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Yu 2001
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Zhenxin Yu
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Hong Yan
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong
T.C. Edwin Cheng
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Keywords
Decentralization supply chain, Introduction Supply chain uncertainty and the
Partnering, Information exchange, bullwhip effect
Globalization of business has been
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Pareto analysis
accelerating in pace in the last two decades Uncertainties in a production distribution
Abstract due to the rapid development of technology in chain are usually buffered by inventories. To
The power of information formulate an effective inventory control
manufacturing and information, increased
technology can be harnessed to
cost pressure and more aggressive demand policy, uncertainties in the system need to be
help supply chain members
establish partnerships for better from customers. Traditional production- identified. In traditional logistics studies, a
supply chain system performance. distribution schemes have been dramatically supply chain is often considered as a multi-
Supply chain partnerships can site inventory system. There are three
changed. Most companies have been forced to
mitigate deficiencies associated
relocate or redesign their manufacturing distinct sources of uncertainty that affect a
with decentralized control and
reduce the ``bullwhip effect''. This network in different countries. New supply chain: suppliers, manufacturers and
study illustrates the benefits of partnership relationships among suppliers, customers. Uncertainties are caused by
supply chain partnerships based
manufactures, retailers and other parties delayed deliveries, machine breakdowns,
on information sharing. For a
have replaced the conventional free market order fluctuations, etc., which necessitate
decentralized supply chain
comprising a manufacturer and a structures. Although the supply chain is increased inventories. Uncertainties will
retailer, we derive the members' frequently referred to as the logistic network propagate through the supply chain in the
optimal inventory policies under
in the literature, supply chain management form of amplification of ordering variability,
different information sharing
emphasizes the overall and long-time benefit which leads to excess safety stock, increased
scenarios. We show that
increasing information sharing of all parties on the chain through logistics costs and inefficient use of
among the members in a cooperation and information sharing. By resources.
decentralized supply chain will
coordinating different parties along the In a supply chain, every member of the
lead to Pareto improvement in the chain needs to make a forecast of its
performance of the entire chain. logistics network, or establishing business
Specifically, the supply chain partnerships, supply chain management downstream site's product demand for its
members can reap benefits in creates a win-win situation for all members. own production planning, inventory control
terms of reductions in inventory
Information sharing on a supply chain brings and material requirement planning. Usually,
levels and cost savings from the demand forecasting includes some
forming partnerships with one about a great advance in business
another. A case study is provided connections, such as vendor managed uncertain terms, which can be described as
for illustration. inventory (VMI), cross-docking and quick demand variability. An important
response (QR). phenomenon observed in supply chain
A supply chain partnership is a practices is that the variability of an
relationship formed between two upstream member's demand is greater than
independent members in supply channels that of the downstream member. This effect
through increased levels of information was found by logistics executives at Procter
sharing to achieve specific objectives and & Gamble (P&G) and called the ``bullwhip
This research was partially benefits in terms of reductions in total costs effect''. In recent years, it has become a major
supported by The Hong concern for many manufacturers,
and inventories. It promises a win-win
Kong Polytechnic University distributors and retailers. For a
under research grant situation for the members involved. This
number G-V625. paper illustrates the benefits of supply chain manufacturing system, this phenomenon can
partnerships through an analytical model. be described as the variance of production
The partnerships are focused on the basis of exceeding the variance of sales under the
different levels of information sharing optimal behavior even if the manufacturer
Industrial Management & between two adjacent partners on the chain. can backlog excess demand (Kahn, 1987). The
Data Systems causes of the bullwhip effect have been
101/3 [2001] 114±119 identified as: demand forecasting, order
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
# MCB University Press batching, price fluctuation and rationing
[ISSN 0263-5577] http://www.emerald-library.com/ft
game (Lee et al., 1997). Basically, the bullwhip
[ 114 ]
Zhenxin Yu, Hong Yan and effect is largely caused by variability of infinite-horizon case. The echelon stock
T.C. Edwin Cheng ordering. To mitigate or eliminate this effect, policy was studied by Chen and Zheng (1997).
Benefits of information information sharing between members of a Most research suggests centralized
sharing with supply chain
partnerships supply chain should be increased to reduce the information can improve a decentralized
Industrial Management & uncertainty. Increasing vertical information supply chain's performance, and different
Data Systems sharing using Electronic Data Interchange control policies have been studied under an
101/3 [2001] 114±119 environment of information cooperation (see,
(EDI) technology can enhance shipment
performance of suppliers and greatly improve for example, Tzafestas and Kapsiotis, 1994;
the performance of the supply chain system McGavin et al., 1997; Chen, 1999).
(Srinivasan et al., 1994). The expanding
importance of information integration also
prompts increasing attention to establish Information sharing and
strategic supply chain partnerships. partnership
The reason for uncertainties is that perfect
information about the system cannot be
Deficiency of decentralized control secured. While every single member has
Modern organization management theory perfect information about itself,
Downloaded by University of Manchester At 03:05 27 February 2018 (PT)
suggests that decentralizing decision rights uncertainties arise due to a lack of perfect
is an effective way of managing a large information about other members. To reduce
organization. To make timely decisions uncertainties, the supply chain member
effectively, decision rights should be should obtain more information about other
assigned to the person who is just at the members. If the members are willing to share
decision spot and has specialized knowledge information, each of them will have more
of his or her surroundings. In a supply chain, information about others. Therefore, the
the participants may belong to different whole system's performance will be
organizations (within the same company or improved because each member can gain
across companies). Each member has its own improvement from information sharing. This
decision rights to make control policies at its cooperation mode for increasing information
spot, i.e., it acts as a single decision maker to sharing among supply chain members can be
optimize its costs or benefits. Thus, the called a supply chain partnership. With
supply chain is operated in a decentralized partnership, the negative impact of the
fashion. One problem of this decentralized bullwhip effect on a supply chain can be
control is, however, the whole system may reduced or eliminated because it can help the
not achieve the optimum performance even supply chain members share more
though each member optimizes its own information to reduce uncertainties. The
performance. For example, in a supply chain deficiency of decentralized control is also
with multi-echelon, one site decides to reduce associated with uncertainties. Thus, with
its inventories. In order to maintain its information sharing, the decentralized
service level, the inventory pressure is often supply chain can achieve the optimal
put on its upstream sites (or suppliers). If this performance under centralized control.
site's improvement is achieved by only Among existing quantitative studies of
increasing the upstream site's inventories, it information sharing and supply chain
will hardly yield improvement for the whole partnerships, Iyer and Bergen (1997)
system's performance. A ``broken'' supply examined the impact of quick response (QR)
chain will have substantial stock held at one on the fashion apparel industry. Baganha
site to enable another site's stock reduction and Cohen (1998) presented a hierarchical
(Davis, 1993). This deficiency caused by model as an analytical framework to examine
decentralized control has led to the evolution the stabilizing effect of inventories in supply
of partnership relations between buyers and chains. EDI implementation can incorporate
suppliers. Therefore, it is expected that if information flow between a supplier and a
each member of the supply chain has more retailer, which will benefit a two-echelon
information about other members, and treats supply chain model (Gavirneni et al., 1999).
each other as strategic partners, it would be However, there exists a large amount of
easier to achieve an optimum performance literature on the concepts of supply chain
based on each member's control policy. partnerships projecting extremely optimistic
A stream of modeling research has been views about their promise as win-win
reported to study different members' optimal partnerships without rigorous analysis to
control policies in decentralized supply support the cause of optimism (Maloni and
chains. Clark and Scarf (1960) made one of the Benton, 1997). There is a lack of research that
earliest efforts in decentralized optimization adopts more rigorous analytical approaches
of a two-echelon system. Federgruen and to examine the supply chain partnership
Zipkin (1984) extended their result to the issues.
[ 115 ]
Zhenxin Yu, Hong Yan and manufacturer uses the retailer's ordering
T.C. Edwin Cheng Methodology information. We suppose both of them use
Benefits of information the base stock policy as their inventory
sharing with supply chain To illustrate the benefits of partnerships with
partnerships information sharing, we use a decentralized control policy. The base stock policy is of
Industrial Management & supply chain consisting of a single retailer the (s, S) type with periodic review
Data Systems and a single manufacturer to model the procedures, which means an order will be
101/3 [2001] 114±119 partnership. We define three levels of placed to replenish the stock level to S at
information integration to describe three each time period if the stock level is less
types of partnerships under different than the reorder point s. S is called the
information sharing situations. Then, a cost- order-up-to level.
minimizing model is formulated as the 2 Level 2: It is referred to as ``coordinated
building block of the modeling analysis. We control''. The two neighboring inventories
use this basic model to derive each supply are coordinated with sharing of the
chain member's optimal inventory policies customer ordering information. In this
under the three levels of information situation, the manufacturer will obtain
sharing. From the comparison of inventory the customer demand information,
reductions and cost savings among the three together with the retailer's ordering
information integration levels, we show that information, and then make its inventory
Downloaded by University of Manchester At 03:05 27 February 2018 (PT)
``Pareto improvement'' will be achieved, i.e. decision based on both the current
both the retailer and the manufacturer are at customer demand information and the
least as well off and at least one of them is retailer's ordering information.
better off. Therefore, we conclude that the 3 Level 3: We name this situation as
information sharing-based partnership can ``centralized control''. Under this
improve the overall performance of a situation, the decentralized supply chain
decentralized supply chain. can obtain the optimal performance
We now introduce the three levels of achievable by a supply chain under
information sharing. According to different centralized control. Based on EDI, both
situations of information sharing and the retailer and the manufacturer can
ordering information coordination, the retrieve the customer's demand
partnership between the retailer and the information in a synchronized manner.
manufacturer can be described as one of the VMI can be adopted. This means the
following integration levels (see Figure 1). manufacturer takes the initiative to make
1 Level 1: This is referred to as major inventory replenishment decisions
``decentralized control''. The inventories for the retailer in parallel with its own
at different sites of the supply chain are inventory decisions. In this case, the
controlled independently. There is neither manufacturer will not depend on the
information sharing nor any ordering retailer's ordering information, but on the
coordination between the retailer and the customer's demand directly.
manufacturer. Both the retailer and the
manufacturer make their inventory
decisions according to their own Model formulation
forecasting. The retailer uses the
customer demand information and the We present the basic cost-minimization
model for two supply chain members. It is
assumed that the retailer orders a single item
Figure 1
from the manufacturer at each time period.
Three information sharing levels
Both of them adopt the order-up-to inventory
policy with a periodic review procedure and
any excess demand is backlogged. At the
beginning of each period, the retailer and
manufacturer should decide their order-up-to
levels. For each of them, the decision is made
based on such a basic inventory model.
Mathematically, the inventory problem is
given by
" #
X1 X
tL
t 1 L
Min Z cRt G St ; Dl ;
t1 lt
where
! !
X
tL X
tL X
tL
G St ; Dl h St Dl g Dl St
lt lt lt
least as well off, and at least one of them ± the of the most critical issues in the company's
manufacturer ± is better off. The partnership operations can be tracked down to the
can improve the overall performance of the incompleteness of information. In this study,
supply chain. Therefore, we conclude that the company is considered as the
with information sharing-based supply chain manufacturer, we implement our model to
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Downloaded by University of Manchester At 03:05 27 February 2018 (PT)
[ 119 ]
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