Introduction

Behavior of slabs loaded to failure in flexure

• Four or more stages:
i. Before cracking the slab acts as an elastic plate,
and for short time loads, the deformations,
stresses and strains can be predicted from an
elastic analysis.
ii. After cracking and before yielding of the
reinforcement(slab no longer has a constant
stiffness, because the cracked regions have a
lower flexural stiffness than the uncracked
regions and the slab is no longer isotropic
because the crack pattern may differ in the two
directions.
2
iii.yielding of reinforcement eventually starts in one
or more region of high moment and spreads through
the slab as the moments are redistributed from
yielded regions to areas that are still elastic. The
progression of yielding through a slab fixed on four
edges is Illustrated in Figure (next slide)
Notes: With further load, the regions of yielding
known as yield lines, divide the slab into a series of
trapezoidal and triangular elastic plates as shown in
Figure (d) above. The loads corresponding to this stage
of loading can be estimated by using yield-line
analysis (plastic method analysis)

3
4
iv. Although the yield lines divide the slab to form a
mechanism, the hinges jam with increased
deformation, and the slab forms a very flat
compression arch as shown in Figure below.
This stage of loading usually is not considered in
design

5
Yield line method
• Is a plastic method of slab analysis
• uses rigid plastic theory to compute the failure loads
corresponding to given plastic moment resistance in
various parts of the slab
• is an upper bound method.
The difference between upper and lower bond
theorem.
• Upper bound theorem: If, for a small increment of
displacement, the internal work done by the slab,
assuming that the moment at every plastic hinge is equal
to the yield moment and that boundary conditions are
satisfied, is equal to the external work done by the given
load for that same small increment of displacement, then
that load is an upper bound of true carrying capacity.
• Lower bound theorem: If, for a given external load, it is
possible to find a distribution of moments that satisfies
equilibrium requirements, with the moment not
exceeding the yield moment at any location, and if the
boundary conditions are satisfied, then the given load is
a lower bound of the true carrying capacity.
Keep in mind!: If the lower bound conditions are
satisfied, the slab can certainly carry the given load,
although a higher load may be carried if internal
distributions of moment occur. If the upper bound
conditions are satisfied, a load greater than the
given load will certainly cause failure, although a
lower load may produce collapse if the selected
failure mechanism is incorrect in any sense.
• The yield line phenomenon involves:
• a slab under increasing loads where cracking and
reinforcement yielding occur in the most highly
stressed zone (i.e. around maximum moment)
• the highly stressed zone normally acts as a plastic
hinge where the subsequent loads are distributed
to other region of the slab
• cracks develop forming patterns of yield lines
until a mechanism is formed,
• collapse is then indicated by increasing deflection
under constant load
• Deformation of slab with yield lines
Guidelines for yield lines
Yield lines are:
Straight lines because they represent intersection of
two planes
Represent axes of rotation
The supported edges of the slab are axes of rotation. If
the edge is fixed negative YL may form, providing
constant resistance to rotation. If the edge is simply
supported, the axis of rotation provides zero restraint
An axis of rotation will pass over any column support.
form under concentrated loads, radiating outward
from the point of application.
between two slab segments must pass through the
point of intersection of the axes of rotation of the
adjacent slab segments.
Method of yield line analysis
• There are two methods for slabs:
• Equilibrium method
• Virtual work method
• In either method, a YL pattern is assumed so that a
collapse mechanism is produced. Then for that
failure mechanism, the geometric parameters that
define the exact location and orientation of the yield
lines are determined and also the relation between
applied loads and resisting moments is solved.
• All possible mechanisms for any slab has been
investigated to confirm that the correct solution,
giving the lowest failure load, has been found.
For example the following rectangular slab (SNS)
may fail by either of the two mechanisms shown.

Alterative mechanisms for a slab supported on three sides

Equilibrium method of Analysis
• use the equilibrium equations for each segment to
obtain the collapse load.
• The FBD represented by each collapsing segment is
in equilibrium under
applied loads,
yield moments and
reactions or shears along support lines.
Example1. Consider the one way slab uniformly
loaded and is continuous as shown in Fig. next slide.
• Let the slab with span L is reinforced to provide
resistance of m2 kN.m per m through the span and
m1 and m3 kN.m per m at the two supports.
• Required to determine the collapse load wu.
 A C B
(a)

wu

(b)

X L-X

wu wu
m2
(c) m1 m3
m2
X L-X
From left segment:
wu x 2
MA  0  m1  m2  0
2
• From right segment:
wu ( L  x) 2
 M B  0  m2  m3  0
2
• Solving for wu from the two expressions and
equating, one may obtain a practical solution for x
as:
m1  m2  m3  m1 
x L 1  1  
m3  m1  m1  m2 
Virtual work method of Analysis
• Based on principle that work done by external
forces in undergoing a small virtual displacements is
equal to the internal virtual work done in rotations
along yield lines, the ultimate load which the slab
can sustain is determined.
WE = WI
• To develop suitable expression for each work, let wu
be the uniform distributed load,
WE   wu dxdy xy  Wu 
• where:
• xy = virtual displacement at load point considered
• Wu = resultant of the load on each segment
• ∆ = the corresponding displacement at centroid of
the load in each segment
• Since the relative rotation of the surface takes place
about yield line, one may obtain
WI   mun n Ly
• Where:
• mun = the ultimate moment across any yield line.
• Ly = length of yield line
• θn = relative rotation of the two adjacent plates
perpendicular to the yield line
• Example 2.Consider the one-way slab of the previous example.
wu

1 2


X L-X

wu wu
m2
m1 m3
m2
X L-X
• The capacities of the respective sections are m1, m3
and m2.
• Let ∆ be the plastic deflection at x-distance from left
hand support to positive yield line
• External work
wx w( L  x) 1
WE    wu L per m strip
2 2 2
• Internal work
WI   mLy  (m1  m2 )1  (m2  m3 ) 2 per m strip

• For small deflection

 
1  and  2 
x Lx
 
WI  (m1  m2 )  (m2  m3 )
x Lx
 By principle of virtual work; WE =WI which simplifies
to give the minimum collapse load.
2L(m1  m2 )  x(m1  m3 )
wu 
xL( L  x)
dwu
0
dx
  (m1  m3 ) xL( L  x)  L(m1  m2 )  x(m1  m3 )( L2  2xL)  0

• This gives the practical values of x such that:

m1  m2  m3  m1 
x L  1  1  
m3  m1  m1  m 2 

• Thus, identical solution to the equilibrium methods is obtained
• Moments along Skewed yield lines
Consider a two way slab orthogonally reinforced where
the yield lines are inclined at an angle α with one of
the principal axes.
• The Fig. shows an orthogonal gird of reinforcement
having moment resistance my and mx per unit
length about the y axis and x axis, respectively.
• The resisting moment per unit length along the α
axis provided by the y direction bars is:
mxu cos
my   mx cos2 
u cos
• The resisting moment per unit length
perpendicular to α axis provided by the y direction
bars is: mxu sin 
m 
y  m cos sin 
u cos
x

 The resisting moment per unit length along the

α axis provided by the x direction bars is:
m y v sin 
mx   m y sin2 
v sin 
• The resisting moment per unit length perpendicular
to α axis provided by the x direction bars is:
my v cos
mx   my cos sin 
v sin 
• Thus for the combined set of bars:
• The resisting normal moment per unit length
measured along the α axis is:
m  mx cos2   my sin2  …(1)
• The resisting torsional moment per unit length
measured along the α axis is:
m  mx cos sin  my cos sin …(2)
• An isotropically reinforced slab is one in which the
ultimate moment per unit length of the slab is the
same in two orthogonal directions
• If a slab is isothropically reinforced with mx = my
= m, equations (1) and (2) become:
m  m and m  0
• Therefore the ultimate moment resistance in an
isotropically reinforced slabs in any direction is
the same.
• An orthotropically reinforced slab is one in which
the ultimate moment per unit length of the slab is
different in the two orthogonal directions.
• If a slab is orthothropically reinforced with mx = m
and my = μm, equations (1) and (2) become:
m  m(cos2    sin2  )

m  m(1   ) sin  cos

Effects of restrained corners.
Corner lever is the effect of forking of the yield line
before reaching the corner. To this effect the
following schematic sketches the resulting yield
pattern at the corners.
 Hogging yield line

Uplift when the corners are not Corners held down but not well
held or fastened reinforced for negative moment
Development of corner levers in a simply
supported slab
m’=0
m’= m/4

m’= m/2

m’= m
• The triangular segment fails to form when the
negative reinforcement is large and hence, the
simple diagonal yield line in to the corner is correct
with out modification.
Slabs with more than one variable
 So far the slabs consider have only one variable
dimension which defines the yield line
mechanism. When the slab has more than one
variable, the work equation, together with
equations obtained by differentiating with respect
to each unknown, give the necessary expressions
to obtain solution. This can be illustrated using the
following example.
 L

(1- 1)L

L

 1L

 2L (1-2  2)L  2L
• In this case first develop suitable expression from
the work relation for wu in terms of 1 & 2. Then

wu wu
 0 and 0
1  2
• Will provide two additional equations to make the
problem solvable.
Advantages of yield line theory
• It is a powerful analytical tool.
• It can be used for slabs of any shape, supported in
a variety of ways.
• Concentrated, UD and partially distributed loads
can be considered.
• The effects of holes of any size can be included.
Limitations of yield line theory
• If the selected failure mechanism or the location
of the YL are not exactly determined, it may predict
a collapse load greater than the true collapse
load.Unsafe !!.
• The slab section has to be checked for the
adequateness of rotation capacity.
• It is presumed that premature failure will not occur due to
shear or torsion and the cracking and deflections at service
loads will not be excessive

• References
• Nilson, Darwin and Doran, “Design of Concrete
Structures”, 14th Edition, 2010, Chapter 14.
• MacGregor and Wight, “Reinforced Concrete,
Mechanics and Design”, 6th Edition, 2012,
Chapter 14.
Plastic hinge theory
ASSUMPTIONS IN PLASTIC BENDING
The material is homogeneous and isotropic.
The material obeys Hooke’s law till the stress
reaches fy.
 Member Cross-section is symmetrical about the
axis at right angles to the axis of bending.
 Cross-section which were plane before bending
remain plane after bending.
modulus of Elasticity of the material remains the
same in tension as well as in compression.
Effects of temperature, fatigue, shear and axial
force are neglected.
Advantages of plastic design
➢ Uniform and realistic factor of safety for all parts.
➢ Saving of material over elastic methods.
➢ No effect due to temperature change, settlement of
supports, imperfections, etc. However instability and
elastic deflections should be Checked.
➢Idea of collapse mode and strength of the structure.
Drawbacks of Plastic Design
 difficult for complicated structure
Very little savings in column design.
Difficult to design for fatigue.
Principle of superposition’ is invalid
Plastic Hinge
• A plastic hinge is a zone of yielding due to flexure
in a structural member.
• A plastic hinge (●) is similar to a frictionless hinge
in that rotation can occur without any change in
bending moment
• At the plastic hinge stresses remain constant, but
strains and rotations can increase.
• However, it should be recognized that the moment
is MP at plastic hinges rather than zero at
frictionless hinges.
• It will develop in span first at section subjected to
greatest curvature ( least radius of curvature)
Position of plastic hinge
It is likely to be formed
(i) at point of application of load
(ii) at section of sudden change in geometry
(iii) at the fixed end
(iv) at the point of zero shear
(v) when two sections with different MP meet, hinge
shall be formed at a section having smaller Mp
Neutral Axis for Plastic and Elastic Condition
• NA may not remain at CG of section when stress
strain relation becomes non linear.
• The neutral axis for plastic condition is different
than its counterpart for elastic condition, unless the
section is symmetrical,
• PNA is defined as the axis that splits the cross
section into two equal areas so that the area of
compression equals the area of tension.
• Total internal compression must equal to the total
internal tension.
• As all the fibers have the same stress fy in the plastic
condition, the area above and below the plastic
neutral axis must be equal.
• An axis passing through CG of the section
Plastic moment(MP)
• The bending moment producing a plastic hinge is
called the full plastic moment and is denoted by
'Mp'.
Shape Factor
• Is the ratio of the plastic moment to the yield
moment since it depends on the shape of the cross
section.
Significance of Shape Factor
• It gives an indication of reserve capacity of a
section from on set of yielding at extreme fibers to
full plastification.
• A section with higher shape factor gives a longer
warning before collapse.
• A section with higher shape factor is more ductile
and gives greater deflection at collapse.
• Greater is the shape factor value, greater is collapse
load factor (LF=S*FOS)
Example#3
Example #4