Everything about Operating System by Dr.

Gaurav Garg

User Interface of Windows Operating System

Some of the Components of Windows Taskbar

1. Start Button/ Windows Button

2. Search Bar
3. Task View Button: This is also on the left-hand side of the taskbar, right next to the search bar. The Task View
button displays all open windows on your PC screen and allows you to switch between them.
4. Quick Launch: The wide space in the middle of the taskbar is the “Quick Launch” area.
5. Desk bands: These are minimized functional, long-running programs
6. Battery
7. Network & Connectivity
8. Sound and Speaker
9. Time and Date
10. Action Center: This is where notifications and warnings from apps are displayed.

What is an Operating System?

● An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the computer user & computer hardware and
controls the execution of programs.

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 ● Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones and video game
consoles to web servers and supercomputers.
● The first operating system (OS) was created in the early 1950s and was known as GMOS. General Motors has
developed OS for the IBM computer IBM 701.
● Gary Kildall is known as the father of the Operating System.

● The operating system (OS) manages all the software and hardware on the computer. It performs basic tasks such
as file, memory and process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as
disk drives and printers.
○ Most of the time, there are several different computer programs running at the same time, and they all
need to access your computer’s central processing unit (CPU), memory and storage. The operating
system coordinates all of this to make sure each program gets what it needs.
● Operating systems usually come pre-loaded on any computer we buy.
○ Most individuals use the operating system that already comes with their computer however it is possible
to upgrade or change the initial operating system to suit your preference.
○ Windows and MacOS come preloaded but
■ Linux is not pre-loaded on computers, but is free to download. It is highly customisable as it is
open source.

Types of Operating Systems

● Batch Operating System
○ In this operating system, there’s an operator who receives all the jobs. The operator, therefore, makes a
group of jobs that require similar types of resources. We refer to this group of jobs as a batch.
○ In this version, we write all the jobs on the punch cards or magnetic tapes and give them to the operator.
Next, the operator sorts similar jobs, makes a batch and inserts them into the computer.
○ Here, all the jobs run sequentially. Therefore, it means that the next job will start executing after
completing the currently running job. Hence, there’s no context switching between the jobs. Moreover,
the batch operating system runs all the jobs as a non-preemptive process.
■ Preemption as used with respect to operating systems means the ability of the operating system
to preempt (that is, stop or pause) a currently scheduled task in favour of a higher priority task.

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 ○ The main benefit of a Batch Operating System is that it can handle multiple users simultaneously.
■ Another advantage of a Batch OS is that it can handle large files more efficiently than a standard
operating system. Since the BOS breaks down all tasks into smaller, more manageable chunks
which can be processed one at a time. As a result, the overall speed of the computer is improved
and users don’t have to wait as long for their files to be processed.

● Time-sharing Operating System / multitasking OS

○ Here, we share the processor’s time among multiple users simultaneously. In this operating system, we
assign the CPU a certain amount of time to process a job from a user.
■ After the time expires, the CPU starts processing the job of the following user. Hence, it can run
multiple programs simultaneously by switching jobs. In a time-sharing operating system,
switching between the jobs is very fast due to which the user feels like all tasks are running
simultaneously. The time that is allocated is known as time slice or quantum. It is pre-emptive in
nature.

○ A time-sharing operating system provides various advantages.

■ Firstly, a time-sharing operating system reduces the response time. Moreover, it also reduces the
idle time of the CPU significantly during switching between different tasks.

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 ■ Additionally, it facilitates direct interaction between the user and the computer system.

● Batch OS vs Time-sharing OS

○ What is starvation in computer science?

■ A condition where a computer process cannot be supported by available computer resources.
Resource starvation can occur due to the lack of computer resources or the existence of multiple
processes that are competing for the same computer resources.

● Distributed Operating System

○ In this variation of the operating system, multiple computers are connected via high-speed buses and
share resources. In this way, we can perform various operations simultaneously. It’s also known as the
loosely coupled system.
○ A distributed operating system manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be
a single computer.

○ Advantages
■ Distributed operating systems are scalable hence increasing the processing power. Furthermore,
resource sharing is one of the essential features of this OS. It allows the users to share the
resources due to which decreases the workload from a single system.
■ Overcoming a single point of failure is also a significant advantage. Hence, if a system has some
issue or breakdown, it’ll not affect the processing of other computers in the system.

● Network Operating System

○ In a network operating system (NOS), different computers are connected over a network and share
resources. Mostly, they’re connected over a wide area network (WAN). We primarily use NOS in
networking devices such as routers, switches, or firewalls.
○ It is used for file sharing and resource sharing,

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 ○ Example – Printer that is shared with many computers

○ NOS can be of two types: peer-to-peer and client-server.

■ The peer-to-peer NOS allows users to share the resources and files located in their computers.
Moreover, it also provides access to shared resources on other computers. Furthermore, all the
machines connected with the network have the same privileges to use resources.
■ In the client-server structure, there’s a central system. All other machines connected with the
central system access and share resources. This structure provides better security. We use the
client-server structure of NOS in data centres and cloud-based architecture

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 ● Network OS vs Distributed OS

● What is an Embedded Operating System? / Real-Time Operating System

○ An embedded operating system is a specialized operating system (OS) designed to perform a specific
task for a device that is not a computer. The main job of an embedded OS is to run the code that allows
the device to do its job. The embedded OS also makes the device's hardware accessible to software that is
running on top of the OS.
■ Example - ATMs, airplane controls, point of sale (POS) terminal, GPS navigation systems etc,
Washing Machine, Oven, traffic lights
○ We generally use a real-time operating system (RTOS) when memory has limitations, and
decision-making should be fast. The real-time operating system works with strict time-bound and
deadlines. We use RTOS in embedded devices.
○ Task switching power in the real-time operating system is very high, due to which the users feel like all
tasks are running at the same time.
○ Furthermore, they’re light-weighted operating systems and provide fast responses to external events.
○ A hard RTOS assures completion of a given job with a prespecified time range.
○ A soft RTOS provides relaxation in the time range to complete a given job.
○ Another advantage is that RTOS are error-free and maximize the utilization of devices connected to the
system.

● What is a Clustered Operating System?

○ A group of computers connected in a local area network is called a Cluster System.
○ The clustered systems are composed of two or more individual systems linked with each other.
○ In a clustered operating system, the computers or CPUs share single storage, and they all cooperate to
perform each task at once. Clusters are created to maximise availability.

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Some Important Terms
● What is Context Switching in an operating system?
○ In computing, a context switch is the process of storing the state of a process or thread, so that it can be
restored and resume execution at a later point, and then restoring a different, previously saved, state.
○ This allows multiple processes to share a single central processing unit (CPU), and is an essential feature
of a multiprogramming or multitasking operating system.
○ In a traditional CPU, each process - a program in execution - utilizes the various CPU registers to store
data and hold the current state of the running process.
○ However, in a multitasking operating system, the operating system switches between processes or threads
to allow the execution of multiple processes simultaneously.

● What is a deadlock in an operating system?

○ A deadlock is a situation in which two computer programs sharing the same resource are effectively
preventing each other from accessing the resource, resulting in both programs ceasing to function.
○ In the diagram, the process 1 has resource 1 and needs to acquire resource 2. Similarly process 2 has
resource 2 and needs to acquire resource 1. Process 1 and process 2 are in deadlock as each of them needs
the other’s resource to complete their execution but neither of them is willing to relinquish their
resources.

● Client OS & Server OS

○ Client OS - It is an operating system that operates within a desktop. It is used to obtain services from a
server. It runs on the client devices like laptop, computer and is a very simple operating system.
■ Example– Windows, Android
○ Server OS - It is an operating system that is designed to be used on a server. It is used to provide services
to multiple clients. It can serve multiple clients at a time and is a very advanced operating system. It
provides more security, has greater processing power, and is more stable than the client OS.
■ Example– Linux/Unix, Redhat, Windows Server, Android server

● Mobile OS & Desktop OS

○ A mobile OS allows application software to operate on mobile devices.
○ It is like desktop OS in certain ways, but it is simpler and lighter in comparison.

Some of the Operating Systems Currently Available

● Harmony OS – Huawei
● iOS - Created by Apple Inc for iPhones (It is built on the open source Darwin operating system). The iPhone OS
is based on BSD and NeXTSTEP, both of which are UNIX-related (Darwin).
○ Other OS by apple – iPadOS, watchOS, bridgeOS (Modified version of watchOS)
● Bada OS – Samsung (now discontinued)
● webOS - webOS was developed by Palm

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 ● Nokia - Symbian OS, Maemo, Meego
● Fire OS – Amazon
● Windows Mobile was a family of mobile operating systems developed by Microsoft for smartphones and
personal digital assistants.
● WebOS, Android, and Maemo are all variations on the Linux OS.

Android OS
● Android was originally founded by Andy Rubin in 2003 under the company name Android, Inc.
● In 17th August 2005, Google acquired android Incorporation. Since then, it is in the subsidiary of Google
Incorporation.
● The first commercial version, Android 1.0, was released on September 23, 2008.
● The operating system is developed by Google
● Latest version is Android 13 codename Tiramisu
● Android OS Versions
○ Android 11 - Red Velvet Cake - September 8, 2020
○ Android 12 - Snow Cone - October 4, 2021
○ Android 13 - Tiramisu - August 15, 2022
○ Android 14 - Upside Down Cake (To be released)
○ Android 15 - Vanilla Ice Cream (To be released)

Windows OS
● Developer – Microsoft
● Latest Windows 11 was released on October 5, 2021.
● Windows CE (officially known as Windows Embedded Compact), is an edition of Windows that runs on
minimalistic computers, like satellite navigation systems and some mobile phones.
● It was first launched in 1985 as a graphical operating system built on MS-DOS. It was Single-User
Single-Tasking Operating System.

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 ● Windows “NT” – New Technology (Windows NT for launched for businesses and enterprises.
● Windows "XP" stands for eXPerience
● Windows Millennium Edition, or Windows Me
● Windows 9x is a general term referring to a series (or family) of Microsoft Windows computer operating
systems.
○ These were produced from 1995 to 2000. These were based on the Windows 95 kernel and its underlying
foundation of MS-DOS.
○ This includes all versions of Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows ME.

Mac OS
● macOS is a Unix operating system developed and marketed by Apple Inc. since 2001. It is the primary operating
system for Apple's Mac computers.
● Various macOS Versions
○ MacOS 11 Big Sur
○ MacOS 12 Monterey
○ MacOS 13 Ventura (Latest)
○ MacOS 14 Sonoma (To be released)

IPA & APK

● IPA files are iOS applications. APK files are Android apps.
○ IPA - iOS package App Store (IPA)
○ APK - Android Application Package

Kernel & Shell

● The kernel is a computer program at the core of a computer's operating system and generally has complete
control over everything in the system. It is the portion of the operating system code that is always resident in
memory and facilitates interactions between hardware and software components. A full kernel controls all
hardware resources (e.g. I/O, memory, cryptography) via device drivers.
○ On most systems, the kernel is one of the first programs loaded on startup (after the bootloader). It
handles the rest of startup as well as memory, peripherals, and input/output (I/O) requests from software,
translating them into data-processing instructions for the central processing unit.
○ The kernel used by Microsoft for Windows is called the "Windows NT kernel."
● In computing, a shell is a computer program that exposes an operating system's services to a human user or other
programs. In general, operating system shells use either a command-line interface (CLI) or graphical user
interface (GUI), depending on a computer's role and particular operation. It is named a shell because it is the
outermost layer around the operating system.

Device Driver
● In computing, a device driver is a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is
attached to a computer or automaton.
○ A driver provides a software interface to hardware devices, enabling operating systems and other
computer programs to access hardware functions without needing to know precise details about the
hardware being used.

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What are some of the open source OS?
● Open source software is code that is designed to be publicly accessible—anyone can see, modify, and distribute
the code as they see fit. It is legal to make as many copies as possible and use open-source software because it is
licensed.
○ Chrome OS
■ ChromeOS powers every Chromebook. ChromeOS is a Linux-based operating system developed
and designed by Google. It is a free open source operating system.

○ LINUX
■ Tux the penguin, the mascot of Linux
■ Linux is a family of open-source Unix-like operating systems based on the
kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17, 1991, by
Linus Torvalds.
■ This open source operating system ensures we don’t have to deal with viruses
or malware.
■ What is the difference between LINUX & Unix?
● Unix is multi-tasking, multi-user operating system but is not free to use and is not open
source. It was developed in 1969 by Ken Thompson’s team at AT&T Bell Labs.
■ What are the variants of LINUX?
1) Ubuntu - It came into existence in 2004 & is one of the most well
known Linux distribution. It has many features, including an office
suite, web browsers, instant messaging, media mapping, etc.
2) Linux Mint
3) Debian
4) Red Hat Enterprise
5) Fedora

○ Free BSD
■ This is a free UNIX open source operating system. The networking of intranet and internet
servers are its best applications. The University of California developed this OS. It mainly
focuses on speed and stability and it can handle and manage large memory loads.

CLI (Command-Line Interface)

● A command-line interface (CLI) is a means of interacting with a device or computer program with commands
from a user or client, and responses from the device or program, in the form of lines of text to interact with an
operating system.
○ Example :- MS DOS
● MS DOS also had 8.3 filename limitation. By default Windows 10/11 lets you use up to 260 characters in a file
name.

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 ● Command Line Interface now-a-days in
○ macOS: Mac Terminal.
○ Windows: Command Prompt
○ Linux: Linux Bash Shell
○ Google Cloud Platform: PowerShell, Cloud Shell
○ Amazon Web Services: AWS Command Prompt
○ Microsoft Azure: Azure CLI Bash.

● How to open Command Prompt in Windows?

○ Go to the Start menu, and enter the text "Command Prompt" in the search bar.
OR
○ Hold the Windows key and press R to open the “Run” window. Type “cmd” in the search bar and click
“OK.”

GUI (Graphical User Interface)

● GUI stands for Graphical User Interface. GUI permits users to
use the graphics to interact with an operating system.
● In the graphical user interface, menus are provided such as
windows, scrollbars, buttons, wizards, painting pictures,
alternative icons, etc.
● Example - Microsoft Windows, macOS

Sleep vs Hibernate
● Sleep uses very little power, your PC starts up faster, and you’re instantly back to where you left off. You don’t
have to worry that you'll lose your work because of your battery draining because Windows automatically saves

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 all your work and turns off the PC if the battery is too low. Use Sleep when you’re going to be away from your
PC for just a little while—like when you’re taking a coffee break.
○ For a lot of PCs (especially laptops and tablets), your PC goes to sleep when you close your lid or press
the power button.

● Hibernate option was designed for laptops and might not be available for all PCs. Hibernate uses less power than
sleep and when you start up the PC again, you’re back to where you left off (though not as fast as sleep).
○ Use hibernation when you know that you won't use your laptop or tablet for an extended period and won't
have an opportunity to charge the battery during that time.

What Is Safe Mode?

● Safe mode is defined as an operating system (OS) environment meant for diagnostics, malware investigations in a
PC, and unwanted application removal, which works by loading Windows or any other OS without any drivers,
except for the essential ones.
○ Safe mode starts Windows in a basic state, using a limited set of files and drivers. If a problem doesn't
happen in safe mode, this means that default settings and basic device drivers aren't causing the issue.
Observing Windows in safe mode enables you to narrow down the source of a problem, and can help you
troubleshoot problems on your PC. There are two versions of safe mode: Safe Mode and Safe Mode with
Networking. Safe Mode with Networking adds the network drivers and services you'll need to access the
internet and other computers on your network.

Few Shortcuts
● Ctrl+Alt+Delete is the combination of the Ctrl key, the Alt key and Del key that a user can press at the same
time to terminate an application task or to reboot the operating system.
● Press the “Windows logo key + SHIFT + S” to take a screenshot using the Snipping Tool using Snip & Sketch.
● Windows key + D — Show or hide the desktop.
● Ctrl + Esc — Open the Start menu.
● Ctrl + Shift + Esc — Open the Task Manager.
● F5 Refresh the active window.
● F8 – Used to access the boot menu in Windows when turning on the computer.
● Windows logo key + I - Open Settings.
● Windows logo key + L - Lock your PC
● Windows logo key + P - Choose a presentation display mode.
● Windows logo key + S - Open search.

File Systems in Operating System

● An integral part of an OS is what is called a File System. A File System is a data structure that stores data and
information on storage devices (hard drives, floppy disc, etc.), making them easily retrievable. Different OS’s use
different file systems, but all have similar features.
● The most important part of the file system is the method used to index files on the hard drive. This index allows
the OS to know at any given time where to find a specific file on the hard drive. This index is most typically
based on file names. Depending on the operating system there are different file systems, and thus different
indexing methods.

● In the macOS environment we will find the HFS+ (HFS (Hierarchical File System) file system.
○ As of June 2016, Apple has implemented their new file system “APFS,” (Apple File System):

● In Windows, we use FAT file systems. The first is known as the FAT (12, 16, or 32) file system. This system uses
what is known as a File Allocation Table to index the files on the disc. FAT is used by very old versions of
Windows such as Windows 95, MS DOS etc.
○ The second file system in Windows is known as NTFS (New Technology File System). It is used by new
versions of Windows such as windows 10, 11 etc.

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 ● exFAT (Extensible File Allocation Table) is a file system introduced by Microsoft in 2006 and optimized for flash
memory such as USB flash drives and SD cards.

● ext (Extended File System), ext1, ext2, ext3, ext4, MINIX, OpenZFS, BtrFS, XFS – All of these are file systems
commonly used on Linux and Unix-based operating systems.

What is System Tray?

● The system tray is a section of the taskbars in the Microsoft Windows operating system (OS) user interface that
provides easy access icons to the user's most commonly used apps and displays the clock.

Programs
● A program is the code that is stored on your computer that can complete a certain task. There are many types of
programs, including programs built into the operating system and ones to complete specific tasks. Generally,
task-specific programs are called applications (or apps).
● When a program is loaded into memory along with all the resources it needs to operate, it is called a process.
○ A Thread is a smaller unit of execution within a process that shares the same memory and resources.
○ Processes are heavyweight operations. Threads are lighter-weight operations. Each process has its own
memory space. Threads use the memory of the process they belong to.

What is Demand Paging & Page Fault in OS (Operating System)?

● In Operating Systems, Paging is a storage mechanism used to retrieve processes from the secondary storage into
the main memory in the form of pages.

● Demand paging - Load the pages of the process as per demand i.e. don’t load any page until required. We can use
demand paging to reduce the number of frames allocated to a process. This arrangement can increase the degree
of multiprogramming (allowing more processes to be available for execution at one time) and—in theory, at
least—the CPU utilization of the system.

● If the referred page is not present in the main memory then there will be a miss and the concept is called Page
miss or page fault. The CPU has to access the missed page from the secondary memory. If the number of page
fault is very high then the effective access time of the system will become very high.

● Thrashing
○ In computer science, thrashing occurs when a computer's virtual memory resources are overused, leading
to a constant state of paging and page faults, inhibiting most application-level processing. It causes the
performance of the computer to degrade or collapse. The situation can continue indefinitely until the user
closes some running applications or the active processes free up additional virtual memory resources.

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