Nuclear and Particle Physics

Lecture Note: 10
A“we shall overcome” lecture series during COVID - 19 Pandemic.
Module I: Nuclear Structure and General Properties of Nuclei
Instructor: Dr. Jimmy Sebastian

Course Code: 19U6CRPHY11 Semester VI

2 Counters and Detectors

2.1 Geiger - Muller Counter

The G.M Counter consists of a metal chamber C containing air or some other
gas at a pressure of about 10cm of Hg. A fine tungsten wire (W) is stretched
along the axis of the tube and is insulated from it by ebonite plugs.
The wire is connected to the possitive terminal of a high tension battery (1000
to 3000 V) through a high resistance R (100 M Ω) and a negative terminal is
connected to the chamber C. The DC voltage is kept slightly less than that
which will cause a discharge between the electrodes.

Figure 1: Layout of G.M Counter

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Working 1. When an ionizing particle (α particle) enters the counter, ioni-
sation takes place and a few ions are produced. If the potential difference is
strong enough these ions are multiplied by further collisions. An avalanche
of electrons moves towards the central wire. This is equivalent to the small
current impulse which flows through the resistance R. The PD across R is
amplified by an amplifier circuit, which is used to operate a counter. Thus
single particles are registered.
2. The sudden pulse of discharge sweeps away the ions from the chamber and
the counter is ready to register the arrival of the next particle. 3. There is a
threshold below which the tube does not work.
4. As the applied potential is increased, the counting begins and rises rapidly
to a flat position of the curve called the plateau. This is the region of the
operation of the counter. Here the counting rate is more or less independent
of the small changes in P.D across the tube.
5. Beyond the plateau, the applied voltage is so high that a continuous dis-
charge takes place in the tube. The count rate increases very rapidly. It
doesnot require any ionizing event for this to happen. The tube must not be
used in this region.

Figure 2: Layout of G.M Counter

Efficiency of the counter

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The efficiency of the counter is defined as the ratio of the observed counts/sec-
ond to the number of ionizing particles entering the counter per second.The
counting efficiency is given by

E = 1 − eslp

s= Specific ionization at one atmosphere

p= pressure in atmosphere
l= path length of the ionization particle in the counter.

Figure 3: Efficiency of GM counter

Quenching in G.M Counter.

The process of removing all the ions from the chamber due to continuous dis-
charge and making it ready for fresh event is called quenching. the secondary
electrons increases the current pulse by further ionisation of gas molecule.

2.2 Ionization Chamber

Principle: Charged sub-atomic particles can ionise gases. The number of

ion - pairs produced gives us information not only on the nature of the inci-
dent particles, but even on their energy.

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 Figure 4: Layout of Ionization Chamber

Construction: The ionisation chamber consits of a hollow metallic cylinder

C, closed at both ends. The chamber has a window W at one end for the entry
of the ionizing particles or radiation. Within the cylinder a metal rod well
insulated from the body is mounted coaxially. R is connected to a quadrant
electrometer E. A potential difference of several hundred volts is maintained
between C and R. An earthed guard ring G prevents leakage of charge from
the cylinder to the rod. The chamber contains gas like sulphur dioxide and
methyl bromide.

Working: When a charged particle enters the chamber, it produces a large

number of ion pairs in the enclosed gas, along its path. Positive ions move
towards R and negetive ions towards C. The quadrant electrometer E mea-
sures the rate of deposition of positive charges on R. The ionisation currents
produced are quite small≈ 10−12 to10−15 amperes. Special electrometers and
D.C. amplifying devices are employed to measure such small currents. If
individual particles are to be counted, then the pulses of current produced
are fed to a pulse amplifier, which is joined to the ionisation chamber by a
coupling capacitor.

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Uses
1. Ionisation chambers have been used to study α particles, β particles, pro-
tons electrons and nuclei of lighter elements. An ionisation chamber is less
sensitive to β particles as campared to α particles since β particles produce
less pairs of ions while they pass through the chamber. For the detection
of γ-rays, an ionization chamber of thick wall made of high atomic number
material (Pt, Bi) is employed. The γ -rays impinging on the walls of the
chamber eject high-speed electrons which produce ionisation in the gas.

2. Ionisation chambers can also be used for measurements on X-rays and γ

-rays.

3. Ionisation chambers were extensively used in the early studies of cosmic

rays.

4. Detection of neutron: For neutron detection, the chamber is filled with

boron trifluoride vapour.

Figure 5: Ionization Chamber for single particle count

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2.3 Solidstate detectors or semiconductor radiation detector

Solid-state detector, also called Semiconductor Radiation Detector, radiation

detector in which a semiconductor material such as a silicon or germanium
crystal constitutes the detecting medium.In semiconductor detectors, ionizing
radiation is measured by the number of charge carriers set free in the detector
material which is arranged between two electrodes, by the radiation.
Ionizing radiation produces free electrons and electron holes. The number
of electron-hole pairs is proportional to the energy of the radiation to the
semiconductor. As a result, a number of electrons are transferred from the
valence band to the conduction band, and an equal number of holes are cre-
ated in the valence band. Under the influence of an electric field, electrons
and holes travel to the electrodes, where they result in a pulse that can be
measured in an outer circuit.
The holes travel in the opposite direction and can also be measured. As
the amount of energy required to create an electron-hole pair is known, and
is independent of the energy of the incident radiation, measuring the num-
ber of electron-hole pairs allows the intensity of the incident radiation to be
determined.

The energy required to produce electron-hole-pairs is very low compared to

the energy required to produce paired ions in a gas detector. Consequently,
in semiconductor detectors the statistical variation of the pulse height is
smaller and the energy resolution is higher. As the electrons travel fast, the
time resolution is also very good, and is dependent upon rise time.Compared
with gaseous ionization detectors, the density of a semiconductor detector is
very high, and charged particles of high energy can give off their energy in a
semiconductor of relatively small dimensions.

Silicon detectors

Most silicon particle detectors work, in principle, by doping narrow (usually

around 100 micrometers wide) silicon strips to turn them into diodes, which
are then reverse biased. As charged particles pass through these strips, they
cause small ionization currents that can be detected and measured. Arranging
thousands of these detectors around a collision point in a particle accelerator
can yield an accurate picture of what paths particles take. Silicon detectors

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have a much higher resolution in tracking charged particles than older tech-
nologies such as cloud chambers or wire chambers. The drawback is that
silicon detectors are much more expensive than these older technologies and
require sophisticated cooling to reduce leakage currents (noise source). They
also suffer degradation over time from radiation.

2.4 Proportional counter

In a proportional counter the fill gas of the chamber is an inert gas which is
ionized by incident radiation, and a quench gas to ensure each pulse discharge
terminates; a common mixture is 90% argon, 10% methane, known as P-10.
An ionizing particle entering the gas collides with an atom of the inert gas
and ionizes it to produce an electron and a positively charged ion, commonly
known as an ”ion pair”. As the ionizing particle travels through the chamber
it leaves a trail of ion pairs along its trajectory, the number of which is
proportional to the energy of the particle if it is fully stopped within the gas.
Typically a 1 MeV stopped particle will create about 30,000 ion pairs.

The chamber geometry and the applied voltage is such that in most of the
chamber the electric field strength is low and the chamber acts as an ion
chamber. However, the field is strong enough to prevent re-combination of the
ion pairs and causes positive ions to drift towards the cathode and electrons
towards the anode. This is the ”ion drift” region. In the immediate vicinity of
the anode wire, the field strength becomes large enough to produce Townsend
avalanches. This avalanche region occurs only fractions of a millimeter from
the anode wire, which itself is of a very small diameter. The purpose of this
is to use the multiplication effect of the avalanche produced by each ion pair.
This is the ”avalanche” region.

A key design goal is that each original ionizing event due to incident radiation
produces only one avalanche. This is to ensure proportionality between the
number of original events and the total ion current. For this reason, the
applied voltage, the geometry of the chamber and the diameter of the anode
wire are critical to ensure proportional operation. If avalanches start to self-
multiply due to UV photons as they do in a Geiger–Muller tube, then the
counter enters a region of ”limited proportionality” until at a higher applied

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voltage the Geiger discharge mechanism occurs with complete ionization of
the gas enveloping the anode wire and consequent loss of particle energy
information.

Therefore, it can be said that the proportional counter has the key design
feature of two distinct ionization regions:

Ion drift region: in the outer volume of the chamber – the creation of number
ion pairs proportional to incident radiation energy. Avalanche region: in the
immediate vicinity of the anode – charge amplification of ion pair currents,
while maintaining localized avalanches.

The process of charge amplification greatly improves the signal-to-noise ratio

of the detector and reduces the subsequent electronic amplification required.

In summary, the proportional counter is an ingenious combination of two

ionization mechanisms in one chamber which finds wide practical use.

Figure 6: Regions of gaseous ionization detectors

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2.5 Wilson Cloud Chamber

The Wilson Cloud Chamber is a particle detector that reveals the track of
sub-atomic particles and radiation in the form of a mist trail; it was used
primarily in the early 1900s.
The chamber was invented by Charles Wilson in the mid-1890s and was orig-
inally used for creating small clouds and studying the optical phenomena
related to them, hence the name cloud chamber. Subsequent studies and
observations made using the apparatus led him to realize that the chamber
could also be used to observe the movement of subatomic particles. Nearly
20 years later, Wilson perfected his design and developed one of the world’s
first particle detectors.

Figure 7: The trail of the first positron ever observed using the cloud chamber

Wilson’s original cloud chamber consisted of three individual sub-chambers

(sensitive chamber, control chamber and vacuum chamber), a water-sealed
piston and a few valves. The sensitive chamber was a sealed enclosure filled

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with saturated air (air with 100% relative humidity, i.e, the air is holding the
maximum amount of water vapor it can at the prevailing temperature and
pressure). The passage of subatomic particles could be seen in this section.

Figure 8: Structure of the clound chamber

The cloud chamber does not display subatomic particles themselves, but re-
veals their tracks in the form of a fine mist, resulting from the condensation
of the operating vapor. The passage of each individual subatomic particle
results in a unique mist/cloud trail, which helps to identify them and study
their properties and behavior.

Working of a Wilson Cloud Chamber

The cloud chamber’s operation starts with the expansion of the saturated air
and the downward displacement of the piston. Here, according to the first
law of thermodynamics, air performs work on the piston at the expense of
its internal energy. A decrease in the air’s internal energy is mirrored by a
decrease in its temperature. Consequently, the saturated air attains a super-
saturated state, where the vapor is just about to condense, but requires an
extra impetus. This extra impetus is provided by the crossing of charged
particles through the sensitive chamber.

Charged subatomic particles passing through the sensitive chamber ionize air
molecules by knocking electrons out of their orbits. The ionized molecules
attract one another and form a trail of ionized gas molecules. This trail acts
as a condensation center for the supersaturated vapor and in the blink of an
eye, small drops of water condense, forming a misty trail before settling down
the chamber. The trails usually last for a few seconds and their characteristics

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depend on the ionizing particle.

2.6 Bubble Chamber

A bubble chamber is the exact opposite of a cloud chamber. Instead of a

supersaturated vapour that can condense into a liquid, a bubble chamber
uses a liquefied gas that is at such a low pressure that it is on the edge of
“boiling” back into a gas. As a particle passes through this liquid, it causes
it to boil into a gas, leaving a trail of bubbles along its path. A bubble
chamber is otherwise quite similar to a cloud chamber. Cloud and bubble
chambers are usually operated with a constant magnetic field perpendicular
to the path of the particles. This way we can observe the particles as they spin
through a spiral pattern. This happens because the magnetic force acting on
the charged particles causes a centripetal pattern. By simply measuring the
radius of their path we can figure out quantities such as charge to mass ratio

Both cloud and bubble chambers suffer from the drawback that they can not
detect neutral particles, since only ions (and ionizing photons) can cause any
change in the chambers. Instead, we have to look for the interactions of other
particles with neutral particles. For example, if we see a charged particle in-
teract with something we can’t “see” we can guess it was a neutral particle.

Figure 9: structure of the bubble chamber

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 Figure 10: Track of particles in bubble chamber as obtained in a photograph

2.7 Scintillation Counter

A scintillation counter or scintillation detector is a radiation detector which

uses the effect known as scintillation. Scintillation is a flash of light produced
in a transparent material by the passage of a particle (an electron, an alpha
particle, an ion, or a high-energy photon). Scintillation occurs in the scintil-
lator, which is a key part of a scintillation detector. In general, a scintillation
detector consists of: Scintillator. A scintillator generates photons in response
to incident radiation. Photodetector. A sensitive photodetector (usually a
photomultiplier tube (PMT), a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera, or a
photodiode), which converts the light to an electrical signal and electronics
to process this signal. The basic principle of operation involves the radia-
tion reacting with a scintillator, which produces a series of flashes of varying
intensity. The intensity of the flashes is proportional to the energy of the ra-
diation. This feature is very important. These counters are suited to measure
the energy of gamma radiation (gamma spectroscopy) and, therefore, can be
used to identify gamma emitting isotopes.

Ionizing radiation enters the scintillator and interacts with the scintillator
material. This cause electrons to be raised to an excited state. For charged
particles the track is the path of the particle itself. For gamma rays (un-
charged), their energy is converted to an energetic electron via either the

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photoelectric effect, Compton scattering or pair production. The excited
atoms of the scintillator material de-excite and rapidly emit a photon in
the visible (or near-visible) light range. The quantity is proportional to the
energy deposited by the ionizing particle. The material is said to fluoresce.
Three classes of phosphors are used: inorganic crystals, organic crystals, plas-
tic phosphors. The light created in the scintillator strikes the photocathode
of a photomultiplier tube, releasing at most one photoelectron per photon.
Using a voltage potential, this group of primary electrons is electrostatically
accelerated and focused so that they strike the first dynode with enough en-
ergy to release additional electrons. These secondary electrons are attracted
and strike a second dynode releasing more electrons. This process occurs in
the photomultiplier tube. Each subsequent dynode impact releases further
electrons, and so there is a current amplifying effect at each dynode stage.
Each stage is at a higher potential than the previous to provide the accel-
erating field. Primary signal is multiplied and this amplification continues
through 10 to 12 stages. At the final dynode, sufficient electrons are avail-
able to produce a pulse of sufficient magnitude for further amplification. This
pulse carries information about the energy of the original incident radiation.
The number of such pulses per unit time also gives information about the
intensity of the radiation.

Figure 11: Scintillation Counter

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2.8 VAN DE GRAAFF Generator

A Van de Graaff generator is an electrostatic generator. American physicist,

Robert J. Van de Graaff was the person behind this invention. It uses a mov-
ing belt that accumulates charge on a hollow metal structure. This structure
has a design of a globe, placed on the top of a column that is insulating in
nature. Thus, it creates a very high electric potential in the order of a few
million volts. This results in a very large electric field. We use this electric
field to accelerate charged particles.

Figure 12: VAN DE GRAAFF Generator principle

Potential inside conducting spherical shell of radius R carrying charge Q =

constant and is as follows
1 Q
V = (2.8.1)
4πε0 R
Let us place a small sphere at the center of the large one such that the radius
of the smaller sphere is r and the charge over its surface is q. At the surface
of the large sphere the potential is
1 q
V = (2.8.2)
4πε0 R

Potential inside conducting spherical shell of Radius R carrying charge Q,

 
1 Q q
V (R) = + (2.8.3)
4πε0 R R
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Potential at large shell of radius R due to small sphere of radius r carrying
charge q,  
1 Q q
V (r) = + (2.8.4)
4πε0 R r

The potential difference between the two spheres is

 
q 1 1
V (r) − V (R) = − (2.8.5)
4πε0 r R
The inner sphere has a higher potential than outer if the charge q is positive.
If the two spheres are connected through a wire, the charge will flow from high
to low potential. Thus, providing smaller potentials at the inner sphere will
keep building large amount of charge at the outer sphere, till the breakdown
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field of air (3 × 106 m ) is reached. This accumulates close to millions of volts.

Figure 13: VAN DE GRAAFF Generator construction

A large spherical conducting shell (of few metre radius) is supported at a

height several meters above the ground on an insulating column. A long
narrow endless belt insulating material, like rubber or silk, is wound around
two pulleys – one at ground level, one at the center of the shell. This belt is
kept continuously moving by a motor driving the lower pulley. It continuously

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carries positive charge, sprayed on to it by a brush at ground level, to the top.
There it transfers its positive charge to another conducting brush connected
to the large shell. Thus positive charge is transferred to the shell, where
it spreads out uniformly on the outer surface and a voltage difference of as
much as 6 or 8 million Volts (with respect to ground) can be built up.

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