Journal of Instrumentation

Studies on a dual energy RF electron linac

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 Published by IOP Publishing for Sissa Medialab
Received: March 26, 2019
Revised: May 2, 2019
Accepted: May 14, 2019
Published: June 3, 2019

TECHNICAL REPORT

2019 JINST 14 T06001

Studies on a dual energy RF electron linac

B. Nayak,a,b,1 D. Bhattacharjeea and S. Acharyaa

a Accelerator
& Pulse Power Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre,
Mumbai, 400085, India
b Homi Bhabha National Institute,

Mumbai, 400094, India

E-mail: nayakb@barc.gov.in

Abstract: Beam dynamics study of a dual energy (6/3.5 MeV) standing wave RF electron Linac
as a cargo scanner is carried out in the code ASTRA. This paper discusses a detailed study on
focusing of electron beam aiming to reduce the emittance growth and spot size & presents the
solenoid misalignment tolerances. Simulation of X-ray production is performed in FLUKA code.

Keywords: Accelerator modelling and simulations (multi-particle dynamics; single-particle

dynamics); Beam dynamics

1Corresponding author.

c 2019 IOP Publishing Ltd and Sissa Medialab https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/14/06/T06001

Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 System description 2

3 Beam dynamics of the linac 2

3.1 Evaluation of threshold B field 3

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3.2 Simulation results of ASTRA code 4
3.3 Effect of solenoid misalignment on emittance growth of beam 9
3.4 Design of steering coil 11

4 Simulation of X-ray generation in FLUKA code 12

5 Conclusion 15

1 Introduction

X-ray imaging has well-known applications in medicine, industry, scientific research and security.
One important application of x-ray imaging is the scanning of large size cargos (upto few meters
and density of around thousand kilograms per cubic meter) for detecting contraband objects such as
explosives, narcotics and nuclear materials etc. [1–4]. A cargo inspection system mainly consists of
the x-ray source, an array of detectors, image processing software, control systems and the gantry or
other mechanical moving systems. Normally an electron linac is served as the x-ray source for cargo
scanning application. One or two collimators are used to let only a fan shaped x-ray beam go out
of the linac x-ray head into the scanning area. Below 2 MeV, x-rays do not penetrate heavy cargo,
and above 9 MeV requires shielding from neutrons produced. Typically systems operate 3–6 MeV
energy. Different materials have slightly different attenuation coefficients. By doing measurement
at a single energy, one may get two unknowns, the product of the attenuation coefficient and the
path travelled through the cargo. Hence two different measurements are needed to resolve both and
this is normally done by using two different x-ray energies. Typically the linac will produce two
different energies and the energy is varied by varying the power supplied from the magnetron as
well as by changing beam current [5–8].
In this paper, beam dynamics of a linac (of energy 6/3.5 MeV) is described and its associated
production of x-ray is explained. The paper is organized as follows: in section 2, different elements
of accelerator are described and in section 3, simulation results of beam dynamics are presented.
In section 4, production of photons for both the energies (6/3.5 MeV) have been calculated with
Fluka Code.

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 2019 JINST 14 T06001
Figure 1. Schematic of the linac showing electron gun, cavity, target & magnets.

Figure 2. Model of 3 buncher cells (A, B, C) and 2 accelerating cells (D & E).

2 System description

The accelerating module contain a 50 keV thermionic electron gun, an accelerating section of 11
cells which includes three bunching cells, operating at π/2 mode at a frequency of 2856 MHz and
a x-ray conversion target (tungsten). The length of each accelerating cell is 52 mm, whereas the
buncher cells are 45, 48 and 50 mm respectively. The bore radius is 5 mm for all the buncher cells
and accelerating cells. The effective shunt impedance for the buncher cells is ∼ 80 MΩ/m, while
for the accelerating cells, it is ∼ 90 MΩ/m [9–11]. A layout of the linac is shown in figure 1 and
picture of cavity (includes three buncher cells and two accelerating cells) is displayed in figure 2.
Table 1 presents the required operational parameters.

3 Beam dynamics of the linac

Detoriation of beam quality as a result of rms emittance growth for space charge dominated beam
has been observed both in simulation and experiments. So growth of transverse emittance and self
field effects in linac should be kept minimum not only to increase the transmission efficiency but

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 Table 1. Parameters of the accelerator.
Beam energy (MeV) 6/3.5
Beam current (mA) 210/360
RF frequency (MHz) 2856
Pulse width (µsec) 5
PRF (Hz) each for 6/3.5 MeV beam 120
Spot size (FWHM) at the target (mm) ∼2

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also to limit beam halo as well as the radioactivity of the linac. Space charge effect is larger for non-
relativistic beams and for relativistic beams the self-magnetic forces increase and produce a partial
cancellation of the Coulomb forces. Due to space charge field, effective focusing strength reduces
and there is growth of the rms emittance which degrades the intrinsic beam quality [12–15]. To
compensate space charge forces in linacs, two types of methods are normally followed worldwide.
One is by using solenoid magnets over cavity section and another by modifying cavity structure itself
to provide focusing forces from RF fields. In the second case, the transverse focusing is obtained
by introducing an asymmetry in the 1st buncher cell and properly choosing phase velocities of all
buncher cells [16–18].
Here beam dynamics study is explored to optimize beam parameters and beam quality for the
linac operation by using solenoid magnetic fields.

3.1 Evaluation of threshold B field

Here the solenoid magnetic fields are used to focus the beam against the defocusing forces so that
beam loss in rf cavity could be minimized. These solenoid magnets make transverse electron beam
size smaller than the aperture radius of cavity. The equation of motion of beam taking cavity,
solenoid and space charge field is
d 2 a γ 0a0 e2 B 2 πeEm sin ϕ K ε2
+ + a − a − − =0 (3.1)
dz2 β2 γ (2mcβγ)2 λmc2 β2 γ 3 a a3

where K = I 2
I0 β 3γ 3 .
 
Here ϕ, k = 2π are phase and wave number of the rf electric field of amplitude Em . B is the
λ
 current and I0 = 17 kA for electron. m and are mass and
external magnetic field, I is the beam
charge of electron. β and γ = √ 1 are the relativistic factors, a is the beam envelope (rms size)
1−β 2
of the beam.
A solution of interest for the envelope equation is a 0 = a 00 = 0
Then the required solenoid field on the axis can be obtained as
2
2mc2 2πE0T sin ϕ 2mc2 2mc2 ε 2 β2 γ 2

I
B0 =
2
+ + (3.2)
e λc2 βγ e π0 a2 c3 βγ e a4 c2
On substituting parameters for threshold B field as given in table 2,

B0 > 916 gauss

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 Table 2. Parameters to solve expression (3.2).
E0 10 MV/m
T 0.8
mc2 0.5 MeV
λ 0.1 m
ϕ 300
a 1.5 mm

2019 JINST 14 T06001

I 1.0 Amp
ε 7 mm-mrad
β and γ corresponds to 50 keV

Figure 3. Variation of matched magnetic field along cavity axis.

As beam energy goes on increasing along the axis of the linac, requirement of magnetic field
to compensate defocusing forces decreases. This variation is plot in figure 3.

3.2 Simulation results of ASTRA code

The longitudinal electric field components on the symmetry axis of the injector and accelerating
sections of cavity have been computed using CST MWS [19]. Tracking of beam in external fields
have been studied using ASTRA code [20].
Input parameters considered for simulation in ASTRA is provided in table 3.
Electric field profile of the cavity section considered in the simulation is shown in figure 4. Peak
electric field continuously increases for three bunching cells and once beam becomes relativistic,
it remains same for all accelerating cells. Because of the structure of the cavity cells (as shown in
figure 2 which is entirely different from simple pill-box cavity shape), there are dips in the electric
field profile

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 Table 3. Input parameters for ASTRA.
Initial energy (keV) 50
Beam current (mA) for 6/3.5 MeV 650/1000
Trnasverse beam size (FWHM) (mm) 3.6
Beam divergence (RMS) (mrad) 8
No. of macro particles 25000

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Figure 4. Normalised Electric field profile of 11 accelerating cells of rf cavity section.

The diameter of the electron beam hitting the target gives the size of x-ray source. Ideally a
point x-ray source is desired to get sharp images for cargo scanning but in practical cases, the source
size can be around 2 mm. We require same x-ray dose at the target for both 6 MeV and 3.5 MeV for
imaging application. Hence input beam current injected form the gun for 6 MeV is 650 mA and for
3.5 MeV it is 1 Ampere.
Space charge effect plays an important role in the low energy section of the accelerator [21–25].
Hence emittance of the beam increases and there is lesser transmission efficiency. So to compensate
self-field effect, a solenoid is used over the buncher section of the rf linac. This air-core solenoid
is of length 150 mm and is wound in two sections of lengths 80 mm and 70 mm respectively with
number of turns as 1500 and 1200 respectively. A picture of the solenoid field profile is shown in
figure 5. Field at the centre is 1000 gauss and then it decreases towards the end. This kind of profile
is very similar (although we may not exactly match) to our required field as per expression (3.2)
and figure 3.
The solenoid field reduces the beam diameter and improve the overall transmission efficiency
(beam current falling on target/injected beam current from gun)≈ 15% for 1000 gauss as observed
from the simulation. Variation of transmission efficiency with solenoid magnetic field (solenoid
over cavity section) is displayed in figure 6. It is observed that for 6 MeV, without applying any

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 2019 JINST 14 T06001
Figure 5. Profile of solenoid magnetic field.

Figure 6. Variation of transmission efficiency with magnetic field.

magnetic field, transmission is 27% and subsequently it increases on increasing B field and reaches
at a maximum of 45% for 1500 gauss. Similarly, for 3.5 MeV, without applying any magnetic field,
transmission efficiency is 22% and then it increasec upto a maximum of 42% for 2500 gauss. On
further increase of field, due to over focusing, transmission again decrease. So for 1000 gauss,
beam current at the exit of the linac for 6 MeV will be 210 mA and for 3.5 MeV, it will be 360 mA.
For both beam of energy 6 and 3.5 MeV, FWHM of the beam is more than 4 mm at the exit of
accelerator. So the x-ray target cannot be directly placed at the end of this linac. In order to reduce
the beam size, a focusing electromagnet has been connected in the second half of the cavity section
as shown in figure 1. For 6 MeV beam, current is lesser i.e 650 mA and for 3.5 MeV beam, it is
1 Ampere. So dynamics of beam in these two region is entirely different. But for x-ray generation,

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 2019 JINST 14 T06001
Figure 7. Variation of beam spot size with magnetic field.

Table 4. Parameters of the electromagnet.

Length (mm) 170
Pole gap (mm) 30
Inner diameter (mm) 120
Outer diameter (mm) 300
Material MS 1010 (Iron)
No. of turns 2000

we need beam of approximately same size for both these energies. As focal length of solenoid field
highly depends upon beam energy (also current), so it needs to be properly optimized for both these
two energies. So we performed simulation to reach at a optimum value. We observed the decrease
in beam size for both the cases which is plot in figure 7.
So it is found that by using focusing electromagnet of strength 1500 gauss, electron beam
spot size (FWHM) is reduced from 3.8 mm to 2 mm for 6 MeV and from 4.6 mm to 2.1 mm for
3.5 MeV beam.
The field profile of the iron core electromagnet to produce such field is shown in figure 8.
Parameters of the electromagnet are given in table 4.
The required magnetic field can be found out from the formula

B1 = µ0 NI/S and B0 = B1 S/L

p
L = (S2 + 0.45D2 )

where S is the pole gap and D is the inner diameter of the magnet and B0 is the field at it’s centre.
Taking S = 30 mm D = 120 mm, Number of Ampere-turns required to produce 0.15 T will be
10,000.With current of 5 Amp, no.of turns required will be 2000.

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 2019 JINST 14 T06001
Figure 8. Field profile of electromagnet.

Figure 9. Evolution of rms beam size along the axis of linac for 6 MeV beam.

Figure 9 shows the evolution of RMS beam size for 6 MeV beam. Similarly figure 10 shows
the evolution of RMS beam size for 3.5 MeV beam. It is also observed from simulation that beam
distribution no more remains Gaussian at the target and FWHM in both cases are around 2 mm.
√
For a Gaussian beam, FWHM = 2 3σ. It is found that RMS beam size is more in the initial stage
because of space charge and RF defocusing forces, but then it after around 350 mm, it’s size remains
almost same. For 6 MeV, it is 1.7 mm and for 3.5 MeV, it is 1.8 mm at the exit of linac.
At non-relativistic region, change of input beam size affects the subsequent dynamics a lot;
mainly emittance increases and transmission efficiency changes with change in input beam size.
This is clearly observed in simulation also. Here we have added two tables (tables 5 and 6)
for both 6/3.5 MeV case where we have varied the input beam size as 2.6 mm, 3.6 mm, 4.6 mm
and 5.6 respectively keeping other parameters same. It is found that on decreasing input beam

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 2019 JINST 14 T06001
Figure 10. Evolution of rms beam size along the axis of linac for 3.5 MeV beam.

Table 5. 6 MeV beam.

Input beam size (FWHM) (mm) Transmission efficiency (%)
2.6 38
3.6 40
4.6 36
5.6 31

Table 6. 3.5 MeV beam.

Input beam size (FWHM) (mm) Transmission efficiency (%)
2.6 36
3.6 37
4.6 32
5.6 27

size (compared to 3.6 mm), space charge force for a given current increases thereby decreasing
transmission efficiency. Similarly increase of beam size leads to emittance dominated region so
also transmission decreases.

3.3 Effect of solenoid misalignment on emittance growth of beam

In practical cases, beam axis and solenoid axis may not be matched and they may be some mis-
aligned [26]. To simulate it’s effect, first, we have shifted the solenoid in x-direction upto 2 mm
(keeping the position of focusing electromagnet unchanged) and studied its effect on growth of RMS

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 2019 JINST 14 T06001
Figure 11. Change of transmission efficiency and rms emittance at the exit of linac for different offset of
solenoid for 6 MeV beam.

Figure 12. Beam distribution at the exit of linac for 6 MeV beam with 1 mm solenoid offset.

emittance and transmission efficiency. Here we have considered only 6 MeV beam and solenoid is
energized to produce 1000 gauss. Results are plot in figure 11. We observed that RMS normalised
emittance at the end of linac goes on increasing from 6 mm-mrad to 10 mm-mrad with the offset
upto 2 mm. Similarly, transmission efficiency decreases from 40% to 34%.
Beam distribution at the exit of linac for 6 MeV beam with 1 mm solenoid offset is shown in
figure 12. It is clearly observed that centre of the beam spot also shifted by 1 mm and also the
distribution now becomes asymmetric.
Change of transmission efficiency and rms emittance at the exit of linac for different rotational
misalignment of solenoid for 6 MeV beam is shown in figure 13. It is found that RMS normalised
emittance at the end of linac goes on increasing from 6 mm-mrad to 9 mm-mrad with rotational
misalignment upto 10 mrad. Similarly, transmission efficiency decreases from 40% to 35%. So to
correct this beam deviation as well as misalignment, a steering coil must be used in the linac.

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 2019 JINST 14 T06001
Figure 13. Change of transmission efficiency and rms emittance at the exit of linac for different rotational
misalignment of solenoid for 6 MeV beam.

Table 7. Parameters of steering coil.

Inner radius (mm) 120
Outer radius (mm) 135
Length of magnet (mm) 150
No. of turns in each coil 50
Coil current (Amp) 5
B field (T) 0.0015
Field Uniformity (%) < 1.5%

3.4 Design of steering coil

There are many designs of steering coil [27]. Here two C-shaped magnets are used to generate
X- or Y-field as shown in figure 16. In this type of design, iron is used as core material and
due to the shielding offered by the core, the outside windings do not nullify the field of inner
windings. Instead the field is enhanced by nearly 2 times due to the contributions from image
current. Magnetic field of a steering magnet exerts a constant force in a direction perpendicular
to the beam direction. Therefore uniformity of the field in a direction perpendicular to the beam’s
direction is very important. Design of steering magnet has been carried out in CST Particle studio
(figure 14) and in figure 15, x-component of B field within 30 mm radius around the centre is plot.
Parameters of magnet are given in table 7.
pθ
Requirement of B field to correct the beam by an angle θ is given by eL where p is the
momentum of the beam and L is the length of the magnet. For ex. Taking a 1 MeV beam, to correct
deviation of 10 mrad, around 2 gauss will be required. Hence depends upon the misalignment of
the beam, one may tune the steering coil current to generate required magnetic field.

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 2019 JINST 14 T06001
Figure 14. Model of steering magnet.

Figure 15. X-component of B-field of steering coil.

4 Simulation of X-ray generation in FLUKA code

Generation of x-ray beam begins at the e-γ target. After being accelerated in the linac structure,
the electron beam penetrates the target material. Due to the Coulomb interactions among the
electron beam and atomic electrons in the target and the protons in the nuclei of the target material,
Bremsstrahlung photons are produced [28]. The Bremsstrahlung yield depends on the electron en-
ergy and the atomic number of the target element. Therefore, high atomic number elements are used
as e-γ target. The thickness of the e-γ target is optimized in such a way that all the electron incident
on the target get absorbed in target itself. Ratio of energy loss due to radiation dE
dx rad and ionisation
 
dE
dx ion decides the quality of target for Bremsstrahlung radiation. The energy of photons emitted
in this process is distributed in a continuum spectrum with end point equal to the electron energy.

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 2019 JINST 14 T06001
Figure 16. Variation of x-ray intensity with thickness of target.

Here estimation of photon flux is simulated using monte-carlo transport code FLUKA [29–31].
Input beam of energy 6/3.5 MeV, spread 0.6/0.45 MeV, current 210/360 mA and beam size FWHM
2 mm is considered for simulation. The number of particles in the simulation is set to be 2000000
so that the relative error is lower than 3%. Here we have considered tungsten of diameter 20 mm as
x-ray conversion material. First the thickness of the target (varies from 1 mm to 5 mm) is optimised
for higher photon generation for both the energies. As beam power of around 800 Watt will be
dissipated on the target, so we have not considered target of lesser thickness than 1 mm (for cooling
purpose).Variation of x-ray intensity (no. of photons produced per cm3 per single RF pulse of
5 µsec duration) with thickness of target is shown in figure 16. We observed that on increasing the
thickness of target, intensity decreases both for 6 and 3.5 MeV beam. For 1 mm thick tungsten,
number of photons are 9.0 × 1014 for 6 MeV and 3.5 × 1014 for 3.5 MeV beam. So conversion
efficiency for 3.5 MeV beam is lesser by 2.5 times as compared to 6 MeV beam.
By Bremstrahlung process, a continous range of energy of photons are generated. Energy
Spectrum of photons produced at the target for both 6 and 3.5 MeV beam is plot in figures 17
and 18.
The cubic volume of 30 × 30 × 20 cm3 with air content is specified in the simulation and
distribution of photons in it are shown in figures 19 and 20 for 6 MeV and 3.5 MeV beam respectively.
The dose rate Jx (cGy/min at 1 m distance) is in proportion to the duty factor, beam current
and electron energy as
Jx = 0.067D.I p .Vacc n

where D.I p is average beam current at the gun in unit µA, Vacc is the electron energy in MeV [32, 33].
n is a factor related to electron energy and it’s value is 2.7 for 6 MeV and ∼3 for 3.5 MeV beam.
So substituting parameters in our case, for 6 MeV beam, the linac delivers 1065 cGy/min and for
3.5 MeV beam, the linac generates 620 cGy/min at 1 m distance from target.

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 2019 JINST 14 T06001
Figure 17. Photon spectrum for 6 MeV beam energy.

Figure 18. Photon spectrum for 3.5 MeV beam energy.

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 2019 JINST 14 T06001
Figure 19. Photon fluence distribution for 6 MeV beam energy.

Figure 20. Photon fluence distribution for 3.5 MeV beam energy.

5 Conclusion

Recently demands on low energy electron accelerators are rapidly growing for industrial applica-
tions. Out of those, dual energy compact rf linacs are used as x-ray source to detect the possible
presence of contrabands in cargos or truch containers. Also dose rate and its stability is very
important for such type of linac as it affects material discrimination significantly. Beam dynamics
of a S-band standing wave electron linac as a cargo scanner is investigated in this paper. As imaging
of cargos requires two different energies, beam dynamics in such type of linac should be optimized
keeping in view the transmission efficiency as well spot size required at the target for x-ray genera-
tion. The continous electron beam emitted from cathode is bunched in the first three cells and gained
the energy along the rf structure. Because of intense space charge effect in the buncher section of

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rf cavity, beam loss occurs and also beam size increases. The beam dynamics, including the space
charge effects for the linac are simulated by ASTRA code. From the simulation results, we showed
that by using solenoids over buncher section, beam transmission efficiency increases (which also
decreases the beam load on electron gun) and with the use of focusing electromagnet over the second
half of cavity, rms beam size becomes less than 2 mm. Also the effects of solenoid misalignments on
emittance growth have been studied. By FLUKA simulation, we observed that the output electron
beam quality is good enough to produce the required x-ray flux for cargo scanning application.

Acknowledgments

2019 JINST 14 T06001

It is a pleasure to thank Dr. Gourishankar sahoo for helping us to run FLUKA code. The authors
also would like to express sincere gratitude to Shri R.K. Rajawat, Shri Jayanta Mondal and Shri
S.R. Ghodke for the encouragement and valuable discussion for this work.

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