CHAPTER 2- Mineralogy

 ALL ROCKS are composed of MINERALS, which are HOMOGENEOUS SUBSTANCES with fixed chemical
composition, crystal forms, and other distinctive characteristics such as colour, lustre, and hardness.
 The CHEMICAL ELEMENTS and the CRYSTAL FORMS determine the properties of the minerals.
 The CHEMICAL ELEMENTS depend on the composition of the rock in LIQUID STATE.
 CRYSTALS are formed when a rock body passes from the LIQUID TO THE SOLID STATE.
 ALL MINERALS are SOLIDS with the EXCEPTION OF METALLIC MERCURY & WATER.
 According to The International Mineralogical Association (IMA)

: MINERAL- is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of
geological processes.

MINERALOGY is the systematic study that deals with the characteristics of minerals

Specific Branches of Mineralogy: is dependent on the state of equilibrium due to the

1. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
 studies crystal forms, i.e. forms in which
the minerals crystallize, as well as their
internal structure, relations and
distribution of atoms, ions or ionic
groups in the crystal lattice.
2. PHYSICAL MINERALOGY
 is the study of physical properties of
minerals, such as cohesion (hardness,
cleavage, elasticity, and density; optical,
thermal and magnetic properties,
electrical conductivity, and radioactivity,
and so on.
3. CHEMICAL MINERALOGY
 is the study of chemical formula and
chemical properties of the minerals.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL MINERALOGY
 studies complex and very different
conditions of the origin of minerals,
understand element behavior in echo-
systems, natural and industrial effects of
minerals, and mitigates potential
contamination problems.
5. DESCRIPTIVE MINERALOGY
 deals with the classification of minerals
into groups based on their common
properties, mostly chemical and
structural properties.
ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE ON SYMMETRY
ELEMENTS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS
interatomic forces.
CRYSTAL GEOMETRY or CRYSTAL MORPHOLOGY
deals with the symmetry, faces, and forms of a crystal.
A crystal possesses the following three types of
symmetry:
1. PLANE OF SYMMETRY
 It divides a crystal into two halves such
that one half is the mirror image of the
other. A crystal may have one or many
planes of symmetry or none.
2. CENTRE OF SYMMETRY
 It is the central point about which every
face and edge of a crystal is matched by
one parallel to it on the opposite side of
the crystal.
3. AXIS OF ROTATION SYMMETRY
 It is a line or an axis through a crystal
about which the crystal can be rotated
to bring it into an identical position a
number of times in the course of one
revolution. For example, if during the
course of full rotation of 360° about an
axis of symmetry the crystal is brought
into an identical position six times, the
axis is a six fold. Such axes are termed
diad (twofold), triad (threefold), tetrad
(fourfold), and hexad (fivefold).

The CRYSTAL FORM OF A MINERAL is the outward

expression of the internal molecular structure, which
CRYSTAL SYSTEM is a category of crystals with
reference to the position of their crystal faces and the
relationship of the intercepts that the planes
containing the faces make with three (or four) axes,
intersecting at an origin.
In all, 32 combinations of symmetry elements are
recognized under seven crystal systems depending
upon the possible planes of symmetry and axes of
symmetry. They are as follows:
i. CUBIC (ISOMETRIC): Three orthogonal
tetrad axes of equal length, a1, a2, a3
ii. TETRAGONAL: Three orthogonal axes,
two horizontal diads of equal length and
one vertical tetrad, a1, a2, c
iii. ORTHORHOMBIC: Three orthogonal
diads axes of unequal lengths, a, b, c
iv. HEXAGONAL: Four axes, three
horizontal diads of equal length 120°
apart and one vertical hexad at right
angles, a1, a2, a3, c
v. TRIGONAL: Four axes, three horizontal
diads of equal length 120° apart and one
vertical triad at right angles, a1, a2, a3, c
vi. MONOCLINIC: Three unequal axes, one
vertical, one horizontal diad, and a third
making an oblique angle with the plane
containing the other two, a, b, c
vii. TRICLINIC: Three unequal axes, none at
right angles, a, b, c
CRYSTALLINE - A mineral showing formation of
crystals
AMORPHOUS- If no crystal of any geometric shape is
visible in the constituent minerals of a rock in its thin
section under the microscope,
CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE- If only some small crystals are
detected in the thin section of the rock under the
microscope.
TWINNING OF CRYSTAL
TWINS- Two or more crystals of the same species can
occur intergrown or in contact together in a
particularly symmetric manner.
TWINNING is found in different crystals of many
minerals such as calcite, fluorite, gypsum, feldspar,
staurolite, and rutile,
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS:
1. COLOUR
 seen on its surface by the naked eye. It
may depend on the impurities present in
light-coloured minerals, and one mineral
specimen may even show gradation of
colour or different colours.
 is usually a general rather than specific
guide to which mineral is present.
 IRIDESCENCE is a play of colours
characteristic of certain mineral
2. STREAK
 is the colour of the powdered mineral.
This is most readily seen by scraping the
mineral across a plate of unglazed hard
porcelain and observing the colour of
any mark left.
 It is a diagnostic property of many ore
minerals.
3. CLEAVAGE
 Most minerals can be cleaved along
certain specific crystallographic
directions which are related to planes of
weakness in the atomic structure of the
mineral
 These CLEAVAGE DIRECTIONS are
usually, but not always, parallel to one of
the crystal faces.
 PARTING is when a cleavage is poorly
developed.
 FRACTURE is surface formed by
breaking the mineral along a direction
which is not a cleavage and is usually
more irregular than a cleavage plane.
 CONCHOIDAL (shell-like) is a curved,
rippled fracture
4. HARDNESS
 Is defined by scratching each with the
other and seeing which one is gouged.
 It is defined by an arbitrary scale of ten
standard minerals, arranged in Mohs’
scale of hardness, and numbered in
degrees of increasing hardness from 1 to
10.

5. LUSTRE
 Is the amount of light depending on
QUARTZ SiO2
physical qualities of the surface (such as
its smoothness and transparency).
 is described according to the degree of
brightness from ‘splendent’ to ‘dull’.
6. CRYSTAL HABIT
 The development of an individual crystal
or an aggregate of crystals, to produce a
particular external shape depends on
the temperature and pressure during
their formation.
 One such environment may give long
needle-like crystals and another may
give short platy crystals, both with the
same symmetry.
 is of use in the identification of some
minerals
7. GRAVITY
 where W1 is the weight of the mineral
grain in air, and W2 is the weight in
water
 l can be measured easily in a laboratory,
provided the crystal is not too small.
 A STEELYARD APPARATUS such as the
WALKER BALANCE is commonly used. In
the field such a means of precision is not
available, and the specific gravity of a
mineral is estimated as low, medium or
high by the examiner
8. TRANSPERANCY
 is a measure of how clearly an object can
be seen through a crystal
9. REACTION WITH ACID
 When a drop of cold 10% dilute
hydrochloric acid is put on certain
minerals, a reaction takes place.
10. TENACITY
 is a measure of how the mineral deforms
when it is crushed or bent
ROCK FORMING MINERALS
 is a major mineral in crystalline and
detrital rocks. It is the form of silica that
is stable over the long term.
 It has various forms, blocky pyramidal
hexagonal crystals but most of the time,
it has no easily identified crystal shape
because it is the last mineral to form
 It is an essential mineral in silica-rich
plutonic rocks such as granite.
 It can be recognized by its variable
shape, the absence of cleavage and its
conchoidal fracture. Transparent gray
in color, it has a hardness of 7 on the
Mohs scale. It is chemically inert. Its
density is 2.65 · 103 kg/m3 .
 is the most common mineral in the
Earth’s crust (12% by volume)
 It is found in magmatic rocks and in the
sedimentary environment where its
high mechanical strength and chemical
stability make it the principal
component of sands and silts.
 It can also be formed by the diagenesis
of the skeletons of unicellular organisms
(radiolarians, for example) and form
rocks called RADIOLARITES.
 QUARTZ SAND is melted to manufacture
glass and insulation materials (rock
“wool”).
 It is the raw material of fiber optics. In
the solid state, it is used as an abrasive
and, in the electronics industry, it is
used for its piezoelectric properties.
 ARTIFICIAL QUARTZ is used to replace
natural crystals in numerous
technological applications.
FELDSPAR FAMILY (K,Na)AlSi3O8; CaAl2Si2O8
 are the most important family of rock-
forming minerals (60% of magmatic
rocks).
 The feldspars are commonly
represented on a ternary diagram
whose extremities are the K, Na and Ca
species: orthoclase, albite and
anorthite, respectively
 There is solid solution between the Na
and Ca poles; these are the
PLAGIOCLASES.
 Another solid solution exists between
Na and K but it is discontinuous: these
are ALKALI FELDSPARS.
 FELDSPAR CRYSTALS occur as short,
blocky prismatic crystals with two or
three cleavages, sometimes orthogonal
(from which the name of orthoclase).
 They have a whitish color, perhaps
tinted pink or green, due to the degree
of alteration of iron-bearing mineral
inclusions. The luster of the minerals of
this family is vitreous to pearly. They
have hardnesses of 5 to 6 on the Mohs
scale and densities between 2.5·103
kg/m3 and 2.7·103 kg/m3 high densities
correspond to the calcic varieties.
 The simple twin of alkali feldspars, called
CARLSBAD, is often visible with a hand
lens or even to the naked eye
 the multiple twins of plagioclase, called
POLYSYNTHETIC, result from adjacent
growth of tabular crystals.
 Feldspars are used in the manufacture
of ceramics. It reduces shrinkage and
frost sensitivity; it increases resistance
to thermal shock.
PYROXENE (Ca, Na) (Mg, Fe,Al)(Si.Al)2 06
Ex. of augite
 is simple chains of tetrahedral
 It includes various solid solutions as the
chemical formula above suggests
 form stocky prisms, brown to dark green or
even black in color, with vitreous luster. Its
density depends on its composition, ranging
from 3.2 · 103 kg/m3 to 3.6 · 103 kg/m3 . Its
hardness ranges from 5 to 6. Pyroxenes have
two cleavages at right angles that can be
easily seen by the naked eye.
 Pyroxenes are common minerals in mafic
rocks and high temperature metamorphic
rocks.
AMPHIBOLES
(Ca, Na)2-3(Mg, Fe, Al)5Si6 (Si, Al)2O22(OH)2
Ex. of the hornblende group
 are composed of tetrahedral organized in
bands of twinned chains
 All amphiboles are ferromagnesian, but they
also contain various amounts of other
elements, principally calcium and sodium.
 They are similar in appearance and physical
properties to pyroxenes (hardness ranging
from 5 to 6 and density between 3 · 103
kg/m3 and 3.4 · 103 kg/m3); luster can be
vitreous to silky.
 Amphiboles have two characteristic
cleavages at an angle of 124º which are
easily visible.
 These are common minerals in magmatic
and metamorphic rocks. Amphiboles in
metamorphic rocks form elongate, even
fibrous, crystals often arranged in sheaves
FERROMAGNESIAN MICA GROUP
BIOTITE K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
 (or “black mica) is a ferromagnesian mica,
black or smoky brown in color, with vitreous
luster that is pearly on the cleavage. its
hardness ranges from 2.5 to 3 and its density
from 2.8 · 103 kg/m3 to 3.2 ·103 kg/m3
 Biotite is found in many magmatic rocks,
particularly granites, as well as in
 metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and
micaschists.
 It is also a mineral present in detrital
sedimentary rocks
NON-FERROMAGNESIAN PHYLLOSILICATES
MUSCOVITE KAl 2 (AlSi 3O10)(OH)2
 This aluminous mica (or “white mica”)
occurs as sheets with pseudo-hexagonal
faces.
 Its internal structure is a combination of an
octahedral layer sandwiched between two
tetrahedral layers.
 Its hardness is low, between 2 and 2.5; its
density ranges from 2.76 · 103 kg/m3 to 2.88
· 103 kg/m3 . Its luster is vitreous. The
mineral is colorless and transparent if it
occurs as thin sheets; it can have a whitish or
yellowish tinge when it occurs in a thick
stack.
CALCITE CaC03
 is the stable form of calcium carbonate.
 forms white or colorless translucent crystals
when it is pure. It can also be beige or pink
in color. Its luster is vitreous to pearly and
can be iridescent. It has low hardness, 3 on
the Mohs scale) and has a density of 2.7 · 103
kg/m3 It breaks along three perfect
cleavages to form rhombohedra. It reacts
with strong and even dilute acids
 Calcite is mainly a mineral of sedimentary
origin.
 It forms gradually over time by the
transformation of skeletons of mollusks and
other marine organisms that were originally
composed of ARAGONITE (an orthorhombic
polymorph of calcite, of biogenic origin). In
its microcrystalline form, it is the main
component of limestones.
 MARBLE is the result of the transformation
of limestone by metamorphism: the fine
particles of calcite recrystallize as large
grains; it is exploited for ornamental stone.
GARNET GROUP (Ca, Mn, Fe, Mg)3, Al2Si3O12
 which are easily identifiable in common
rocks.
 group contains many minerals of various
colors (colorless, yellow, brown, red, green
or black), with vitreous luster, compact
shape. hardness between 6.5 and 7.5, and
density of 3.5 · 103 kg/m3 to 4.3 · 103 kg/m3.
 They play an important role in the study of
metamorphism; they occur as secondary
minerals in metamorphic rocks, more rarely
in magmatic rocks.
 Well-crystallized garnets are used as gem
PYROGENESIS is the process of mineral/rock
formation derived by solidification of intrusive or
extrusive magma/molten lava/and its derivatives
emplaced by volcanism.
PNEUMATOLYSIS is the alteration of rock or
mineral crystallization affected by gaseous
emanations from solidifying magma.
HYDROTHERMAL PROCESS/SYNTHESIS is
crystallizing single crystal/substances from high-
temperature aqueous solution at equilibrium
vapor pressure.
COAL AND PETROLEUM
The GONDWANA SYSTEM is the coal-bearing
rock formation of India, which has the world’s
largest deposits of coal. High-grade coal occurs in
Jharia and Bokaro of Bihar and Ranigunj coal
fields of West Bengal covering the Damodar
valley area. LIGNITE COALS are found in Neyveli
in Tamil Nadu. Coal also occurs in the Tertiary
sedimentary formations in parts of Assam.
PETROLEUM DEPOSITS are found in Assam and
Gujarat. Fresh reserves are located off Mumbai
and petroleum is being raised by offshore drilling
from the coast of Mumbai. Tertiary sedimentary
formation is the potential source of petroleum in
India found in Assam, Tripura, and Manipur.
Sedimentaries of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,
Kutch, and Andaman Islands are also probable
sources of petroleum. A deep-seated deposit of
petroleum is expected from the Krishna and
Godavari valley