SITE INVESTIGATION

&
SOIL EXPLORATION
Syllabus

SITE INVESTIGATION AND SOIL EXPLORATION: Objectives - Planning - Reconnaissance -

Guidelines For Choosing Spacing And Depth Of Borings [I.S. Guidelines Only]- Methods Of Subsurface
Exploration - Test Pits - Auger Borings – Wash Boring - Rotary Drilling - Standard Penetration Test –
Procedure And Correlations - Corrections For SPT Value – Numerical Problems - Sampling - Disturbed
Samples, Undisturbed Samples And Chunk Samples - Types Of Samplers - Sampler Parameters -
Boring Log – Soil profile- Location of Water table - Geophysical methods : Seismic Refraction method
and Electrical Resistivity method (in brief)
 26-02-2022

SITE INVESTIGATION
(SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION)

• For obtaining information about subsurface conditions at the site of

construction.
• Essential for the design of structures and for planning construction
techniques.
• It consists of determining the profile of soil deposit at the site, taking
the soil samples and determining the engineering properties of soil.
• Also include the in situ testing of soil.
 26-02-2022
OBJECTIVES OF SITE INVESTIGATIONS

1. To select the type and depth of foundation for a given structure.

2. To determine the bearing capacity of soil.
3. To determine the probable maximum and differential settlement.
4. To determine the ground water level and to determine the properties of water.
5. To determine the lateral earth pressure against retaining wall and abutments.
6. To select suitable construction techniques.
7. To predict and to solve potential foundation problems.
8. To ascertain suitability of soil as construction material.
9. To investigate the safety of existing structures and to suggest remedial
measures.
 26-02-2022
STAGES IN SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

1. Reconnaissance:

2. Preliminary exploration:

3. Detailed exploration:

4. Preparation of Report of
Sub-Soil Exploration
 26-02-2022
STAGES IN SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

1. Reconnaissance:
• includes a visit to the site and to study the maps and other relevant records.

• Helps in deciding the future site investigation programmes, scope of work,

methods of exploration to be adopted, types of samples to be taken, laboratory
tests and in-situ test to be conducted etc.

2. Preliminary exploration:
• To determine the depth, thickness and extent and composition of each stratum at
the site.
• To determine the depth of bed rock and ground water table.
• Tests are conducted with cone penetrometers and sounding rods to get information
about strength and compressibility of soil
 26-02-2022
STAGES IN SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

3. Detailed exploration:
• To determine the engineering properties of soils in different strata.

• Includes extensive boring programmes, sampling and testing of samples in

laboratory.

• Field tests such as vane shear test, plate load test, permeability tests are done to
determine the properties of soil in its natural states.

• Tests for the determination of dynamic properties are also carried out.

• Essential for complex projects involving bridges, dams, multi storied buildings etc.
 26-02-2022
STAGES IN SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

4. Preparation of Report of Sub-Soil Exploration

After performing preliminary or detailed site exploration methods a report should be
prepared. A sub-soil investigation or exploration report generally has the following sections :
• Introduction
• Scope of site investigation
• Description of the proposed structure, purpose of site investigation
• Site reconnaissance details Site exploration details such as number, location and depth
of boreholes, sampling details etc.
• Methods performed in site exploration and their results.
• Laboratory tests performed and their results.
• Details of Groundwater table level and position.
• Recommended improvement methods if needed.
• Recommended types of foundations, structural details, etc.
• Conclusion.
 RECONNAISSANCE
The information about following features are obtained in reconnaissance.
1. General topography of the site.
2. Existence of settlement cracks in the structure already built near by the site.
3. The evidence of landslides, creep of slopes, and shrinkage cracks.
4. The stratification of soils as observed from deep cuts near the site.
5. The location of high flood marks on the near by buildings and bridges.
6. The depth of ground water table as observed in the wells.
7. Existence of spring, swamps etc. at the site.
8. The drainage pattern existing at the site.
9. Type of vegetation existing at the site.
10. Existence of underground water mains, power conduits, etc. at the site.
 PRELIMINARY EXPLORATION
Gives information about the following
• Depth , extent and composition of soil strata
• Depth of rock
• Ground water level
• Engineering properties of soil
• Approximate values of strength and
compressibility of soil strata
• Preliminary selection of foundation type

Methods used are

Exploratory borings-
Auger boring , Wash boring
Shallow test pits
Subsurface penetration& soundings
Standard penetration Test
Geophysical methods
 26-02-2022

I.S. GUIDELINES FOR SPACING OF BORING

(IS 1892-1979)

• The number and spacing of bore holes or trial pits will depend upon the
extent of the site and the nature of structures coming on it.
• For smaller and less important buildings, one bore hole or trial pit in the
centre will be sufficient.
• For a compact building site covering an area of about 0.4 hectare, one
bore hole or trial pit in each corner and one in the centre should be
adequate.
•
 26-02-2022

I.S. GUIDELINES FOR SPACING OF BORING

(IS 1892-1979)

• For large multi-storeyed buildings, bore holes should be drilled at all the
corners and also at important locations. The spacing between boreholes
is generally kept between 10 to 30 m, depending on the variation in sub
surface conditions and loading.

• For smaller and less important buildings

one borehole at the centre is sufficient
 26-02-2022

I.S. GUIDELINES FOR SPACING OF BORING

(IS 1892-1979)

• For highways, spacing varies between 150 and 300 m. if the sub-strata is
erratic, the spacing may be reduced to even 30 m.
• In concrete dams, spacing of boreholes may varies between 40 and 80m.
• For very large areas covering industrial and residential colonies, the
geological nature of the terrain will help in deciding the number of bore
holes or trial pits.
• Cone penetration tests may be performed at every 50 m by dividing the
area in a grid pattern and number of bore holes or trial pits decided by
examining the variation in the penetration curves.
• The cone penetration tests may not be possible at sites having gravelly or
boulderous strata. In such cases geophysical methods may be useful.
Determine the minimum number of boreholes needed for a rectangular
plot of size i) 80x100m ii) 300x80 m as per IS guidelines

Soln: For a compact building site covering an area of about 0.4 hectare , one borehole in
each corner and one in the centre should be adequate
i) 80 x100 m. Total area = 8000 m2
Divide area into 2 rectangular areas of sizes 40x100 m
( area = 4000m2 or 0.4 hectare )
No. of bore holes needed =8
100m

ii) 300 x 80 m, Total area = 24000 m2 40m

Divide into 6 rectangular areas of sizes 40x100m

No. of boreholes needed = 20
 26-02-2022

I.S GUIDELINES FOR DEPTH OF BORING

(IS 1892-1979)

• The depth of exploration required depends on the type of proposed

structure, its total weight, the size, shape and disposition of the
loaded areas, soil profile, and the physical properties of the soil that
constitutes each individual stratum.

• Normally, it should be one and a half times the width of the footing
below foundation level.

• In certain cases, it may be necessary to take at least one bore hole

or cone test or both to twice the width of the foundation.
 26-02-2022

I.S GUIDELINES FOR DEPTH OF BORING

(IS 1892-1979)
• If a number of loaded areas are in close proximity the effect of each is additive. In
such cases, the whole of the area may be considered as loaded and exploration
should be carried out up to one and a half times the lower dimension.

• In weak soils, the exploration should be continued to a depth at which the loads can
be carried by the stratum in question without undesirable settlement and shear
failure.

• In any case, the depth to which seasonal variations affect the soil should be
regarded as the minimum depth for the exploration of sites.

• But where industrial processes affect the soil characteristics this depth may be
more
 26-02-2022
DEPTH OF EXPLORATION

No. Type of foundation Depth of exploration

1 Isolated spread footing or raft foundation with clear spacing 1.5 times the width
less than or equal to 4 times the width

2 Adjacent footings with clear spacing less than twice the width 1.5 times the length

3 Adjacent rows of footings

(i) With clear spacing between rows less than twice the width 4.5 times the width

(ii) With clear spacing between rows equal to twice the width 3 times the width

(iii) With clear spacing between rows greater than or equal to 4 1.5 times the width
times the width
 26-02-2022

DEPTH OF EXPLORATION

No. Type of foundation Depth of exploration

4 Pile and well foundations 1.5 times the width of structure from the bearing level
( toe of pile or bottom of well )

5 Road cuts Equal to the bottom width of the cut

6 Fills 2m below ground level or equal to the height of the fill

whichever is greater
 26-02-2022

METHODS OF SOIL EXPLORATION

Different methods of soil exploration for study of soil profiles

are:
• Open excavation
• Borings
• Subsurface soundings
• Geophysical methods
 26-02-2022

OPEN EXCAVATION

• A pit, eventually, can be excavated for exploring shallower depths,

say of the order of 2 to 5 m, or so.

• Such a pit can be easily excavated at the proposed construction

site, if the soil has a bit of cohesion, and the soil samples can be
lifted from such different depths, besides making the easy
visualization and examination of the different strata.

• Even undisturbed soil samples can be lifted from such a pit by a

process called chunk sampling.
BORING FOR EXPLORATION 26-02-2022
 BORING FOR EXPLORATION 26-02-2022

• When depth of exploration is large , boring is used for exploration.

• A vertical borehole is drilled in the ground to get the information
about sub-soil strata
• Depending on the type of soil and purpose of boring following
methods are used for drilling the boreholes
• Auger boring
• Wash boring
• Rotary drilling
• Percussion drilling
• Core boring
 26-02-2022
AUGER BORING
• An auger is a boring tool similar to the one used by a carpenter for
boring holes in wood.
• Augers can be operated manually or mechanically.
• The hand augers used are about 15 to 20 cm in diameter.
• they are suitable for advancing holes up to 3 to 6m in soft soils.
• The hand auger is attached to the lower end of a pipe of about 18
mm diameter.
• The pipe is provided with a cross arm at its top.
• The hole is advanced by turning the cross arm manually and
applying thrust in the downward direction.
• When the auger is filled with soil, it is taken outside.
• If the hole is driven, post-hole auger is used for taking soil
samples.
 26-02-2022
AUGER BORING
 26-02-2022

AUGER BORING
• Mechanical augers are driven by power.
• Used for making holes in hard strata to a greater depth.
• For depths greater than 12 m, even mechanical augers become inconvenient.

• Continuous flight augers are special type of mechanical augers which are provided with a
central hollow tube.
• When the hole is advanced, the central tube is kept plugged.
• As the auger is turned into the ground, the cutting rise to the surface through the spiral.
• During sampling, the plug is removed and a sampler is inserted for taking samples.
• The main disadvantage is that it become difficult to ascertain the depth from which the
cuttings coming on the ground have been removed.
 26-02-2022

26
 26-02-2022

AUGER BORING
• Auger boring is generally used for soils which can stay open without casing or drilling mud,
such as clays, silts and partially saturated sand.
• for soil which cannot stand unsupported, especially for sandy soil below water table, a
casing is normally required. For such soil auger boring becomes slow and expensive.
• Auger boring cannot be used when there are cobbles, boulders or other obstructions which
prevent drilling of holes.
• Auger boring is useful for subsurface investigations of highways, railways, airfields, where
the depth of exploration is small.

Advantages: rapid and economical.

Disadvantages: samples are highly disturbed, and it become difficult to locate the exact
changes in soil strata.
 26-02-2022

WASH BORING

• A hole is drilled by driving a casing about 2 to 3m long and then inserting into it a
hollow drill rod with a chisel shaped chopping bit at its lower end.

• Water is pumped down the hollow drill rod, which is known as wash pipe.

• Water emerges as strong jet through the small opening of the chopping bit.

• The hole is advanced by a combination of chopping action and jetting action.

• The water and the chopped soil particles rises upward through the annular space
between drill rod and casing.

• The return water (wash water) is laden with the soil cuttings and later collected in
a tube through a T- shaped pipe fixed at the top of the casing
 26-02-2022

WASH BORING

• The hole is further advanced by alternately rising and dropping the chopping bit
by a winch.
• The swivel joint provided at the top of the drill rod facilitate the turning and
twisting of the rod.
• The process is continued even below the casing till the hole begins to cave in.
• At that stage the bottom of the casing can be extended by providing additional
pieces at the top.
• In stable cohesive soil, the casing is required only in the top portion.
• Sometimes, instead of casing, special drilling fluids made of emulsions of fat
clays or bentonite combined with some chemical additives are used for
supporting the wall of hole.
 26-02-2022

Wash Boring
 WASH BORING 26-02-2022

Disadvantages:
• samples collected in the tube does not represent the soil in its true condition.

• There is complete breakdown of particles by chopping action.

• There is also mixing of particles and loss of fine particles in transportation.

• The method is slow in stiff soils and coarse grained soils.

• Cannot be used efficiently in hard soil, rocks and soil containing boulders.

• Not suitable for taking good quality undisturbed samples above ground water table

Advantages:
• Equipment used is light and inexpensive.
• some indication of changes in the strata is given by the reaction of chopping bit as the hole is
advanced and also by a change in the colour of wash water.

Mainly used for advancing a hole in the ground. Once the hole has been drilled, a sampler is
inserted to obtain soil samples for testing in the laboratory.
 26-02-2022

ROTARY DRILLING

• Rotary drilling is used to form a deep observation borehole or for obtaining representative
samples of rock. The drilling method involves a powered rotary cutting head on the end of a
shaft, driven into the ground as it rotates. The system requires lubrication (air, water or drilling
mud) to keep the cutting head cool.

• There are two types of rotary boring, open-hole and core drilling.
• Material recovered from open-hole drilling is mixed with the drilling lubricant. It is
unsuitable for effective sampling, and it is often difficult to observe and record the strata.
• Open-hole boring is only suitable for rapid drilling to enable core recovery at a greater
depth or for the installation of monitoring wells.
• Core drilling is carried out using wire-line, double or triple-tube core barrels with diamond or
tungsten-tipped core bits.
 26-02-2022

ROTARY DRILLING
 26-02-2022

ROTARY DRILLING

• Rotary drilling is suitable for the borehole sizes from 203 to 445 mm in diameter. So far, rotary
drilling has been the dominant method in large open pit mines. One of the disadvantages of
rotary drilling rigs is that they are not suitable for drilling an inclined borehole, which is favorable
to rock blasting.
26-02-2022
SOIL SAMPLING IN
GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION

• Soil Sampling is performed by

geotechnical engineers to obtain
information on the physical
properties of soil and rock around a
site to:

1) design foundation for proposed

structures
2) for repair of distress to
earthworks and structures
caused by subsurface conditions
 WHAT IS SOIL SAMPLING?

• Soil Sampling is also known as Geotechnical Investigation.

• A geotechnical investigation will include surface exploration and subsurface

exploration of a site.

• To obtain information about the soil conditions below the surface, some form
of subsurface exploration is required.

• Methods of observing the soils below the surface, obtaining samples, and
determining physical properties of the soils and rocks include, trenching
(particularly for locating faults and slide planes), boring, and in situ tests.
DISTURBED SAMPLES

• A disturbed sample is one in which the

structure of the soil has been changed
sufficiently that tests of structural properties
of the soil will not be representative of in-
situ conditions, and only properties of the
soil grains (e.g., grain size distribution,
Atterberg’s Limits, and possibly the water
content) can be accurately determined.
UNDISTURBED SAMPLE

• “Undisturbed" samples are not

truly undisturbed.

• An undisturbed sample is one

where the condition of the soil in
the sample is close enough to the
conditions of the soil in-situ, so that
tests of structural properties of the
soil can be approximated.
SOIL BORING
 BORING

• Used for subsurface exploration of site.

• Come in two main varieties, large-diameter and small-diameter.
• Large-diameter borings are rarely used due to safety concerns
and expense, but are sometimes used to allow a geologist or
engineer to visually and manually examine the soil and rock in-
situ.
• Small-diameter borings are frequently used to allow a geologist
or engineer examine soil or rock cuttings or to retrieve samples
at depth using soil samplers, and to perform in-place soil tests
IN-SITU TESTS

• Standard Penetration Test

• A standard penetration test (SPT)

is an in-situ dynamic penetration
test designed to provide
information on the properties of
soil, while also collecting a
disturbed soil sample for grain-size
analysis and soil classification.
IN-SITU TESTS

• Cone Penetration Test

• A CPT is performed using an

instrumented probe with a conical tip,
pushed into the soil hydraulically at a
constant rate. A basic CPT instrument
reports tip resistance and shear
resistance along the cylindrical barrel.
CPT data has been correlated to soil
properties.
SAMPLERS
 TYPE OF SAMPLERS

Thin-wall samplers are the samplers in which the wall thickness of the sampling
tube is less than 2.5% of the diameter. In other words, thin-wall samplers are
those for which the area ratio is less than or equal to 10%. Samplers for which the
area ratio is more than 10% are known as thick-wall samplers.
 TYPE OF SAMPLERS

Based on the sampler design and use, soil samplers are classified into
the following types:
1. Open-tube sampler.
2. Standard split-spoon sampler.
3. Stationary piston sampler.
4. Rotary sampler.
5. Scraper bucket sampler.
 OPEN DRIVE SAMPLER 26-02-2022

• It consists of a steel tube with a screw

thread at each end. The lower end is
usually fitted with a cutting shoe but
sometimes with an extension piece.
• The top end is fitted with a sample head,
which includes a non-reversible valve.
• Non-return The valve allows air and
water to escape when the specimen
enters and closes the specimen to the
surface, thus retaining the specimen
Suitable for fine-grained soft soils
inside the tube Unsuitable for dense gravelly soils
 SPLIT SPOON SAMPLER 26-02-2022

• most commonly used sampler for

obtaining undisturbed soil samples
• known as split-barrel and split-tube
sampler.
• used to conduct SPT
• When the SPT is conducted, the
soil sample simultaneously enters
the sampler by the end of the test,
which is then withdrawn and taken
to the laboratory.
 PISTON SAMPLER 26-02-2022

• A piston sampler consists of two parts

(a) a sampler cylinder
(b) a piston system.
• The piston rod is 30 cm (12 in.) in
diameter at the bottom end and fits
easily inside the hollow drill rod.

• sampling soft-to-stiff cohesive soils

• quality of samples obtained is excellent
• probability of obtaining a satisfactory
undisturbed sample is high
 SCRAPER BUCKET SAMPLER 26-02-2022

• standard split-spoon sampler it is difficult if the soil contains pebbles.

• Even if fitted with a spring core catcher, the pebbles interfere with the springs and
obstruct their closure
• collect only disturbed samples using a scraper bucket sampler.
• useful to obtain samples of cohesionless soil below GWT.

sample is thoroughly disturbed, it still

represents the soil at exact depth from
where it is collected.
 ROTARY SAMPLER 26-02-2022

• The rotary samplers are double-tube samplers with a removable thin-wall tube,
known as liner, inside an outer tube provided with a cutting bit.

• The outer tube with the cutting bit is rotated and pushed down into the soil for the
required length and the sample enters the liner. The inner tube, that is, the liner,
provided with a smooth cutting shoe, remains stationary and the sample cut by the
rotating outer tube slides into the liner. The sample is thus received in the liner.

• used for collection of undisturbed samples in stiff-to-hard clays, silts, and sands
with some cementation and also in soft rock.
• unsuitable for gravelly soils and loose cohesionless soils
 26-02-2022
STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)

• It is the most commonly used in situ test

especially for cohesionless soils, which
cannot be easily sampled.
• The test is useful for determining the
relative density and angle of shearing
resistance of cohesionless soil.
• It can also be used to determine the
unconfined compressive strength of
cohesive soils.
 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT) 26-02-2022

• A penetration test used to furnish data about resistance of soil to penetration which can be
used to evaluate soil strength

• Test is performed in a borehole

• Test employs a split spoon sampler which can be split into two parts. Outer dia 50.8 mm and
Inner dia is 35mm

• When the borehole has been drilled to the desired depth, the drilling tools are removed and
the sampler is lowered to the bottom of the hole.

• The sampler is driven into the soil by a drop hammer . (IS 2131-1963)
• Weight of hammer - 63.5 kg

• Height of fall - 750 mm

• No.of blows per minute - 30

 26-02-2022

56
 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT) 26-02-2022

• The no.of blows required to drive 150 mm of the sample is counted.

• The sampler is further driven by 150 mm and the no.of blows recorded.
• Likewise, the sampler is once again further driven by 150 mm and the no.of blows
recorded.
• The no.of blows recorded for first 150 mm is discarded.
• The no.of blows for last two 150 mm intervals are added to get the standard
penetration number (N).
• ie; the standard penetration number is equal to the number of blows required for
300 mm penetration beyond a seating drive of 150 mm.
• If the no.of blows for 150 mm drive exceeds 50, it is taken as refusal and the test
is discontinued.
 26-02-2022

CORRECTIONS FOR
STANDARD PENETRATION NUMBER

1. Overburden Correction
2. Dilatancy Correction
 OVERBURDEN CORRECTION 26-02-2022

• In granular soils, the overburden pressure affects the penetration resistance.

• As confining pressure in cohesionless soil increases with depth, N value of soil at shallow depth is
underestimated and that at greater depth is overestimated.

• For uniformity, The N values obtained from field tests under different effective overburden pressures are
corrected to a standard effective overburden pressure.

• Gibbs and Holtz (1967)

Nc=NR x 350/ (σ0+70)

NR= Observed N value, Nc = Corrected N value, σ0 = Effective overburden pressure

• Peck, Hansen and Thornburn (1974)

 DILATENCY CORRECTION 26-02-2022

• Silty fine sands and fine sands below water table develop pore pressure which is not easily dissipated.

• The pore pressure increases the resistance of the soil and hence the penetration number (N).

• Terzaghi and Peck (1967) recommended the following correction in the case of silty fine sands when the
observed N >15.

• The corrected penetration number,

Nc = 15+ ½(NR-15)
Where NR = Recorded N Value, Nc = Corrected N value

• If NR < 15, Nc =NR

26-02-2022
 62

q = (18*8)+((19-10)*12) = 252 kN/m2

Dilatency Correction
Nc = 0.77 log (2000/252) * 40 = 27.7
Nc = 15+ ½(NR-15)
= 15 +0.5(27-15)
Nc = 27
= 21
Check Nc/N > 2 (40/27 < 2)
Corrected N value is 21
26-02-2022
 26-02-2022

CORRELATION OF ‘N’ WITH ENGINEERING PROPERTIES

• N depends upon the relative density of cohesionless soil and unconfined

compressive strength of cohesive soil.

• If the soil is compact and stiff N will be high.

• Angle of internal friction depends on N value, Greater the N value,

greater the ϕ.
 26-02-2022

CORRELATION OF ‘N’ AND Φ

N Denseness Φ(degrees)

0-4 Very loose 25-32

4-10 Loose 27-35

10-30 Medium 30-40

30-50 Dense 35-45

>50 Very dense >45

 26-02-2022

CORRELATION OF ‘N’ AND UCC STRENGTH

N Consistency qu- (kN/m2)

0-2 Very soft <25
2-4 Soft 25-50
4-8 Medium 50-100
8-15 Stiff 100-200
15-30 Very stiff 200-400
>30 Hard >400
 26-02-2022
BORE LOGS

• Boring logs provide the basic information

for the selection of test specimens.

• They provide background data on the natural

condition of the formation, on the ground
water elevation, appearance of the samples,
and the soil or rock stratigraphy at the boring
location, as well as areal extent of various
deposits or formations.
 SEISMIC METHODS: 26-02-2022

• There are two main seismic methods, reflection and

refraction: