1)What is piggybacking.

Piggybacking is the technique of delaying outgoing acknowledgment

and attaching it to the next data packet. 2)Write disadvantage of star topology . If the
concentrator(hub) on which the whole topology relies fails the whole system will crash down.The
installation cost is very high.Performance based on single concentrator i.e hub. 3)Define
hamming distance. Hamming distance is the number of bit positions in which the two bits are
different. The Hamming distance between two strings, a and b is denoted as d(a,b). 4)What is
channelization ? List any two channelization protocols ? Channelization is a way to
provide multiple access by sharing the available bandwidth in time, frequency, or through code
between source and destination nodes. Channelization Protocols can be classified as. FDMA
(Frequency Division Multiple Access) TDMA (Time Domain Multiple Access) CDMA (Code Division
Multiple Access)5)What is star backbone network in LAN. The star backone network in AN
is Bus topology.6)Write the internetworking device used in : Physical layer or below : Hubs,
Repeaters, Cables, Fibers, Wireless..Data-link layer: Bridges, Modems, Network cards, 2-layer
switches.Network layer: Routers, Brouters, 3-layer switches.Transport layer: Gateways,
Firewalls.Session layer: Gateways, Firewalls, PC’s.Presentation layer : Gateways, Firewalls,
PC’s.Application layer: Gateways,Firewalls, all end devices like PC’s, Phones, Servers..7)Define De
facto standard. These are standards that are followed without any formal plan or approval by
any organization.They have come into Existence due to traditions or facts e.g HTTP has started as de
facto.8)List protocols. Application layer: HTTP, HTML ,POP,H.323,IMAP. Transport layer :
TCP,UDP,SPX .Network Layer : IP ,IPX,IGMP,ICMP .Data link layer : Ehernet,IEEE
802.3,X.25,Frame,Relay .Physical layer : RS-232C(Cable),V.92(modem)9) List transmission
Impairments. I)Attenuation means loss of energy.ii)Distortion means that the signal changes its
form or shape.iii)Noise is another cause of impairment.10)What is Line Coding. Line coding is
the process of converting digital data to digital signals.Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a
digital signal.11) Statethe application of coaxial cable. Coaxial cable is used as
a transmission line for radio frequency signals. 12) Draw the frame format of PPP.

13)List three types of MAC protocol.

contended, controlled, and contention-free access protocols.14)List data representation
forms or types. Data representations include charts, graphs, tables, and other tools for
representing quantitative data.15) state the connectors used with fiber optic cable.
SC and LC connectors are used with fiber optic cables16) Define Acknowledged
Datagrams A Acknowleged datagram is a basic transfer unit associated with a packet-
switched network with positive Acknowlege of message. Datagrams are typically structured
in header and payload sections.17)What is :Unicast device data is sent from one sender
to one specific receiver.Multicast addressingMulticast uses the Class D IP address range
(224.0. 0.0 to 239.255. 255.255). The source IP address of a multicast packet will always be
a unicast IP address, and the destination IP address will be a multicast address.
18) Write any two functions of session layer. The session layer's primary function is
to provide and establish connections between communicating users, known as sessions. It
can transfer the data over these sessions in a reliable and orderly way. It can settle a
session between two computers for communication, file transfer, remote login, or other
purposes.

19)What do you mean by IEEE. The full form of IEEE is the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers. IEEE is a technical professional society dedicated to advancing tech and
innovation.20)What is the minimum and maximum payload length of IEEE 802.3
MAC frame. In the standard IEEE 802.3 Ethernet specification, the minimum frame size was 64
bytes and the maximum was 1518 bytes 21)Define latency. The latency defines how long it takes
for an entire message to completely arrive at the destination from the time the first bit sent out from
the source.Latency=propagation time+transmission time+Queining time+processing delay

Q2.Long Answers 1)Explain Why collision is an issue in random access protocol

but not in controlled access or channelizing protocols. I)In a random access protocol,
multiple devices have the ability to simultaneously transmit data on the same channel. When two or
more of these transmit simultaneously, their signals interfere with each other and may become
corrupted, causing a collision. Because these protocols allow devices to transmit at any time, they are
more susceptible to collisions.ii)On the other hand, in a controlled access protocol, a controller
governs when each device can transmit data, preventing simultaneous transmissions and thus
collisions. Similarly, channelizing protocols divide the channel into sub-channels and assign each to a
different device, avoiding the risk of collision. These sub-channels are used exclusively by the assigned
device and devices are not allowed to transmit outside their time slot or frequency, thereby avoiding
collision.2)What is
the Difference between a unicast, multicast and broadcast
address in IEEE 802.3 MAC frame. 1. Unicast:This type of information transfer is useful
when there is a participation of a single sender and a single recipient. So, in short, you can term it a
one-to-one transmission.2.Multicast:In multicasting, one/more senders and one/more recipients
participate in data transfer traffic. In this method traffic recline between the boundaries of unicast
(one-to-one) and broadcast (one-to-all). Multicast lets servers direct single copies of data streams
that are then simulated and routed to hosts that request it. IP multicast requires the support of
some other protocols like IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol), Multicast routing for its
work. Also in Classful IP addressing Class D is reserved for multicast groups.3.Broadcasting: Limited
Broadcasting: Suppose you have to send a stream of packets to all the devices over the network
that your reside, this broadcasting comes in handy. For this to achieve, it will append
255.255.255.255 (all the 32 bits of IP address set to 1) called Limited Broadcast Address in the
destination address of the datagram (packet) header which is reserved for information transfer to
all the recipients from a single client (sender) over the network. Direct Broadcasting: This is useful
when a device in one network wants to transfer packet stream to all the devices over the other
network. This is achieved by translating all the Host ID part bits of the destination address to 1,
referred to as Direct Broadcast Address in the datagram header for information transfer. 3)What
are design issues of network layer OSI model. 1. Store and Forward packet switching:
The host sends the packet to the nearest router. This packet is stored there until it has fully arrived
once the link is fully processed by verifying the checksum then it is forwarded to the next router till
it reaches the destination. This mechanism is called “Store and Forward packet switching.”2.
Services provided to Transport Layer:Through the network/transport layer interface, the network
layer transfers it’s services to the transport layer. These services are described below.3.
Implementation of Connectionless Service:Packet are termed as “datagrams” and corresponding
subnet as “datagram subnets”. When the message size that has to be transmitted is 4 times the size
of the packet, then the network layer divides into 4 packets and transmits each packet to router via.
a few protocol.Each data packet has destination address and is routed independently irrespective
of the packets.4. Implementation of Connection Oriented service:
To use a connection-oriented service, first we establishes a connection, use it and then release it. In
connection-oriented services, the data packets are delivered
Contentionto
slotthe receiver in the same order in

which they have been sent by the sender. 4)What are desirable properties of routing
algorithm ? explain. Desirable Properties of Routing Algorithms:- 1)Correctness and
Simplicity2)Robustness: Ability of the network to deliver packets via some route even in the face of
failures.3)Stability: The algorithm should converge to equilibrium fast in the face of changing
conditions in the network.4)Fairness and Optimality5)Efficiency: Minimum overhead. 5)Explain
CSMA/CD. i)Collision Detection is an Analog process.ii)The stations hardware must listen to
the channel while it is transmitting.If the signal it reads back is different from the signal it is
putting out,it knows that the collision is occurring.iii)If two or more stations decide to
transmit simultaneously there will be a collision.If a station detects a collision,it aborts its
transmission,waits a ransom period of time,and then tries again therefore,CSMA/CD will
consist of alternating contention and transmission periods,with idle periods occurring when
all stations are quite.
to

Frame Frame Frame Frame

Transmission Contention
Idle period
period period

6)Explain two major categories of transmission media. I)Transmission media is a

communication channel that carries the information from the sender to the receiver.Data is
transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.Carry the information in the form of bits through
LAN.In OSI phase transmission media supports the layer 1. Therefore it is considered to be as layer 1
component.ii)Transmission media is not a part of physical layer but it has two main categories 1.
Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links. Features: 1) High
Speed2)Secure3)Used for comparatively shorter distances2. Unguided Media: It is also referred to
as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is required for the transmission
of electromagnetic signals. Features: 1)The signal is broadcasted through air2)Less Secure3)Used
for larger distances.
7)Explain TCP/IP and compare it with OSI model i)Link: Does not define any protocol for
low level protocol.Corresponds to thephysical and data link layer of the OSI model.ii)Internet :
Connects multiple diverse network in a semless manner led to the choice of packet switching
network.It is also Called as Network layer. Network protocols are ARQ,ICMP,IGMP.iii)Transport
:Desgined Allow communication between peer entities on the source and destination Host.
Transport protocols are TCP,UDP.iv)Application : Does Not Have session Or presentation layer.
Application layer contains all higher level protocols for commonly required user service like email
(SMTP) , File transfer (FTP),Remote Terminal Access(TELNET),Domain Name System (DNS).

8)Explain Bridged Ethernet , Switched Ethernet. I)Ethernet is a set of technologies and

protocols that are used primarily in LANs. It was first standardized in 1980s as IEEE 802.3 standard.
Ethernet is classified into two categories: Bridged Ethernet and switched Ethernet.ii) A bridge stores
the hardware addresses observed from frames received by each interface and uses this information
to learn which frames need to be forwarded by the bridge. If a new host is connected then the
learning process of bridges is going to be a continuous process. Suppose if we move from LAN 1 to
LAN 2 some machine, i.e. MAC address moves from LAN 1 to LAN 2, which means table entries
should leave after some time so that the data remains fresh and relevant.iii)In switched Ethernet,
the hub connecting the stations of the classic Ethernet is replaced by a switch. The switch connects
the high-speed backplane bus to all the stations in the LAN. The switch-box contains a number of
ports, typically within the range of 4 – 48. A station can be connected in the network by simply
plugging a connector to any of the ports. Connections from a backbone Ethernet switch can go to
computers, peripherals or other Ethernet switches and Ethernet hubs. 9)Explain ARQ protocol.
I)ARQ stands for Automatic Repeat Request also known as Automatic Repeat Query. ARQ is an
error-control strategy used in a two-way communication system. It is a group of error-control
protocols to achieve reliable data transmission over an unreliable source or service. Ii)The main
function of these protocols is, the sender receives an acknowledgement from the receiver end
implying that the frame or packet is received correctly before a timeout occurs, timeout is a specific
time period within which the acknowledgement has to be sent by the receiver to the sender. If a
timeout occurs: the sender does not receive the acknowledgement before the specified time, it is
implied that the frame or packet has been corrupt or lost during the transmission. Accordingly, the
sender retransmits the packet and these protocols ensure that this process is repeated until the
correct packet is transmitted. iii)Application Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)Specific Service
Orientation Protocol: Error-correction of message signals in ATM networks.High-Level Data Link
protocol.IBM Binary synchronous Communications Protocol.Xmodem : modem file transfer
protocol .10)Give
the names of the layers of OSI model which perform the
following task 1.Communicate Directly with user’s application program. :
Application layer
2.Error correction and retransmission. : Transport Layer
3.Mechanical , electrical and functional interface. : Physical Layer
4.Responsibility for carrying frames between adjacent nodes. : Data link layer
5.Routing of packets : Network layer
11)Give the names of the layers of OSI model which perform the following task
1.Splitting of the long message if needed. : Network Layer
2.Agreed upon the transmission rate. : Physical layer
3.Providing mechanism to access the shared communication channel: Session
4.Concern with syntax and semantics of data. : Presentation Layer
5.Synchronization by inserting checkpoints. : Session layer 12) Explain Frame
format of PPP frame. I)Flag: The flag field is used to indicate the start and end of the frame. The
flag field is a 1-byte field that appears at the beginning and the ending of the frame. The pattern of
the flag is similar to the bit pattern in HDLC, i.e., 01111110.ii)Address: It is a 1-byte field that contains
the constant value which is 11111111. These 8 ones represent a broadcast message.iii)Control: It is a
1-byte field which is set through the constant value, i.e., 11000000. It is not a required field as PPP
does not support the flow control and a very limited error control mechanism. The control field is a
mandatory field where protocol supports flow and error control mechanism.iv)Protocol: It is a 1 or 2
bytes field that defines what is to be carried in the data field. The data can be a user data or other
information.v)Payload: The payload field carries either user data or other information. The maximum
length of the payload field is 1500 bytes.vi)Checksum: It is a 16-bit field which is generally used for
error detection.

13)Explain the transmission

modes with their subtype. The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another
device is known as transmission mode.The transmission mode is also known as the communication
mode..i)Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction.A
device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot send the
data.This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the two-way
exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as in sales that do not require any
corresponding reply.ii) In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can
transmit and receive the data as well.Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same
time.The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.In half-
duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs, then the receiver
requests the sender to retransmit the data.iii) In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-
directional, i.e., the data flow in both the directions.Both the stations can send and receive the
message simultaneously.Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving
in one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.The Full-duplex
mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.14) What is CSMA ? Explain 1-
persistence, p-persistence and non-persistence.i)CSMA : Carrier sense Multiple Access
Protocol. Protocols in which stations listen for a carrier(i.e,a transmission)And act accordingly are
called carrier sense protocol. In LANS it is often possible for stations to detect what other stations are
doing, thus adapt their behavior accordingly. Collisions can be reduced cannot be avoided.ii)1-
persistent simplest CSMA scheme. When stations has data to send it first listens to the channel to see
if anyone else is transmitting at that moment. If the channel is idle the station sends data. Otherwise
if the channel is busy, the station just waits until it becomes idle.Then station transmits a frame. IF a
collision occurs the stations waits a random amount of time and starts all over again.The protocol is
called 1-persistence.iii)Non-persistence , If the channel is already in use the station does not
continually sense it for the purpose of seizing it immediately upon detecting the end of the previous
transmission.Instead it waits random period of time and then repeats the algorithm.iv)P-persistence
:When station becomes ready to send it senses the channel.If It is idle , it transmits with a probability
p. with a probability q=1-p, it defers until next slot.If the slot is also idle it either transmits or defers
again with probability p and q.This process is repeated until either the frame has been transmitted or
another station has begun transmitting.15)Explain TCP/IP model.i)Link: Does not define any
protocol for low level protocol.Corresponds to the physical and data link layer of the OSI
model.ii)Internet : Connects multiple diverse network in a semless manner led to the choice of
packet switching network.It is also Called as Network layer. Network protocols are
ARQ,ICMP,IGMP.iii)Transport :Desgined Allow communication between peer entities on the source
and destination Host.Transport protocols are TCP,UDP.iv)Application : Does Not Have session Or
presentation layer. Application layer contains all higher level protocols for commonly required user
service like email (SMTP) , File transfer (FTP),Remote Terminal Access(TELNET),Domain Name System
(DNS).

16)What is virtual LAN. Discuss Membership parameter

for Virtual LAN. I)Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a concept in which we can divide the devices logically on
layer 2 (data link layer). Generally, layer 3 devices divide the broadcast domain but the broadcast
domain can be divided by switches using the concept of VLAN. ii)A broadcast domain is a network
segment in which if a device broadcast a packet then all the devices in the same broadcast domain
will receive it. The devices in the same broadcast domain will receive all the broadcast packets but
it is limited to switches only as routers don’t forward out the broadcast packet. To forward out the
packets to different VLAN (from one VLAN to another) or broadcast domains, inter Vlan routing is
needed. Through VLAN, different small-size sub-networks are created which are comparatively easy
to handle. Iii)VLAN ranges: 1)VLAN 0, 4095: These are reserved VLAN which cannot be seen or used.

2)VLAN 1: It is the default VLAN of switches. By default, all switch ports are in VLAN. This VLAN can’t
be deleted or edit but can be used.3)VLAN 2-1001: This is a normal VLAN range. We can create, edit
and delete these VLAN.4)VLAN 1002-1005: These are CISCO defaults for fddi and token rings. These
VLAN can’t be deleted.5)Vlan 1006-4094: This is the extended range of Vlan. 17)Explain the
factors affecting the performance of Network. i)Bandwidth: The term can be used in two
different context with two different measuring values : bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per
second.ii)Throughput : It is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.A link
may have a bandwidth of B bps but we can only send T bps through thislink with T is always less than
B.iii)Latency : The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely
arrive at the destination from the time the first bit sent out from the source.We can say that latency is
made of four components : i)propagation time ii)transmission time iii)Queining time iv)Processing
time. Latency=propagation time+transmission time+Queining time+processing delay.iv)Bandwidth
delay product : bandwidth and delay are two performance metrics of a link.The bandwidth delay
prduct defines the number of bits that can fill the link.v)Jitter : Another performance issue that is
related to delay. Jitter is a problem if different packets of data encounters different delays & the
application using the data at the receiver site is time sensitive. 18)What is Pipelining ? Explain
Selective Repeat and Go back n.i)To achieve better efficiency sender can transmit ‘w’ frames
instead of 1 , the acknowledgement for frame 1 arrives thus eliminating the sender’s waiting period.
The senders window size is w, This technique is used when propagation delay is substantial and the
line can be kept busy during this time known as pipelining.ii)Go back n : The receiver simply discards
the damaged frame and all subsequent ones , sending no acknowledgement.This corresponds to a
receiver window size of 1.It accepts frame only in order.The sender will eventually time out and
retransmit all unacknowledged frames.iii)selective repeat :Receiver discards the damaged frame but
stores all correct frames following the damaged or lost one.When the sender does not get an
acknowledgement is transmits only the bad one and not all the subsequent one.19)What is
Computer network ? Describe any four goals of computer Network.i)Computer
Network means a collection of autonoumous computers interconnected by a single technology.Two
computers are said to be interconnected if they able to exchange information.Networks come in
many size an shape .Internet is a network of networks.ii) Goals of Computer network : 1)Resource
sharing :It is to create all the programs , data hardware access to anyone on the network without
considering the resource physical area and the client.ii)Scalability : A Systems performance can be
improved by inserting one or more processors into it as its workload grows. iii) Reliability : Network
supports reliability by acquiring a different authority of supply. iv)Communication Medium :
Computer network offers a powerful communication medium. The different user on the network can
immediately identify a document that has been refreshed on a network.v)Save money :Small
computers have a much excellent value propagation than higher ones. Mainframes are approximately
a method ten times quicker than quickest single-chip microprocessors but they cost huge number of
times more.20) Compare and contrast OSI and TCP/IP model. Differences :i)OSI : OSI
reference model implements 7 layer Architecture(Physical,data link
layer,Network,Transport,Session,Presentation,Application).In this model physical layer and data link
layer performs different functions and activities.OSI Network layer provides connection-Oriented and
connectionless services both.OSI Transport Layer provides Connection oriented service only.In OSI
reference model Interfaces are clearly defined.ii)TCP/IP :TCP/IP reference model implements 4 layer
Architecture(Link,Network,Transport,Application).TCP/IP combination of physical layer and data link
layer acts as a single layer called link(Host to Network).TCP/IP network layer provides connection less
service only.TCP/IP transport layer provides connection oriented and connectionless service both.In
TCP/IP model Interfaces are not clearly defined.Similarities : Both are layered network model.Based
on the concept of an independent protocol stack.Functionalities of the network , transport and
application layers are similar.Higher layers are end-to0end layers whereas the lower ones deal with
host to intermediate process.21)Explain characteristics of line coding. i) Signal Element Vs
Data Element : Data Element – A data Element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece of
information this is the bit.Data Elements are what we need to send.Data elements are being carried.
Signal Element – A signal element carries data elements , A signal element is the shortest unit of a
digital signal.Signal elements are what we can send. ii) Data rate Vs signal Rate : Data rate defines the
number of data elements(bit) send in 1s.The unit is bits per second(bps).Data rate sometimes called
bit rate.The signal rate is the number of signals elements send in 1s.The unit is baud.The signal rate is
sometimes called the pulse rate.iii)DC component : When the voltage level in a digital signal is
constant for a while , the spectrum creates very low frequencies.These frequencies around zero called
DC(Direct-Current) components.22)Explain 1 bit sliding window.i) Sliding window protocol is
Simplex data transfer i.e one diection only.In sliding window protocol, the data link layer of the sender
and receiver maintains a set of sequence numbers corresponding to frames it is permitted to sed and
 receive respectively. This lists are called ‘sending window’ and ‘receiver windows’ii)Size of sending
and receiving window is 1 i.e the sender can send only one frame at a time and receiver can receive
only one one frame at a time.iii)sender transmits a frame and waits for an acknowledgement before
sending the next one.iv)Since only one frame is sent or received at a time a one bit sequence number
is enough. Sequence number are 0 and 1.23)Define Bridge. Compare Transparent
Bridges with Source Routing bridges.Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A
bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses
of the source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same
protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.Types of
Bridges 1)Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware
of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge
forwarding and bridge learning.2)Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is
performed by the source station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can
discover the frame by sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through
the entire network using all possible paths to the destination. 24)Explain Elementary data
link layer protocols? Transforms a row transmission facility into a line that appears free of
undetected transmission error.Error free transmission.Functions of Data link layer : i)Framing :
Streams of bits is divided into logical units called frames.ii)Error control:Detect and correction of
errors.iii)Flow control : Fast sender does not overwhelm a slow receiver.iv)physical addressing :
Identifies machine using physical address.v)Multiple access control :Access the shared communication
channel between multiple machines.25)why Sliding window protocol needed ?
compare Go back n and selective repeat.i)Sliding window protocol is Simplex data transfer
i.e one diection only.In sliding window protocol, the data link layer of the sender and receiver
maintains a set of sequence numbers corresponding to frames it is permitted to sed and receive
respectively. This lists are called ‘sending window’ and ‘receiver windows’ii) Go back n : Receiver
window is of size 1.Any intermediate frame lost or garbaned no further frames will be accepted.
Unnecessary Retransmission. Suitable in network where error rate is very low(zero error).Sender
window is 1 less than to the total sequence number available.iii)Selective Repeat :Receiver window is
of size greater than 1.Any intermediate frame lost or garbaned buffer will kept & further frames will
be accepted. Retransmission of only last and garbaned frame.Suitable in network where error rate is
comparitavely high.Sender window is ½ to the total sequence number available. 26)Explain Frame
Format of HDLC protocol.i)HDLC Protocol is derived from data link layer protocol used in IBM
Mainfrait.ii)Uses bit stuffing for framing. Designed to support all half duplex , full duplex
communication over point to point as well as multipoint.iii)ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)
Mechanism used

01111110 Address Control Data Checksum 0111111

8 8
8 bit
8
8 bit
>=0
8 bit
16 0 8
8 bit 8 bit
Flag : 8 bit field with bit pattern 01111110 flag pattern used as data bit stuffing used.Address: Identify
single terminal from multiple terminal.Control: Used for sequence number , acknowledgement frame
type.Data : contains information of arbitrary length.Checksum : cyclic redundancy code for error
detection.Flag : used to identify the end of frame.27)Explain CSMA/CA with its advantages
and disadvantages.i) CSMA/CA is a Carrier Sense Multiple Access protocol with collision
Avoidance. A station that has frame to send with a random back off. It does not wait for collision. The
number of blocks to backoff is chosen in the range 0 to 15.ii) The station waits until the channel is
idle , by sensing that there is no signal for a short period of time and counts down idle slots , pausing
when frames are sent.iii) It sends its frame when counter reaches 0. If the frame gets through the
destination immediately sends a acknowledgement . Lack of acknowledgement is inferred to indicate
an error , whether a collision.iv) The sender doubles the backoff period and tries again continuing
with exponential backoff as in Ethernet until the frame has been successfully transmitted or the
maximum number of retransmission has been reached.28)state different interworking
devices with their purpose. i)Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking
hardware, are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to communicate and
interact with one another. For example Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, Brouter,
and NIC, etc.1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the
length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. 2. Hub – A hub is a basically
multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for example,
the connector in star topology which connects different stations. 3. Bridge – A bridge operates at
the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering content by
reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two
LANs working on the same protocol.4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a
design that can boost its efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A
switch is a data link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data,
which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good
packets selectively to the correct port only. 5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that
routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device.
Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based on
which they make decisions on routing the data packets. 29)Explain pure ALOHA why slotted
ALOHA is better than pure ALOHA?i)ALOHA is a system used ground-based radio
broadcasting , the basic idea is applicable to any system in , which uncoordinated users are competing
for the use of single shared channel.ii) In PURE ALOHA users transmit whenever they have data to be
sent. There will be collisions, the colliding frames will be damaged . After each station has sent its
frame to the central computer , this computer rebroadcasts the frame to all stations . A sending
station can thus listen for the v=broadcast from the hub to see if its frame has gotten through. If the
frame was destroyed the sender just waits a random amount of time and sends it again. The waiting
time must be random or the same frames will collide over and over.iii) In PURE ALOHA time is
continuous and in SLOTTED ALOHA time is divided into discrete slots into which all frames should fit.
By dividing time into discrete intervals called slots , each interval corresponds to one frame. A station
is not permitted to send whenever the user have data , Instead it is required to wait for the beginning
of the next slot. By this Best utilization of channel can be achieved.