Ken Erick O.

Glorioso
BSECE 3 GG

Chapter 4: Learning Objectives

1. Describe both vacancy and self-interstitial crystalline defects.
The simplest of the point defects is a vacancy, or vacant lattice site, one normally occupied
from which an atom is missing and A self-interstitial is an atom from the crystal that is crowded
into an interstitial site, a small void space that under ordinary circumstances is not occupied.
2. Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies in a material at some specified temperature, given
the relevant constants.
Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies per cubic meter for copper at 1000C. The
energy for vacancy formation is 0.9 eV/atom; the atomic weight and density (at 1000C) for copper
are 63.5 g/mol and 8.4 g/cm^3, respectively.

23 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑔 𝑐𝑚3
𝑁𝐴 𝜌 (6.022 𝑥 10 )(8.4 3 )(106 3 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑚 𝑚
𝑁= → → 8.0 𝑥 1028 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑚3
𝐴𝐶𝑢 63.5 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Thus, the number of vacancies at 1000C (1273 K) is equal to
𝑄𝑣 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 0.9 𝑒𝑉
𝑁𝑣 = 𝑁𝑒𝑥𝑝( ) → (8.0 𝑥 1028 ) exp (−
𝑘𝑇 𝑚3 𝑒𝑉
(8.62 𝑥 10−5 𝐾 )(1273 𝐾)

= 2.2 𝑥 1025 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠/𝑚3

3. Name the two types of solid solutions and provide a brief written definition and/or schematic
sketch of each.
• Substitutional Solid Solution - If the size of the solute atom is similar to that of the solvent
atom, the solute atoms can replace solvent atoms to form a substitutional solid solution
• Interstitial Solid Solution - If the size of the solute atom is much smaller than that of the
solvent atom the solute atom can occupy an interstitial position forming interstitial solid
solution.

4. Given the masses and atomic weights of two or more elements in a metal alloy, calculate the
weight percent and atom percent for each element.
It is often necessary to express the composition (= concentration) of an alloy in terms of its
constituent elements:
• weight percent C1
• atomic percent C1’

5. For each of edge, screw, and mixed dislocations:

Ken Erick O. Glorioso
BSECE 3 GG

(a) describe and make a drawing of the dislocation, (b) note the location of the dislocation line,
and
(c) indicate the direction along which the dislocation line extends.
• edge dislocation; it is a linear defect that centers on the line that is defined along the end of
the extra half-plane of atoms.

• screw dislocation: dislocation derives its name from the spiral or helical path or ramp that
is traced around the dislocation line by the atomic planes of atoms.

• Mixed dislocations: found in crystalline materials are probably neither pure edge nor pure
screw, but exhibit components of both types;

6. Describe the atomic structure within the vicinity of (a) a grain boundary and (b) a twin boundary.

(a) Within the vicinity of a grain boundary, the atomic arrangement is disordered due to
misalignment between adjacent crystalline grains, resulting in higher energy and the presence of
defects and dislocations accommodating lattice mismatch.
(b) In the vicinity of a twin boundary, there exists a mirror symmetry between atomic planes on
either side, with a distinctive but ordered atomic arrangement across the boundary, often
accompanied by twinning dislocations and intermediate energy compared to the interior of the
grains.
Important Key terms and Concepts
Ken Erick O. Glorioso
BSECE 3 GG

1. Alloy - A metallic substance that is composed of two or more elements.

2. atomic vibration - The vibration of an atom about its normal position in a substance.
3. atom percent - A concentration specification on the basis of the number of moles (or atoms)
of a particular element relative to the total number of moles (or atoms) of all elements
within an alloy.
4. Boltzmann’s constant - A thermal energy constant having the value of 1.38 x 10^23 J/atom
K (8.62 x 10^5 eV/atom K).
5. Burgers vector - A vector that denotes the magnitude and direction of lattice distortion
associated with a dislocation.
6. Composition - The relative content of a particular element or constituent (i) within an alloy,
usually expressed in weight percent or atom percent.
7. dislocation line - The line that extends along the end of the extra half-plane of atoms for an
edge dislocation, and along the center of the spiral of a screw dislocation.
8. edge dislocation - A linear crystalline defect associated with the lattice distortion produced
in the vicinity of the end of an extra half-plane of atoms within a crystal.
9. grain size - The average grain diameter as determined from a random cross section.
10. imperfection - A deviation from perfection; normally applied to crystalline materials
wherein there is a deviation from atomic/molecular order and/or continuity.
11. interstitial solid solution - A solid solution wherein relatively small solute atoms occupy
interstitial positions between the solvent or host atoms.
12. microscopy - The investigation of microstructural elements using some type of microscope.
13. microstructure - The structural features of an alloy (e.g., grain andphase structure) that are
subject to observation under a microscope.
14. mixed dislocation - A dislocation that has both edge and screw components.
15. photomicrograph - A photograph made with a microscope that records a microstructural
image.
16. point defect - A crystalline defect associated with one or, at most, several atomic sites.
17. scanning electron microscope (SEM) - A microscope that produces an image by using an
electron beam that scans the surface of a specimen;
18. scanning probe microscope (SPM) - A microscope that does not pro- duce an image using
light radiation.
19. screw dislocation - A linear crystalline defect associated with the lattice distortion created
when normally parallel planes are joined together to form a helical ramp.
20. self-interstitial - A host atom or ion that is positioned on an interstitial lattice site.
21. solid solution - A homogeneous crystalline phase that contains two or more chemical
species.
22. solute - One component or element of a solution present in a minor concentration.
23. solvent - The component of a solution present in the greatest amount.
24. substitutional solid solution – A solid solution wherein the solute atoms replace or
substitute for the host atoms.
25. transmission electron microscope (TEM) - (TEM). A microscope that produces an image
by using electron beams that are transmitted (pass through) the specimen.
26. vacancy - A normally occupied lattice site from which an atom or ion is missing.
27. weight percent - A concentration specification on the basis of weight (or mass) of a
particular element relative to the total alloy weight (or mass).
Chapter 5: Learning Objectives
1. Name and describe the two atomic mechanisms of diffusion.
• The two atomic mechanisms of diffusion are interstitial diffusion and substitutional
diffusion. In interstitial diffusion, atoms move through the gaps between atoms in the
crystal lattice of a solid, typically occurring at a faster rate due to shorter distances.
Substitutional diffusion involves atoms replacing host atoms within the lattice, proceeding
through the exchange of atoms between lattice positions

2. Distinguish between steady-state and nonsteady-state diffusion.

• Steady-state diffusion is characterized by a constant concentration gradient over time,
where the rate of diffusion into a material equals the rate of diffusion out of it, resulting in
Ken Erick O. Glorioso
BSECE 3 GG

a stable condition. This mode commonly occurs under constant external conditions like
temperature and pressure. Nonsteady-state diffusion, on the other hand, involves changing
concentration gradients over time due to variations in external conditions or initial
concentration distributions within the material

3. (a) Write Fick’s first and second laws in equation form and define all parameters.
(b) Note the kind of diffusion for which each of these equations is normally applied.
• A)
𝑑𝐶
Fick’s first law = 𝐽 = −𝐷 𝑑𝑥 where J is the diffusion flux; D is the diffusion
coefficient ; dC/dx is concentration gradient.
𝜕𝐶 𝜕2 𝐶 𝜕𝐶
Fick’s second law = = 𝐷 𝜕𝑥2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 is the time rate of change of
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕2 𝐶
concentration; D is the diffusion coefficient; 𝜕𝑥2 is the spatial rate of change of
concentration.
• B)
Fick's First Law is applied to describe Steady-State Diffusion, where the
concentration gradient remains constant over time. This law is useful for well-established
diffusion processes under constant external conditions. Fick's Second Law, however, is
used for Nonsteady-State Diffusion, where the concentration gradient changes over time
due to evolving diffusion processes or external fluctuations. It helps analyze the initial
stages of diffusion or when external factors influence the process.

4. Write the solution to Fick’s second law for diffusion into a semi-infinite solid when the
concentration of diffusing species at the surface is held constant. Define all parameters in
this equation.

𝑥
𝐶 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐶𝑜 (1 − erf ( )
2√𝐷𝑡

where
o 𝐶 (𝑥, 𝑡) is the concentration of the diffusing species at depth x into the solid at time
t.
o 𝐶𝑜 is the concentration of the diffusing species at the surface of the solid, which
remains constant over time.
o Erf is the error function
o 𝐷 is the is the diffusion coefficient or diffusivity of the diffusing species in the solid.
o 𝑥 is the distance into the solid from the surface.
o 𝑡 is the time of diffusion

5. Calculate the diffusion coefficient for some material at a specified temperature, given the
appropriate diffusion constants.
𝑄
𝐷 = 𝐷0 exp (− )
𝑅𝑇
where;
o 𝐷0 is the pre-exponential or diffusion constant, typically determined
experimentally.
o 𝑄 is the activation energy for diffusion.
o 𝑄 is the gas constant (8.314 J/mol⋅K8.314J/mol⋅K).
o 𝑇 is the temperature in Kelvin.
Important Terms and Concepts
1. activation energy - The energy required to initiate a reaction, such as diffusion.
Ken Erick O. Glorioso
BSECE 3 GG

2. Carburizing - The process by which the surface carbon concentration of a ferrous alloy is
increased by diffusion from the surrounding environment.
3. concentration gradient - The slope of the concentration profile at a specific position.
4. concentration profile- The curve that results when the concentration of a chemical species
is plotted versus position in a material.
5. Diffusion - Mass transport by atomic motion.
6. diffusion coefficient - The constant of proportionality between the diffusion flux and the
concentration gradient in Fick’s first law. Its magnitude is indicative of the rate of atomic
diffusion.
7. diffusion flux - The quantity of mass diffusing through and perpen dicular to a unit cross-
sectional area of material per unit time.
8. driving force - The impetus behind a reaction, such as diffusion, grain growth, or a phase
transformation. Usually attendant to the reaction is a reduction in some type of energy.
9. Fick’s first law - The diffusion flux is proportional to the concentration gradient. This
relationship is employed for steady-state diffusion situations.
10. Flick’s second laws - The time rate of change of concentration is proportional to the second
derivative of concentration. This relationship is employed in nonsteady-state diffusion
situations.
11. interdiffusion (impurity diffusion) - Diffusion of atoms of one metal into another metal.
interstitial diffusion- A diffusion mechanism whereby atomic motion is from interstitial site
to interstitial site.
12. nonsteady-state diffusion - The diffusion condition for which there is some net
accumulation or depletion of diffusing species. The diffusion flux is dependent on time.
13. self-diffusion - Atomic migration in pure metals.
14. steady-state diffusion - The diffusion condition for which there is no net accumulation or
depletion of diffusing species.
15. vacancy diffusion - The diffusion mechanism wherein net atomic migration is from a lattice
site to an adjacent vacancy.