, 164-169.
19
Evangeline Anderson-Rajkumar, “Body Power versus Power Bodies: A Dalit-Feminist-Womanist-Tribal-
Adivasi Theology of Engagement,” in Building Theologies of Solidarity: Interfacing Feminist Theology with
Dalit Theology and Tribal/Adivasi Theologies, eds. Hrangthan Chhungi, Raj Bharath Patta, and P. Mohan
Larbeer (Bangalore: BTESSC, 2012), 178-182.
misuse and abuse of power, transforming systematic power relationships, and breaking the
exclusionary logic and practice of relating and considering others as lesser human beings.20

8. Conclusion

It is of utmost importance to do a Dalit/Tribal/Adivasi reconstruction of Feminist Theology

wherever possible. As the paper delineated, the women of these communities suffer almost
on a daily basis and are yet forgotten. Such reconstructions would help to bring their life-long
issues to the forefront and give them a viable solution as well. As Asangla Lemtur stated,
every theology must work to uplift the humanness of people and not to disgrace them.

Bibliography

Alangaram, A. Christ of the Asian Peoples: Towards an Asian Contextual Christology:

Based on the Documents of Federation of Asian Bishops' Conferences. India:
Asian Trading Corporation, 1999.

Anderson-Rajkumar, Evangeline. “Body Power versus Power Bodies: A Dalit-Feminist-

Womanist-Tribal-Adivasi Theology of Engagement.” In Building Theologies of
Solidarity: Interfacing Feminist Theology with Dalit Theology and Tribal/Adivasi
Theologies. Eds. Hrangthan Chhungi, Raj Bharath Patta, and P. Mohan Larbeer.
Bangalore: BTESSC, 2012.

Aosenla, “Re-visiting the Communitarian Aspect of Land in Building a Relevant Tribal

Theology.” In Building Theologies of Solidarity: Interfacing Feminist Theology
with Dalit Theology and Tribal/Adivasi Theologies. Eds. Hrangthan Chhungi, Raj
Bharath Patta, and P. Mohan Larbeer. Bangalore: BTESSC, 2012.

Baptist, Antony John. “Feminist Biblical Scholarship from the Dalit Women Lens.”
Vidyajyoti Journal of Theological Reflection 85, no. 7 (2021): 510.

Baptist, Antony John. Together as Sisters: Hagar and Dalit Women. Delhi: ISPCK, 2012.

Bates, Crispin. “Race, Caste and Tribe in Central India: The Early Origins of Indian
Anthropometry.” Edinburgh Papers in South Asian Studies, no. 3 (1995): 21.

20
Lemtur, “Towards a New Horizon,” 74.
Clarke, Sathianathan. “Viewing the Bible Through the Eyes and Ears of Subalterns in India.”
Biblical Interpretation 10, 3 (2002): 251.
https://doi.org/10.1163/156851502760226266

Dietrich, Gabriele. A New Thing on Earth: Hopes and Fears Facing Feminist Theology
(Theological Ruminations of a Feminist Activist). Delhi: ISPCK, 2001.

Kalaiselvi, Margaret. “Strategies for Creating Solidarity towards Integrating Feminist, Dalit,
and Tribal Community Theologies – Communication Perspective.” Arasaradi
Journal of Theological Reflection XXIV, no. 1 & 2 (2011): 28-34.

Kshirsagar, R. K. Dalit Movement in India and its Leaders. New Delhi: M D Publications
Pvt. Ltd., 1994.

Lemtur, Asangla. “Towards a New Horizon of Developing Tribal Feminist Faith

Articulation.” In Building Theologies of Solidarity: Interfacing Feminist Theology
with Dalit Theology and Tribal/Adivasi Theologies. Eds. Hrangthan Chhungi, Raj
Bharath Patta, and P. Mohan Larbeer. Bangalore: BTESSC, 2012.

Massey, James. “Historical Roots,” in Indigenous People: Dalits, Dalit Issues in Today’s
Theological Debate. Ed. James Massey. Delhi: ISPCK, 1994.

Philip, Sunil Raj. “A Semiotic Approach to Dalit Women Theologians’ Writings, as an

Affirmation of Identity, Juxtaposing with Elitist Theological Writings.” In Building
Theologies of Solidarity: Interfacing Feminist Theology with Dalit Theology and
Tribal/Adivasi Theologies. Eds. Hrangthan Chhungi, Raj Bharath Patta, and P.
Mohan Larbeer. Bangalore: BTESSC, 2012.

Prasuna, N. G. “On Becoming a Dalit Feminist Theologian of the Cross.” Gurukul Journal of
Theological Studies XXII, no. 2 (2011): 28-29.

Ruether, Rosemary Radford. “The Emergence of Christian Feminist Theology.” In The

Cambridge Companion to Feminist Theology. Ed. Susan Frank Parsons. UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Russell, Letty M. and J. Shannon Clarkson. Eds. Dictionary of Feminist Theologies. USA:
Westminster John Knox Press, 1996.
Thiselton, Anthony C. New Horizons in Hermeneutics: The Theory and Practice of
Transforming Biblical Reading. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House,
1992.