CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL BASIS

A. Learning English

1. Definition of Learning

Brown (2007) stated that “learning is acquiring or getting of

knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience, or instruction”.

Based on Brown (2007), there are many concepts of learning:

a. Learning is acquisition or “getting”.

b. Learning is retention of information or skill.

c. Retention implies storage systems, memory, and cognitive

organization.

d. Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon events

outside or inside the organism.

e. Learning is relatively permanent but subject to forgetting.

f. Learning involves some form of practice, perhaps reinforced practice.

g. Learning is a change behavior.

These concepts above, also give way to a number of subfields within

discipline of psychology: acquisition processes, perception, memory

(storage) system, short-and long term memory, recall, motivation,

conscious and subconscious learning styles and strategies, theories of

forgetting and also reinforcement. The role of practice very quickly the

concept learning becomes every bit as complex the concept of language.

 Prof. Dr. H. Chalijah Hasan defines learning as follows: Learning is a

change which is the result of training and experience. The change caused

by development of maturity cannot be seen as a result of learning.

2. Theories of Learning

Learning is one of the most important activities in which humans

engage in their life. Learning are occur not only in the class but also

outside from the class. For thousands of years, philosophers and

psychologists have sought to understand the nature of learning, how it

occurs, and how one person can influence the learning of another person

through teaching and similar endeavors. Various theories of learning have

been suggested, and these theories differ for a variety of reasons. A theory,

most simply, is a combination of different factors or variables woven

together in an effort to explain whatever the theory is about. In general,

theories based on scientific evidence are considered more valid than

theories based on opinion or personal experience. In any case, it is wise to

be cautious when comparing the appropriateness of different theories.

There is no final answer to question about learning and no theory can

be found to be absolutely superior to all others. Nevertheless, learning

theories can develop by the teacher of their own. Through study of learning

theories and their historical development, teacher should gain insight into

the harmonies and conflicts that prevail in present educational theory. From

this insight, teacher should more toward developing adequate theories of

their own.
3. Types of Learning

The educational psychologist Robert Gagne (1965) demonstrated the

importance of identifying a number of types of learning that all human

beings use. Because theories of learning of course do not capture the entire

possible element of principles of human learning in general, Brown (2007).

Types of learning vary according to the context and subject matter to be

learned. Brown (2007) identified eight types of learning as follows:

a. Signal learning. The individual learns to make a general diffuse

response to a signal.

b. Stimulus-response learning. The learner acquires a precise response to

a discriminated stimulus.

c. Chaining. What is acquired is a chain of two or more stimulus

response connection.

d. Verbal association. Verbal association is the learning of chains that are

verbal. Basically, the conditions resemble those for other motor chains.

e. Multiple discrimination. The individual learns to make a number of

different identifying responses to many different stimuli, which may

resemble each other in physical appearance to a greater or lesser

degree.

f. Concept learning. The learner acquires the ability to make a common

response to a class of stimuli even though the individual members of

that class may differ widely from each other.

 g. Principle learning. In simples’ term, a principle is a chain of two or

more concepts. It functions to organize behavior and experience.

h. Problem solving. Problem solving is a kind of learning that requires

the internal event usually referred to as “thinking”. Previously acquired

concepts and principles are combined in a conscious focus on an

unresolved or ambiguous set of events.

4. Learning English as A foreign Language

Nowadays, there are about a billion people in the world learning

English as foreign language. “In many other contexts in the world,

however, when children start learning English, they are not immersed in

an English environment and they are not learning English to make friend

or fit into a new school and culture”, said Pinter (2006). The process of

learning language has a significant effect on how young learners are able

to acquire the foreign language. The strategy of learning from mother

tongue can be adopted for learning foreign language.

Primarily, those who are involved in the children’s learning process

aretheir parents, and latter their teachers. So the teachers have the

important role in the students’ learning foreign language.

B. Degree of Comparison

Sometimes small problems provide insight into larger issues. The small

problems discussed in this paper are comparison classes – the implicitly or

textually determined sets that relativize the standard for some gradable

adjectives. So, we need the degrees of comparison. Comparison and

categorization are two of the core mechanisms that underlie human learning,

understanding, and reasoning.

In the study of categorization, much research has focused on the

classification learning paradigm—across a series of trials the learner is

visually presented with an item drawn from a training set, then a response is

made by choosing which category the item belongs to, and corrective

feedback is received.

To get understanding about degree of comparison, it is better to describe

what comparison is. One of the most basic and powerful of human cognitive

process is the ability to comprehend and express the fact that two things are

similar or different. Often such similarly or difference is expressed in terms of

degree, extent, or quantity.26 Therefore, comparison is the most important

English construction which is used to express similarities or differences of

degree or extent.

The degree of comparison is known as the positive, the comparative,

and the superlative. (Actually, only the comparative and superlative show

degrees.) we use the comparative for comparing two things and superlative for

comparing three or more things.27 Furthermore, according to Martin Parrot,

comparatives are adjectives and adverbs that end in –er, (e.g. bigger, richer,

faster) and superlatives are adjectives and adverbs that end in –est, (e.g.

biggest, riches, fastest).28 It means that degrees of comparison are used for
comparing two or more things, person or place to denote different level of

them.

Based on the definitions stated above, the researcher infers that

comparison is a process of comparing people, things, or places through the

level of quality or quantity. It is formed from adjective and adverb. But this

research is only focused on comparison of adjectives. Therefore, comparison

of adjective is the modification of an adjective to denote different level of

quality or quantity.

Degrees of comparison are adjectives that change shape and are used to

compare one thing or several people with another. According to Pal (2011),

there is three types of comparison.

1. Positive /Negative or General comparative expression is basically

not to compare between entities but to know whether the entity

posses the criteria or not.

Positive degree is the most basic form of the adjective, positive

because it does not relate to any superior or superior qualities and

quantities of other things. Positive refers to the quality of one person

or thing. It is simply the adjective form. Marcella (1993) says that

positive degree is two units are compared to an equal degree. In

addition, the positive form As….. as is used with adjectives One of

the other hand, we can use as + adjective + as for comparing two

persons or things that have the similarity of quality or quantity.

For example
 a. Your flower is as beauty as mine.

b. My soul is as bright as yours.

2. Comparative: Comparative expressions are those which compare

between two entities or two set of entities.

The comparative degree denotes a greater amount of a quality

relative to something else. Zandvoort and Van Ek (1980) state that

the comparative is when two person or things (or two groups of

persons or things) are compared or constrated as bearers of a certain

quality. Murphy (2010) says that the comparative form is –er or

more that is used adjective and adverb. Comparative degree is used

to compare two person, place or things.

For example

a. Drive car is easier than boat.

b. Todung is less tidy than Manda.

3. Superlative: Superlative expressions are those which compare an

entity with set of entity based on certain criteria.

Superlative degree is used to stress the highest degree of quality for

more than two objects compared. It is the highest or lowest degree of

quality when more than two persons or things are compared. The

superlative is used to compare somebody or something with the

whole group that she or he or it belongs to. Murphy (2010) says that

the superlative use the with –est or –most to form the superlative of

adjective and adverbs.

 For example

a. I am the best student ever.

b. Whale is the largest mammal life.

For the adjective pattern, will be shown below.

1. Positive Degree

Positive degree is two units are compared to an equal degree.

Table 1. Positive Form

The Formula Example

Subject + To be + As + My father is as tall as my

Adjective + As uncle

Subject + To be + Not + As + My house is not as big as

Adjective yours.

2. Comparative Degree

Comparative degree is two units are compared to an unequal

degree. The comparative form of adjective as follow:

a. Adjective + -er + than

b. More + adjective + than

To make it clear, see the table 2 below.

Table 2. Comparative Form - Pattern I: adjective + suffix –er +

than

Adjective Rule Adjective Comparative

word Form (example)
1. Adjective with one syllable Safe Saving money in
the bank is safer
than in the home
a) Ending in –e Add –r Brave Dimas is braver
Large than Eni.
Big His bag is larger
than mine. An
b) Ending in a single Double Hot elephant is
vowel + a consonant the final bigger than a rat.
(except w, x, and y) consonant Thin Today is hotter
and add- than yesterday.
er Dry Rinna’s book is
c) Ending in a consonant thinner than
+y Young Erda’s book.
d) All others Change y Your hair is
to Tall drier than her
I and add Cheap hair.
–er You are younger
Add –er than your father.
Lisa is taller than
her sister. A pen
is cheaper than a
handphone.
2. Two-Syllable adjectives
a) Adjective ending in –
y preceded
Changeby –ya Lucky Putri is luckier
consonant
to –I and add Lazy Heni.
b) Adjective
–er ending Busy Lidya is lazier
Adding
in –ple, -ble, - Simple than Linda. Ryo
suffix
occa-sionally–er.– is busier than
tle, -dle Clever Irma. Your idea
is simpler than
mine.
They are
cleverer than us
now.

To make the degree of comparison in the comparative form that added by the

prefix more, the table 2.3 below gives the rules deals with the examples:
 Table 3. Comparative Form - Pattern II: More + Adjective + than.

Adjective Rule Adjective Superlative Form (example)

Word
1. Adjective with Add more Patient Tanty is more patient than
two or more before adjective Irma.
syllables and Expensive The hamburger is more
don’t end in –y expensive than the hot dog.
Interesting English is more interesting
than mathematics.

3. Superlative Degree

Based on the explanation above, there are three kinds degree of

comparison namely positive degree, comparative degree, and superlative

degree and every kinds of it has a different function. Positive degree is when

two persons, things or place are compared to an equal degree. While,

comparative degree is use to denote a greater amount of a quality to

something else and superlative degree is use to stress the highest degree of

quality for more than two objects compared.

The pattern using: a. The + adjective + suffix –est

b. The most + adjective

Table 4. Superlative Form - Pattern I: the + adjective + suffix –est.

Adjective Rule Adjective Superlative form

word (example)
1. Adjectives with
one syllable
a) Ending in
–e Add –st Wise My father is the wisest
man in my house.
Nice Clarissa is the nicest girl
b) Ending in a in my class.
single Double the Wet My T-shirt is the wettest
vowel + a final consonant of all my clothes.
consonant and Peter is the fattest boy
Fat
(except w, add –est I’ve ever met.
x, and y) Luna Maya is the
c) Ending in a Slim slimmest Indonesian
consonant artist.
–y Dry Your hair is the driest of
Change y to I all.
d) All others
and add –est
Short
Add –est
Max is the shortest boy
High in the class.
Mount Everest is the
highest mountain in the
world.
Clean The mosque is the
cleanest place of all.

2. Adjective with Change –y to –I Funny Olga Syahputra is the

two syllable and add -est funniest actor I’ve ever
ending in -y seen.
Pretty Her cat is the prettiest
of the three.
Table 5. Superlative Form - Pattern II: The most + Adjective

Adjective Rule Adjective Superlative Form

Words
Adjective with two Add the most Generous John is the most generous of
or more syllables before adjective all the people I know.
and don’t end in –y Diligent Ikhwan is the most diligent
girl in her family.
Difficult Mathematic is the most
difficult lesson I had learnt.

C. Cooperative Learning

1. Cooperative Learning Meaning

To understand cooperative learning as a research-based school

practice it is first necessary to understand what cooperation is. And in order

to use cooperative learning in the classroom, it is necessary to understand

the essential elements that differentiate (a) cooperative learning from

traditional classroom grouping and (b) a well-implemented cooperative

lesson from a poorly implemented one. Cooperative learning may be used

in formal lessons, direct teaching to ensure that students are cognitively

active, and base groups to provide students with long-term support and

assistance. The strength of cooperative learning is the research evidence

verifying its effectiveness (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 2014).

Cooperative learning is a teaching and learning strategy that

emphasizes common attitudes or behaviors at work or helps among others

in an organized cooperative structure in groups, consisting of two or more

people. Cooperative learning is a form of learning based on constructivist

ideology. Cooperative learning is a learning strategy with a number of

students as members of small groups with different levels of ability. In

completing their group assignments, each student group member must

work together and help each other to understand the subject matter. In

cooperative learning, learning is said to be incomplete if one of the friends

in the group has not mastered the lesson material.

Cooperative learning arguably is the oldest form of group learning in

our comparison of approaches. For example, study partners were used by

the Hebrews thousands of years ago, as boys studied the Talmud. In

common parlance, the term “cooperate” has many synonyms: work

together, act jointly, collaborate, join forces, share in, pitch in, work side by

side, and stand shoulder to shoulder. According to the Oxford English

Dictionary, the term “cooperate” comes from the late 16th century: from

the Latin cooperat (“worked together”), from the verb cooperari (from co

“together” + operari “to work”)—in other words, to work together jointly

to complete an educational operation, such as activity or project (Davidson

& Major, 2014).

Cooperative Learning is a learning strategy that involves the

participation of students in one small group to interact with each other. In a

cooperative learning system, students learn to work together with other

members. In this model students have two responsibilities, that is, they

learn for themselves and help fellow group members to learn. Students

learn together in a small group and they can do it alone.

 According to Anita Lie in her book "Cooperative Learning", that the

cooperative learning model is not the same as merely learning in groups,

but there are basic elements that distinguish it from the division of groups

conducted carelessly. Cooperative learning is one of learning developed

from constructivism because it develops cognitive structures to build one's

own knowledge through rational thinking.The cooperative learning model

is one of the learning models that places students as learning subjects

(student oriented). With a democratic classroom atmosphere, mutual

learning gives opportunities for greater opportunities to empower students

to their full potential. The cooperative learning model will be able to

provide a new nuance in the implementation of learning by all fields of

study or subjects, because cooperative learning and some research results

both domestic and foreign education experts have had a broad impact on

success in the learning process. The impact is not only on the teacher but

also on the students, and educational interactions emerge and the roles and

functions of the teacher and students are seen.

2. Basic Principles and Characteristics of Cooperative Learning

According to Johnson & Johnson (2014), the basic principles in the

cooperative learning model are as follows:

a. Every group member (student) is responsible for everything that is

done in the group.

b. Every group member (student) must know that all group members

have the same goal.

 c. Each group member (student) must divide the same tasks and

responsibilities among the group members.

d. Every group member (student) will be subject to evaluation.

e. Each group member (student) shares leadership and needs skills to

learn together during the learning process.

f. Each group member (student) will be asked individually to take

responsibility for the material handled in the cooperative group.

The characteristics of cooperative learning model are as follow. (Lie,

2008)

a. Students learn in groups cooperatively to complete the learning

material

b. Groups are formed from students who have high, medium and low

ability or heterogeneous grouping,

c. Rewards are more group oriented than individuals

d. Benefits and the weakness of the cooperative learning model

3. Cooperative Learning Goals

According to Ibrahim, et al. (2000: 7) there are three important goals of

cooperative learning, namely:

a. Academic learning outcomes.

Although cooperative learning encompasses a variety of social goals,

cooperative learning also aims to improve student performance on

academic assignments. Some experts argue that this model excels in

helping students understand difficult concepts.

 b. Acceptance of individual differences.

The second important effect of cooperative learning is broad

acceptance of people who differ according to race, social class

culture, ability, or disability. Cooperative learning provides

opportunities for students with different backgrounds and conditions

to work interdependent on shared tasks, and through the use of

cooperative reward structures, learn to respect each other.

c. Developing social skills.

The third important goal of cooperative learning is to teach students

collaboration and collaboration skills. These skills are very important

to have in a society where many adults are predominantly done in

organizations that are interdependent, and where societies are

increasingly culturally diverse.

1. The steps of cooperative learning

a. Conveying goals and motivating students.

The lesson begins with the teacher delivering the lesson objectives to

be achieved in the learning and motivating students to learn.

b. Present information.

The teacher presents information to students by demonstration or

through reading material.

c. Organize students into study groups.

The teacher explains to students how to form study groups and helps

each group to make the transition efficiently.

 d. Guiding work and study groups.

The teacher guides the study groups as they work on assignments.

e. Evaluation

The teacher evaluates learning outcomes about the material that has

been learned or each group presents their learning outcomes.

f. Give awards.

The teacher looks for ways to appreciate both the efforts and the

learning outcomes of individuals and groups.

5. Strategies of Cooperative Learning

According to Davidson (2014), the strategies of cooperative learning are as

follow.

a. Think-Pair-Share

The instructor poses a discussion question and gives students time to

think through a response individually. This "think-time" may be

spent writing (called Write-Pair- Share). Students then turn to a peer

and discuss their responses. Students respond within a larger group or

with an entire class during a follow-up discussion. Think-Pair-Share

is very rich, with many variations on how to think, how to pair, and

how to share.

b. Timed Pair Share

The teacher announces a topic, states how long each student will

share, and provides think time. In pairs, Partner A shares; Partner B

 listens. Partner B responds with a positive remark. Partners switch

roles.

c. Three-Step Interview

Students form pairs, and one student interviews the other for a fixed

period of time. Students switch roles; the interviewer becomes the

interviewee, and vice versa, for the same time. The pair links with a

second pair, and the four-member team then shares and discusses the

information or insights gleaned from the initial paired interviews.

d. Jigsaw

Students are seated in home groups with four members. The

instructor divides an assignment or topic into four parts, and each

group member is responsible for one part. The instructor forms four

expert teams, with each team becoming expert on the same part of the

assignment. Expert teams work together to master their fourth of the

material and also to develop a plan to help others learn it. All experts

then reassemble into their home groups with four experts leading in

turn, one expert on each part, in each learning group.

D. Numbered Head Together-type of Cooperative Learning Strategies

1. Definition of Numbered Head Together

The NHT (Numbered Heads Together) cooperative learning model is

a cooperative learning model developed by Kagan & Kagan (2009). The

purpose of the numbered head (NHT) is that each child gets a certain
 number, and each number gets the same opportunity to show their ability

to master the material. It refers to the student’s group of study which each

member has their own assignments with different of the number (Azizah,

et al, 2018).

In general, NHT is used to involve students in strengthening

understanding of learning or checking students' understanding of learning

material. The NHT type of cooperative learning model emphasizes more

individual teaching while still using group work patterns. By using this

model, students not only understand the concepts provided, but also have

the ability to socialize with their friends, learn to express their opinions

and respect the opinions of friends, care for friends of one group in order

to master the concept, students can share knowledge and information, a

relaxed and pleasant classroom atmosphere and the absence of students

who dominate in learning activities because all students have the same

opportunity to appear to answer questions.

2. Numbered Head Together Benefits

There are several benefits of the NHT type of cooperative learning model for

students with low learning outcomes proposed by Lundgren in Ibrahim (2000:

18), including:

a. Your sense of self-esteem becomes higher

b. Improve attendance

c. Acceptance of individuals is greater

 d. Disruptive behavior becomes smaller

e. Conflict between people is reduced

f. Deeper understanding

g. Increase kindness, sensitivity and tolerance

h. Higher learning outcomes

3. Superiority and Weakness of Numbered Head Together Method.

The advantages of using the Numbered Heads Together type of cooperative

model in learning are as follows:

a. Every student becomes ready to answer the questions or questions given by

the teacher.

b. Can have a serious discussion.

c. Smart students can teach students who are not smart.

d. There are no students who dominate in groups.

e. Train students to improve communication skills through group discussions.

f. Give more time to think, answer, and help one another.

g. Improve students' thinking both individually and in groups.

However, even in this learning model there are still limitations or possible

obstacles that need to be anticipated by teachers if they are to apply them:

a. Likely the number called will be called again by the teacher.

b. Not all group members have the opportunity to answer.

c. Requires more time to understand the material because there is group

discussion and class discussion.

4. Application Steps for the NHT (Numbered Heads Together)

Cooperative Learning Model

NHT type cooperative learning was developed by Spencer Kagen (1993:

62) to involve more students in studying the material involved in learning

and checking their understanding of the content of the lesson. Instead of

asking questions to the whole class, the teacher uses the four step structure

as follows:

a. Step 1: Numbering

In the first step, the teacher divides the students into groups of 3 to 6

and gives them numbers 1 to 5 so that each student in the group has a

different number.

b. Step 2: Questioning

In this second step the teacher asks questions to the students. Questions

can vary, from specific to general.

d. Step 3: Think Together (Head Together)

In step three the students think together to illustrate and ensure that

each group member knows the answer.

e. Step 4: Answering

In this fourth step the teacher calls one number and students from each

group with the same number raise their hands and prepare answers for

the whole class.

 E. References

Azizah, A., Ramadi, R., & Noviyanti, N. (2018). Increasing Intensive Study by Using

Combination Model of The Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition

(CIRC), Team Assisted Individualization (TAI), and Numbered Head Together

(NHT). Journal of K6, Education and Management, 1(4), 17-24.

Brown, D. (2007). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (5th ed.). New

Jersey: Addison Wesley Longman.

Davidson, N., & Major, C. H. (2014). Boundary Crossings: Cooperative Learning,

Collaborative Learning, and Problem-Based Learning. Journal on Excellence in

College Teaching.

Frank, M. (1993). Modern English: a Practical Reference Guide. New York: Prentice

Hall.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (2014). Cooperative Learning:

Improving University Instruction by Basing Practice on Validated Theory.

Journal of Excellence in College Teaching.

https://doi.org/10.1080/19397030902947041

Kagan, M., & Kagan, S. (2009). Kagan Creative Learning. California: Kagan

Publishing.

Lie, A. (2008). Cooperative Learning. Jakarta: Gramedia.

Pinter, A. (2006). Teaching Young Language Learner. Beijing: Oxford University

Press.

Raymond Murphy, English Grammar in Use: a self-study reference and practice

book for intermediate learners of English, (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 2012), p210

W. Zandvoort and J.A. Van Ek, A Handbook of English Grammar, (London:

Longman Group Limited, 1980), 7th edition, p. 188