VERB TENSE RECOMMENDATIONS.........................................................................................

5
INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH ISSUES...............................................................................6
1. Definition(s) of research methodology/conducting research........................................................6
2. Fundamental features of a good researcher..................................................................................6
3. Elementary research and Secondary research...............................................................................6
3.1. Elementary (Primary) research..............................................................................................6
3.2. Secondary research................................................................................................................8
4.Major stages in conducting a study..............................................................................................10
5. How to choose a research issue..................................................................................................11
6. Research question.......................................................................................................................11
7. Research hypothesis....................................................................................................................12
8. Reliability and validity in research.............................................................................................13
LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................................20
1. Literature review.........................................................................................................................20
1.1. Definition.............................................................................................................................20
1.2. Purpose.................................................................................................................................20
1.3. Steps to prepare a Literature review....................................................................................21
1.4. Three ways to present..........................................................................................................22
1.4.1. Chronological (time-oriented)......................................................................................22
1.4.2. Thematic (theme-oriented)...........................................................................................22
1.4.3. Significance-oriented....................................................................................................23
1.5. Three issues of each author/viewpoint.................................................................................23
1.5.1. The content of the viewpoint........................................................................................23
1.5.2. The significance of the viewpoint.................................................................................24
1.5.3. The application of the viewpoint..................................................................................24
1.5.4. Example........................................................................................................................24
2. Theoretical framework................................................................................................................24
2.1. Definition.............................................................................................................................24
2.2. Purpose.................................................................................................................................25
2.3. Meaning...............................................................................................................................25
2.4. How to build a good theoretical framework........................................................................25
2.5. Notes for writing theoretical framework.............................................................................26
BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESEARCH.............................................................................................27
1. Population and samples..............................................................................................................27
2. Sampling.....................................................................................................................................27
2.1. Probability sampling............................................................................................................28
2.1.1. Simple random sampling..............................................................................................28
2.1.2. Systematic sampling.....................................................................................................28
2.1.3. Stratified sampling........................................................................................................29
2.1.4. Cluster sampling...........................................................................................................29
2.2. Non-probability sampling....................................................................................................30
2.2.1. Convenience sampling..................................................................................................30
2.2.2. Snowball sampling........................................................................................................31
2.2.3. Quota sampling.............................................................................................................31
 2.2.4. Purposive......................................................................................................................32
3. Variables.....................................................................................................................................32
3.1. Variables..............................................................................................................................32
3.2. Types of variables................................................................................................................32
3.2.1. Independent and dependent variables...........................................................................32
3.2.2. Quantitative and categorical variables..........................................................................34
3.2.3. Other types of variables................................................................................................36
3.3. Scales of variables...............................................................................................................39
3.3.1. Nominal scales..............................................................................................................40
3.3.2. Ordinal scales................................................................................................................41
3.3.3. Interval scales...............................................................................................................42
3.3.4. Ratio scales...................................................................................................................43
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH......................................................................................................44
1. What is quantitative method?.....................................................................................................44
1.1. Definition.............................................................................................................................44
1.2. Characteristics......................................................................................................................44
1.3 Stages....................................................................................................................................45
1.4. Quantitative research methods.............................................................................................45
1.4. Pros and cons.......................................................................................................................46
2. Types of design in quantitative research.....................................................................................47
2.1. True experimental................................................................................................................48
2.2. Quasi-experimental research................................................................................................49
2.3. Correlational........................................................................................................................50
2.4. Descriptive...........................................................................................................................51
2.5 Survey...................................................................................................................................51
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH.........................................................................................................52
1. What is qualitative method?.......................................................................................................52
1.1. Definition.............................................................................................................................52
1.2. Qualitative method's goal....................................................................................................52
1.3. Characteristics......................................................................................................................53
1.4. Qualitative research methods...............................................................................................54
1.5. Pros and cons.......................................................................................................................55
2. Types of design in qualitative research.......................................................................................56
2.1. Enthnography.......................................................................................................................56
2.2. Observation..........................................................................................................................57
2.3. Case study............................................................................................................................58
2.4. Interview..............................................................................................................................60
2.5. Phenomenology...................................................................................................................61
2.6. Grounded theory..................................................................................................................62
2.7. Historical analysis................................................................................................................62
2.8. Content and discourse analysis............................................................................................62
MIXED METHODS RESEARCH..................................................................................................63
1. Qualitative research vs. Quantitative research............................................................................63
2. Definition....................................................................................................................................64
2
 3. When to use mixed methods research.........................................................................................64
4. Mixed methods research designs................................................................................................65
5. Pros and cons of mixed methods research..................................................................................65
5.1. Pros......................................................................................................................................65
5.2. Cons.....................................................................................................................................66
6. Normal distribution:....................................................................................................................66
DATA ANALYSIS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH...............................................................67
1. Frequency....................................................................................................................................67
1.1. Frequency distribution.........................................................................................................67
1.2. Simple frequency.................................................................................................................70
1.3. Relative frequency...............................................................................................................71
1.4. Cumulative frequency..........................................................................................................73
2. Measures of central tendency.....................................................................................................74
2.1. Arithmetic mean..................................................................................................................74
2.2. Median.................................................................................................................................74
2.3. Mode....................................................................................................................................74
3. Measures of spread.....................................................................................................................74
3.1. Range...................................................................................................................................74
3.2. Variance (s2) and standard deviation...................................................................................74
DATA ANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH..................................................................75
1. What is qualitative data analysis?...............................................................................................75
2. Qualitative data analysis methods...............................................................................................75
2.1. Content analysis...................................................................................................................75
2.2. Thematic analysis - most popular........................................................................................77
2.3. Narrative analysis................................................................................................................79
2.4. Grounded theory analysis....................................................................................................81
2.5. Discourse analysis................................................................................................................81
HYPOTHESIS TESTS.....................................................................................................................82
1. Student's t-test.............................................................................................................................82
1.1. Independent-samples t-test..................................................................................................83
1.2. Paired-samples t-test............................................................................................................84
2. Chi-square test............................................................................................................................85
2.1. One-way chi-square test.......................................................................................................86
2.2. Two-way chi-square test......................................................................................................87
3. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).................................................................................................89
3.1. One-way ANOVA...............................................................................................................89
3.2. Post hoc test.........................................................................................................................91
4. Pearson correlation.....................................................................................................................92
REPORTING STATISTICS IN APA STYLE...............................................................................93
1. General rules...............................................................................................................................93
1.1. Decimal places.....................................................................................................................93
1.2. Leading zeros.......................................................................................................................93
1.3. Capitalization, italicization and hyphenation.......................................................................93
1.4. Parentheses vs. brackets.......................................................................................................94
3
 2. Reporting....................................................................................................................................94
2.1. Means and standard deviations............................................................................................94
2.2. Reporting chi-square tests....................................................................................................94
2.3. Reporting t tests...................................................................................................................94
2.4. Reporting analysis of variance (ANOVAs).........................................................................95
2.5. Reporting correlations..........................................................................................................95
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.......................................................................................................95

4
 VERB TENSE RECOMMENDATIONS
Paper section Recommended tense Example

Literature review (or whenever Past Martin (2020) addressed

discussing other researchers’ work) Present perfect Researchers have studied

Past Participants took a survey

Method
Description of procedure Others have used similar
Present perfect
approaches

Results showed
Reporting of your own or other
Past Scores decreased
researchers’ results
Hypotheses were not supported

Past I felt surprised

Personal reactions Present perfect I have experienced

Present I believe

Discussion of implications of results The results indicate

Present
or of previous statements The findings mean that

We conclude
Presentation of conclusions,
Present Limitations of the study are
limitations, future directions, etc.
Future research should explore

5
 INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH ISSUES
1. Definition(s) of research methodology/conducting research

● Research in the scientific sense is “the organized, systematic search for answers to the

questions we ask”, or in short, research is a disciplined inquiry.

● Research methodology is the overall approach to studying your topic and includes issues you

need to think about such as the constraints, dilemmas and ethical choices within your
research.
2. Fundamental features of a good researcher

● Genuine and strong curiosity: Serious research will inevitably require some hard work and

the only way to maintain our momentum and creativity throughout the laborious parts is to
be driven by our passion for the topic.

● Common sense: When we become intimately involved in pursuing an activity, it is all too

easy to lose touch with reality and abandon one's clarity of purpose, to become biased and
gradually go astray. They have a high level of common sense that helps to keep their feet
firmly on the ground.

● Good ideas: Many of the best known studies are not at all complicated in terms of their

research methodology but they are based on fairly simple but original insights.

● Discipline and responsibility:

− This is related to the systematic nature of research. During the course of investigation,

there are recurring temptations to cut corners, to leave out some necessary steps and to
draw conclusions that are not fully supported by the data. It is the researcher's discipline
that keeps him/her on the right track, and the lack of discipline or consistency is one of
the most frequent sources of inadequate research.

− A good researcher should have a sense of social responsibility; that is, accountability to

the field and more broadly to the world. This means that a good researcher needs to learn
to communicate his/her findings with others.

● Other characteristics can be: commitment, having good written and verbal communication

skills, having an analytical mind, etc.

6
3. Elementary research and Secondary research
3.1. Elementary (Primary) research

● Primary research is studies based on primary, or original data sources, such as classroom

observations of real students, or their test scores, or their responses to questionnaires,

including qualitative, survey, and statistical research.

● Examples:

Type Study name Explanation

Semi-structured interviews of 16 people aged 74–90
Older Persons’ Views
who received home care service explored which
on Important Values in
values they would like to see fro home care services.
Interviews Swedish Home Care
They found that elders primarily wanted two things:
Service (Olsen et al.,
to be supported as autonomous people, and as
2022)
relational beings.
Exploring university Focus groups with university students about their
students’ perceptions knowledge and understanding of plagiarism found six
Focus groups of plagiarism: a focus themes: confusion, fear, perceived sanctions,
group study (Gullifer perceived seriousness, academic consequences and
& Tyson, 2010) resentment.
Student Perceptions on
155 students conducted an online survey with 38
the Importance of
items on it that assessed perceptions of engagement
Questionnaires Engagement Strategies
used in online classes. It found that email reminders
and Surveys in the Online Learning
and regular announcements were the most effective
Environment (Martin
engagement strategies.
& Bollinger, 2018)
In this study, researchers randomized 609 overweight
adults into two groups and assigned them to either a
Effect of Low-Fat vs
high-fat, low-carbohydrate (HLF) diet or a high-
Low-Carbohydrate
carbohydrate, low-fat (HLC) diet. The researchers
Control groups Diet on 12-Month
found that the participants in both groups had similar
analysis Weight Loss in
weight loss after 12 months, with no significant
Overweight Adults
difference between the two groups. This suggests that
(Gardner et al., 2018)
the HLF and HLC diets had similar effects on weight
loss.
Daylong observations in 50 first-grade classrooms
found that explicit writing classes were taught for less
Writing instruction in than an average of 30 minutes per day. However, a
Observational first grade: an high degree of variability in instructional methods and
studies observational study time demonstrated that first-grade writing instruction
(Coker et al., 2016) is inconsistently applied across schools which may
cause high variations in the quality of writing
instruction in US schools.
Action research Task-based language This action research study involved a teacher who
learning and teaching: developed and implemented a language learning task
An action-research for adult refugees in an English program. The teacher
study (Calvert & critically reflected on and modified the task to better
7
 Sheen, 2014) suit the needs of her students.
Critical discourse
analysis in political
This author highlights the role of political speech in
Discourse and communication
constructing a singular national identity that attempts
Textual research: a case study
to delineate in-groups and out-groups that marginalize
Analysis of rightwing populist
people within a multicultural nation.
discourse in Australia
(Sengul, 2019)
A study of political cartoons in Norwegian
A social semiotic
newspapers that requires visual and semiotic analysis
Multimodal, analysis of gender
to gather meaning from the original text. The study
Visual, and power in Nigeria’s
collects a corpus of cartoons then contextualizes the
Semiotic newspaper political
cultural symbology to find that framing, salience in
Analysis cartoons
images, and visual metaphors create and reproduce
(Felicia, 2021)
Nigerian metanarratives of gender.
3.2. Secondary research

● Secondary research is studies based on secondary sources such as other researchers' books

and articles), including library research and literature reviews.

● Examples:

Type Study name Explanation

This study examines how social media can be used in
education and the challenges teachers face in balancing
its potential benefits with potential distractions. The
Towards an review analyzes 271 research papers. They find that
understanding of social ambiguous results and poor study quality plague the
Literature media use in the literature. However, they identify several factors
review classroom: A literature affecting the success of social media in the classroom,
review (Van Den Beemt including: school culture, attitudes towards social
& Willems, 2022) media, and learning goals. The study’s value is that it
organizes findings from a large corpus of existing
research to help understand the topic more
comprehensively.
This meta-analysis examines 435 empirical studies
research on the effects of feedback on student learning.
The power of feedback They use a random-effects model to ascertain whether
revisited: A meta- there is a clear effect size across the literature. The
Meta- analysis of educational authors find that feedback tends to impact cognitive and
analyses feedback research motor skill outcomes but has less of an effect on
(Wisniewski et al., motivational and behavioral outcomes. A key (albeit
2020) somewhat obvious) finding was that the manner in
which the feedback is provided is a key factor in
whether the feedback is effective.
Textbooks A Textbook of This textbook presents an evidence-based introduction
Community Nursing to professional topics in nursing. In other words, it
(Chilton & Bain, 2017) gathers evidence from other research and presents it to
students. It covers areas such as care approaches, public
8
 health, eHealth, therapeutic relationships, and mental
health. Like many textbooks, it brings together its own
secondary research with user-friendly elements like
exercises, activities, and hypothetical case studies in
each chapter.
This white paper acknowledges the increasing
significance of climate change, environmental
degradation, and our relationship with nature, and the
need for philosophers of education and global citizens
to respond. The paper examines five key journals in the
White Paper Concerning philosophy of education to identify the scope and
Philosophy of Education content of current environmental discussions. By
White
and Environment organizing and summarizing the located articles, it
papers
(Humphreys & assesses the possibilities and limitations of these
Blenkinsop, 2017) discussions within the philosophy of education
community. This white paper is an example of
secondary research because it synthesizes and integrates
information from multiple primary research sources,
specifically articles from the key journals in the field, to
analyze the current state of environmental discussions.
● Primary vs. Secondary research

Primary research Secondary research

● Done by researchers themselves and ● Use data and research done by others

data is collected directly

● Easy to do, save time and energy
● Can be costly and time-consuming
● Data can be outdated or unreliable and
● Can provide data that is specific to your
is not often related to the primary topic
research needs and is up to date
● Can produce results that introduce bias
● Can introduce bias from the researcher
from the original researcher
based on the method used
4.Major stages in conducting a study

● Identify a research problem

● Narrow the topic down

● Review the literature

● Identify a limited number of variables

9
 ● State the problem/question

● State the hypotheses

● Establish a conceptual framework

● Decide design and methods of investigation

● Data collection

● Data analysis and interpretation

● Discussion (of findings)

● Draw conclusion and recommendations

● Report making

5. How to choose a research issue

● Identify a broad problem area

− Practical research problems: performance in organization, processes in institution, areas of

concern in a field, difficulties in society, etc.

− Theoretical research problems: phenomena, contradiction between perspectives, situation or

relationship, troubling questions, etc.

● Learn more about the problem

− Context and background: who, when, background, solutions, what

− Specificity and relevance: where, when, what aspects, who will benefit, outcomes

10
 ● Example of a research problem: A local non-profit organization focused on alleviating food

insecurity has always been fundraising from its existing support base. It lacks understanding
of how best to target potential new donors. To be able to continue its work, the organization
requires research into more effective fundraising strategies.
6. Research question

● A research question is a restatement of the purpose of the study. It is a specific inquiry

which the research seeks to provide a response to.

● A research question is usually the first step in any research project which focuses on the

research, determines the methodology and hypothesis, and guides all stages of inquiry,
analysis, and reporting.

● A good research question is:

− Focused on a single problem or issue

− Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources

− Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints

− Specific enough to answer thoroughly

− Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis

− Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

● A good research question also includes a limited number of variables (at least 2 variables:

independent and dependent variables)

● How to make a good research question?

− Choose a topic: The most important factor in deciding on a research question is your own

interest and curiosity.

11
 − Conduct preliminary research: It is advisable to read a small number of relevant academic

sources, which helps to familiarize ourselves with the key debates in academic writing on
the topic.

− Narrow down your topic: It’s more effective to cover a single issue of a topic in depth

than to skim the surface of several.

− Write your question: Questions beginning with How and Why are more useful than What,

Can… or descriptive questions.

− Evaluate and refine your question

7. Research hypothesis

● A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the outcome of the research. It is not just a guess

– it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which
means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments,
observations and statistical analysis of data). It helps researchers obtain more specificity and
direction, thus develop hypotheses.

● Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more types of variables.

Example: Daily exposure to the sun leads to increased levels of happiness.

🡪In this example, the independent variable is exposure to the sun – the assumed cause. The
dependent variable is the level of happiness – the assumed effect.
● 2 kinds of hypothesis:

Null hypothesis (H0) Alternative hypothesis (Ha or H1)

A claim that there is no effect in the A claim that there is an effect in the
Definition
population. population.
Typical
● No effect ● An effect
phrases used

● No difference ● A difference

● No relationship ● A relationship

● No change ● A change

12
 ● Does not increase ● Increases

● Does not decrease ● Decreases

Equality symbol (=, , or )

Symbols used Inequality symbol (, <, or >)
p Rejected Supported
p>α Failed to reject Not supported

● Template for writing hypotheses: Does independent variable affect dependent variable?

− H0: Independent variable does not affect dependent variable.

− Ha or H1: Independent variable affects dependent variable.

● Non-directional vs. Directional alternative hypothesis

− Non-directional: There is a relationship between years of education and income

🡪 two-tailed test

− Directional: There is a positive/negative correlation between years of education

and income 🡪 one-tailed test

● Example of hypothesis and test conducted

Company A produces mobile phones with the average mass of 200 gram. A researcher believes this
value to be different. State the null and alternative hypothesis.
H0: u = 200
If the researcher believes that the average mass is different from 200 gram, then H1: u # 200
🡪 conduct a two-tailed test
If the researcher believes that the average mass is less than 200 gram, then H1: u < 200
🡪 conduct a left-tailed test
If the researcher believes that the average mass is greater than 200 gram, then H1: u > 200
🡪 conduct a right-tailed test
8. Reliability and validity in research

13
 ● Reliability refers to the extent to which a test produces consistent results when administered

under similar conditions 🡪 the consistency of a measure

● Validity refers to the extent to which the results of the procedure serve the uses for which

they were intended 🡪 the accuracy of a measure

● The relation between reliability and validity: A reliable measurement is not always valid:

The results might be reproducible, but they’re not necessarily correct. A valid measurement
is generally reliable: If a test produces accurate results, they should be reproducible.

● Testing reliability:

− We can determine reliability of the test by using point-biserial correlation:

M p−M q
r pb= √❑
s
M p : themean score on thetotal test of Ss answering theitem ¿

M q :the mean score on the total test of Ss answering the itemwrong

p : proportion of cases answering the item¿

q : proportion of cases answering theitem wrong

s :standard deviation of the total sample on the test

− Alternatively, SPSS can be used to check reliability. If the Cronbach’s alpha is above .7,

the test can be considered reliable.

− Example: An MCQ vocabulary test consisting of 10 items was administered to 9 students

with the results outlined below. Correct answer are denoted as 1, and incorrect ones are
denoted as 0.

14
If we use SPSS to calculate, the result is as follows:

Because the Cronbach’s alpha is above .7, the test can be considered reliable.
● Internal validity:

− Internal validity refers to the extent to which the outcome is a function of the factor you

have selected rather than other factors you haven't controlled

Example: When applying the process-genre approach to improve students’ academic writing, the
researcher notices a lot of progress in students’ writing. And this would be the extent to which the
application of the special teaching approach rather than other factors such as student's improvement,
background knowledge, age, etc.
− Internal validity makes the conclusions of a causal relationship credible and trustworthy.

Without high internal validity, an experiment cannot demonstrate a causal link between
two variables.

− There are three necessary conditions for internal validity. All three conditions must occur

to experimentally establish causality between an independent variable A (your treatment

variable) and dependent variable B (your response variable).

+ Your treatment and response variables change together.

+ Your treatment precedes changes in your response variables.

+ No confounding or extraneous factors can explain the results of your study.

Example: You want to test the hypothesis that drinking a cup of coffee improves memory. You
schedule an equal number of college-aged participants for morning and evening sessions at the
laboratory. For convenience, you assign all morning session participants to the treatment group and
all evening session participants to the control group. Once they arrive at the laboratory, the
15
treatment group participants are given a cup of coffee to drink, while control group participants are
given water. You also give both groups memory tests. After analyzing the results, you find that the
treatment group performed better than the control group on the memory test.
In the research example above, only two out of the three conditions have been met.
− Drinking coffee and memory performance increased together.

− Drinking coffee happened before the memory test.

− The time of day of the sessions is an extraneous factor that can equally explain the results of

the study.
Because you assigned participants to groups based on the schedule, the groups were different at the
start of the study. Any differences in memory performance may be due to a difference in the time of
day. Therefore, you cannot say for certain whether the time of day or drinking a cup of coffee
improved memory performance.
🡪 Your study has low internal validity, and you cannot deduce a causal relationship between
drinking coffee and memory performance.
− Threats to internal validity and how to counter them:

Threat Meaning Example How to counter

Single-group studies
History An unrelated A week before the end of the - Adding a
event influences study, all employees are told that comparable control
the outcomes. there will be layoffs. The group: If
participants are stressed on the comparable control
date of the post-test, and and treatment groups
performance may suffer. each face the same
Maturation The outcomes Most participants are new to the threats, the outcomes
of the study job at the time of the pre-test. A of the study won’t be
vary as a month later, their productivity has affected by them.
natural result of improved as a result of time spent - A large sample
time. working in the position. size: Results would
Instrumentatio Different In the pre-test, productivity was be more sensitive to
n measures are measured for 15 minutes, while any variability in the
used in pre-test the post-test was over 30 minutes outcomes and less
and post-test long. likely to suffer from
phases. sampling bias.
Testing The pre-test Participants showed higher - Using filler-tasks
influences the productivity at the end of the or questionnaires to
outcomes of the study because the same test was hide the purpose of
post-test. administered. Due to familiarity, study.
or awareness of the study’s
purpose, many participants
achieved high results.
Multi-group studies
Selection bias Groups are not Low-scorers were placed in Group - Random
16
 comparable at A, while high-scorers were placed assignment of
the beginning of in Group B. Because there are participants to
the study. already systematic differences groups: making
between the groups at the groups comparable
baseline, any improvements in at the start of the
group scores may be due to study.
reasons other than the treatment. - Blinding
Regression to There is a Because participants are placed participants to the
the mean statistical into groups based on their initial aim of the study.
tendency for scores, it’s hard to say whether the
people who outcomes would be due to the
score extremely treatment or statistical norms.
low or high on a
test to score
closer to the
middle the next
time.
Social Participants Groups B and C may resent Group
interaction from different A because of the access to a phone
and social groups may during class. As such, they could
desirability compare notes be demoralized and perform
and either poorly.
figure out the
aim of the study
or feel resentful
of others or
pressured to
act/react a
certain way.
Attrition bias Dropout from 20% of participants provided
participants unusable data. Almost all of them
were from Group C. As a result,
it’s hard to compare the two
treatment groups to a control
group.
● External validity:

− External validity refers to the extent that the outcome of any research study would apply

to other similar situations in the real world

Example: Suppose you are investigating the application of a particular method of teaching /г/ vs. /l/.
If you conduct the study in a language laboratory with highly sophisticated equipment and tightly
controlled procedures, you won't be able to interpret the results of your study in terms of teaching
those items in an ordinary classroom. The reason is that the setting in which you carried out the
research is not that of the real world; not too many schools have facilities like those you used in
conducting the research.
− There are two main types of external validity: population validity and ecological validity.

17
 + Population validity refers to whether you can reasonably generalize the findings from

your sample to a larger group of people (the population). It depends on the choice of
population and on the extent to which the study sample mirrors that population. Non-
probability sampling methods are often used for convenience. With this type of
sampling, the generalizability of results is limited to populations that share similar
characteristics with the sample.

+ Ecological validity refers to whether you can reasonably generalize the findings of a

study to other situations and settings in the ‘real world’.

− Threats to internal validity and how to counter them:

Threat Meaning Example Counter

Samplin The sample is The sample includes only people with - Replications
g bias not depression. They have characteristics counter almost all
representative of (e.g., negative thought patterns) that threats by
the population. may make them very different from enhancing
other clinical populations, like people generalizability to
with personality disorders or other settings,
schizophrenia. populations and
History An unrelated Right before the pre-test, a natural conditions.
event influences disaster takes place in a neighbouring - Field experiments
the outcomes. state. As a result, pre-test anxiety counter testing and
scores are higher than they might be situation effects by
otherwise. using natural
Observer The The trainer of the mindfulness sessions contexts.
bias characteristics unintentionally stressed the importance - Probability
or behaviors of of this study for the research sampling counters
the department’s funding. Participants selection bias by
experimenter(s) work extra hard to reduce their anxiety making sure
unintentionally levels during the study as a result. everyone in a
influence the population has an
outcomes, equal chance of
leading to bias being selected for a
and study sample.
other demand - Recalibration or
characteristics. reprocessing also
Hawthor The tendency The participants actively avoid anxiety- counters selection
ne effect for participants inducing situations for the period of the bias using
to change their study because they are conscious of algorithms to

18
 behaviors their participation in the research. correct weighting of
simply because factors (e.g., age)
they know they within study
are being samples.
studied.
Testing The Because participants become familiar
effect administration with the pre-test format and questions,
of a pre- or post- they are less anxious during the post-
test affects the test and remember less anxiety then,
outcomes. leading to recall bias.
Aptitude Interactions Interactions between certain
- between characteristics of the participants with
treatmen characteristics depression (e.g., negative thought
t of the group and patterns) and the mindfulness exercises
individual (e.g., focus on the present) improve
variables anxiety levels. The findings are not
together replicated with people with personality
influence the disorders or schizophrenia.
dependent
variable.
Situation Factors like the The study is repeated with one change;
effect setting, time of the participants practice mindfulness at
day, location, night rather than in the morning. The
researchers’ outcomes do not show any
characteristics, improvement this time.
etc. limit
generalizability
of the findings.

19
 LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Literature review
1.1. Definition

● A literature review is a piece of academic writing demonstrating knowledge and

understanding of the academic literature on a specific topic placed in context. It also

includes a critical evaluation of the material; this is why it is called a literature review rather
than a literature report. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to
identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply
to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic.

● Literature review vs. Book review:

− Literature review: A survey of books, articles, etc. that's been published about an issue.

− Book review: A descriptive and critical/evaluative account of a book 🡪personal response

to a particular book.

● Literature review vs. Annotated bibliography:

Literature review Annotated bibliography

Literature review establishes a relationship
between different sources and highlights gaps
in knowledge
The sources are listed at the end of the
document, as a bibliography
Information from different sources are analyzed
together
Sources are integrated together according to
relevance
● Functions of a literature review:
Annotated bibliography comments on the
relevance and quality of the information
The source is indicated at the beginning of each
section
Sources are analyzed separately
Sources are listed alphabetically

− Finding, reading, and synthesizing previous studies.

− Showing current knowledge, information gathered from published academic works or

scholarly books, etc. about a topic.

− Provide a critical analysis of the current research on the topic.

1.2. Purpose
20
 ● Avoid duplication

● Alert about the problem and potential difficulties in the chosen area

🡪 Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context

🡪 Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates
around your topic
● Identify inconsistencies:

− gaps in research, unresolved problems,

− conflicts in previous studies,

− open questions left from other research.

🡪 Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists, show how your research
addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
● Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research

1.3. Steps to prepare a Literature review

1. Identify keywords
2. Search the databases
3. Locate reports of research in articles or books
4. Skim the articles or chapters
5. Evaluate and select sources
6. Design literature map
A visual picture (or figure) of groupings of the literature on the topic that illustrates how your
particular study will add to the existing literature and position your study within the larger body of
research.

21
 7. Draft summaries
8. Assemble the literature review
1.4. Three ways to present
1.4.1. Chronological (time-oriented)
● From the previously to recently published literature

● Purpose

− Discuss the developments and debates in the field over time

− Highlight how specific articles or pieces of work might have changed the course of

the field

● Example:

One aspect of the research article (RA) that has perhaps been most studied is the introduction. Since
Swales’ (Swales, 1981, Swales, 1990) seminal work on the move structure of RA introductions,
there has been considerable interest in applying the proposed model to other sets of texts. Crookes
(1986), for example, through further analysis, has pointed to the cyclical nature of introductions.
Jacoby (1987) has investigated in greater detail the use of references in introductions . . . . A much
more recent study by Anthony (1999) of RA introductions from engineering reveals that Swales’
Create-A-Research-Space (CARS) model does not account for some important features of the
introduction, such as the presence of definitions of terms, exemplifications of difficult concepts, and
evaluation of the research presented.
1.4.2. Thematic (theme-oriented)
22
 ● Organise the discussion by themes or categories

● Purpose

− Identify contributing factors

− Highlight the contrasting viewpoints

● Example:

Over the last 20 years, a large number of studies on academic writing have been devoted to the
research article (RA), in particular, its structure, social construction and historical evolution. A
number of these studies have concerned themselves with the overall organization of various parts of
the RA, such as the introduction (e.g. Swales, 1981; Swales, 1990; Swales and Najjar, 1987), the
results sections (Brett, 1994; Thompson, 1993), discussions (Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988) and
even the abstracts that accompany the research articles (Salager-Meyer, 1990; Salager-Meyer,
1992). Various lexico-grammatical features of the RA have also been explored, ranging from tense
choice to citation practices. Beyond the textual structure of this genre, research has also focused on
the historical development of the RA (Bazerman, 1988; Atkinson, 1993, Salager-Meyer, 1999;
Vande Kopple, 1998) and the social construction of this genre (Myers, 1990).
● Progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic review

1.4.3. Significance-oriented
● Based on the importance/ significance of viewpoints

● Aims to answer:

− What are the key findings of the studies?

− How do these findings contribute to the current understanding of the topic?

− What are the practical implications or applications of the research?

23
 ● Example: With the research "The significance of early childhood education (ECE) in

long-term academic achievement", the researcher has found and made a list of key
findings:

− 1st: Children who attended high-quality ECE programs demonstrated higher levels of

school readiness

− 2nd: The positive effects of ECE were found to extend beyond the preschool years

− 3rd: ECE programs targeting disadvantaged or at-risk populations showed particularly

significant benefits
1.5. Three issues of each author/viewpoint
* Trong literature review, đối với nghiên cứu đầu tiên về được report thì ghi đủ 3 loại thông tin. Đối
với những nghiên cứu sau đó thì report viewpoint của mỗi ng giống và khác ở những điểm nào.
1.5.1. The content of the viewpoint
● Ưu tiên paraphrase thông tin thay vì direct quotation

● 2 styles:

− Traditional/ Narrative: Critically analyze and summarize

− Systematic: Provide as complete a list as possible, include explicit criteria to identify

and critically evaluate

● Systematic has 2 types:

− Meta-analysis: a systematic review and integration of findings from quantitative

studies

− Meta-synthesis: a systematic review and integration of findings from qualitative

studies
1.5.2. The significance of the viewpoint
● Provide a critical overview of relevant findings

● Identify gaps and inconsistencies

● Highlight new research streams

24
 ● Set a theoretical framework

1.5.3. The application of the viewpoint

● Promote research knowledge

● Refine and shape research questions

● Answer specific research questions

1.5.4. Example
● Content: The author summarises the method and results of the research

● Significance: Compare to other studies, thus provide a critical overview of relevant findings

● Application: Promote research knowledge and support the research question of how bullies

find their victims

Research has also been done that looks at how the bullies find their victims. Wegge et al. (2014)
studied the perpetrators preferences in victims. The data were collected via questionnaires and
interviews, and a total of 120 bullies were involved as participants. Wegge et al. (2014) found that
27 percent were in the same grade, 14.2 percent were in different grades and a staggering 49.6
percent were not schoolmates of the bullies. This evidence somewhat contradicts that of the other
studies that state victims are generally bullied at school and at home. The findings by Wegge et al.
clearly show that nearly half of the bullies prefer to bully people they do not go to school with and
possibly those that they do not know at all. This continues to build and add to the idea of
cyberbullying in that it allows bullies to create their own personas and images in order to try and
intimidate others without actually providing a physical intimidation factor.
2. Theoretical framework
2.1. Definition

● A theoretical framework is a foundational review of existing theories that serves as a

roadmap for developing the arguments you will use in your own work. In it, you explain the
existing theories that support your research, showing that your paper or dissertation topic is
relevant and grounded in established ideas.

● The theoretical framework is written after the literature review and includes existing theories

as a roadmap to develop and support your research. In other words, it is the foundation of
your research.
2.2. Purpose

● It can evaluate and reflect your thinking and knowledge on:

25
 − What you plan to explain and complete in your research work

− How you conceptualize the nature of your research problem

− How you perceive, understand, interpret, and analyze your data

● Besides, it helps readers understand your perspective, context, and the overall structure of a

research paper; it guides the process of comparing and choosing the best theories to support
your research
2.3. Meaning

● Explain the subject matter and approaches

● Clarify your implicit theory

● Capture the ideas and lessons

● Consider other possible frameworks to reduce biases

● Supply with alternative theories and limitations

2.4. How to build a good theoretical framework

1. Step 1: Identify main concepts

● Identify key concepts and variables

● Define uncommon terms, phrases or words

🡪 Provide a basis of understanding and a point of reference

2. Step 2: Evaluate and explain relevant theories

● How other researchers have defined key concepts

● Drawn connections 🡪 compare and critically evaluate

● Establish the definitions and explain why

● Complex research projects 🡪 combine theories

26
3. Step 3: Show how your research fits into existing research

● How your project make use of existing theories

● Take them a step further by doing one or more of the following:

− Test whether a theory holds

− Use an existing theory as a basis for interpreting

− Critique or challenge a theory

− Combine different theories in a new or unique way

2.5. Notes for writing theoretical framework

● No fixed rules for structuring

● Clear and logical structure

● Clearly describe the framework:

− Who the key theorists are

− Historical context

● Present tense

● Make theoretical assumptions as explicit as possible.

27
 BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESEARCH
1. Population and samples

● A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about. In research, a

population can mean a group containing elements of anything you want to study, such as
objects, events, organizations, countries, species, organisms, etc.

● A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size of the sample is

always less than the total size of the population.

● Population vs. sample:

Population
Advertisements for IT jobs in the Netherlands
Songs from the Eurovision Song Contest
Undergraduate students in the Netherlands
All countries of the world
2. Sampling
Sample
The top 50 search results for advertisements
for IT jobs in the Netherlands on May 1, 2020
Winning songs from the Eurovision Song
Contest that were performed in English
300 undergraduate students from three Dutch
universities who volunteer for your
psychology research study
Countries with published data available on
birth rates and GDP since 2000

● Sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of individuals, objects, or units from a

larger population for the purpose of data collection and analysis.

● Two primary types of sampling methods:

− Probability sampling: simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, systematic

random sampling, and cluster random sampling

− Non-probability sampling: convenience sampling, purposive sampling, snowball

sampling, and quota sampling

28
2.1. Probability sampling

2.1.1. Simple random sampling

− Also known as "Method of Chance"

− A completely random method of selecting a subject

− Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

− Your sampling frame should include the whole population

− To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or

other techniques that are based entirely on chance

− Example: You want to select a simple random sample of 1000 employees of a social

media marketing company. You assign a number to every employee in the company
database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100 numbers.
2.1.2. Systematic sampling
− Every member of the population is listed with a number, researchers use a random

starting point in a population and then choose members across fixed intervals

− Example: All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first

10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards,

29
 every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with
a sample of 100 people.

− If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in

the list that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups
employees by team, and team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk
that your interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is
skewed towards senior employees.
2.1.3. Stratified sampling
− Subjects are divided into subgroups called strata based on characteristics that they

share such as gender, height, weight, age range, income bracket, job role, etc. Then
take random elements from each group, unlike the cluster sampling which only
consists of taking all the elements of a specific cluster.

− Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people

should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling
to select a sample from each subgroup.

− Example:

+ The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to

ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the
population into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on
each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative
sample of 100 people.

+ Khảo sát và chia các HS trong lớp học thành các nhóm đến từ các khu vực khác

nhau (Bắc, Trung, Nam) rồi ngẫu nhiên chọn ra vài HS trong mỗi nhóm
2.1.4. Cluster sampling
− Researchers divide a population into clusters using pre-existing markers, particularly

those that are geographical in nature, such as neighborhoods, cities, or regions

− The clusters each have distinct characteristics and provide a miniature representation

of the population being studied (each has similar characteristics to the whole sample)

30
 − Once the entirety of the population is divided into clusters, researchers randomly

select a number of these clusters to serve as a sample

− If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled

cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from
within each cluster using one of the techniques above. This is called multistage
sampling.

− This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is

more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between
clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of
the whole population.

− Example:

+ The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same

number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to
every office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices –
these are your clusters.

+ Chia dân ở TP.HCM thành các quận, chọn vài quận làm sample

2.2. Non-probability sampling

2.2.1. Convenience sampling

31
− Also known as accidental sampling or grab sampling

− It involves selecting sample from the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the

researcher

− This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the

sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.

Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.

− Example:

+ You are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so

after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the
topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students
taking the same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of all
the students at your university.

+ You send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot of students decide

to complete it. This can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people
who responded are more likely to be those who have strong opinions about the student
support services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of all
students.

+ GV vào lớp và nói cô cần 10 bạn tham gia khảo sát và có 10 bạn xung phong nên cô

lấy luông mấy bạn này

2.2.2. Snowball sampling
− Also known as network sampling

− If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants

via other participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in
contact with more people.

− The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how

representative your sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This
can lead to sampling bias.

32
− Example: You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no

list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one
person who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other
homeless people that she knows in the area.
2.2.3. Quota sampling
− Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or

proportion of units. This is called a quota.

− Involves taking a very tailored sample that's in proportion to some characteristics or traits

of a population.

− Example:

+ You can divide a population by some criteria like education level, gender..., then you

will take a sample from each group to meet a quota.

+ You want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery service in Boston,

focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population into meat eaters,
vegetarians, and vegans, drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants
to cater to all consumers, you set a quota of 200 people for each dietary group. In this
way, all dietary preferences are equally represented in your research, and you can
easily compare these groups.You continue recruiting until you reach the quota of 200
participants for each subgroup.

+ GV cần 5 bạn nam là khảo sát nên vào lớp chỉ định em A, B, C, D, E làm.

2.2.4. Purposive
− Also known as judgmental sampling

− It consists of selecting samples most useful to the purposes of the research based on your

own knowledge, your own experience.

− It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed

knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where
the population is very small and specific.

− An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion.
33
 − Always make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware of

observer bias affecting your arguments.

− Example: You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled

students at your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different
support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student
services.
3. Variables
3.1. Variables

● A variable is defined as an attribute of an object of study

3.2. Types of variables

3.2.1. Independent and dependent variables
● Independent (predictor) variable:

− The independent variable is the cause; it is the variable you manipulate or vary in an

experimental study to explore its effects. Its value is independent of other variables in
your study. An independent variable is the variable you manipulate or vary in an
experimental study to explore its effects. It’s not influenced by any other variables in the
study.

− For example, someone's age might be an independent variable. Other factors (such as

what they eat, how much they go to school, how much television they watch) aren't going
to change a person's age.

● Dependent (outcome) variable:

− The dependent variable is the effect; it is the variable that changes as a result of the

independent variable manipulation. Its value depends on changes in the independent

variable.

− For example, a test score could be a dependent variable because it could change

depending on several factors such as how much you studied, how much sleep you got the
night before you took the test, or even how hungry you were when you took it.

34
 ● (Independent variable) causes a change in (Dependent Variable) and it isn't possible that

(Dependent Variable) could cause a change in (Independent Variable).

● Independent and dependent variables are generally used in experimental and

quasi-experimental research.

● Recognizing independent variables

− Is the variable manipulated, controlled, or used as a subject grouping method by the

researcher?

− Does this variable come before the other variable in time?

− Is the researcher trying to understand whether or how this variable affects another

variable?

● Recognizing dependent variables

− Is this variable measured as an outcome of the study?

− Is this variable dependent on another variable in the study?

− Does this variable get measured only after other variables are altered?

● Besides, you have variables that you hold constant (control variables) because they could

influence the outcomes. Temperature, amount of light, using the same type of glassware,
constant humidity, or duration of an experiment are common types of controlled variable.

● Examples:

Research question Independent variable Dependent variable

Do tomatoes grow fastest Type of light the tomato plant The rate of growth of the
under fluorescent, is grown under tomato plant
incandescent, or natural light?
What is the effect of Presence or absence of Blood sugar levels
intermittent fasting on blood intermittent fasting
sugar levels?
Is medical marijuana Presence or absence of Frequency of pain
effective for pain reduction in medical marijuana use Intensity of pain
people with chronic pain?

35
To what extent does remote Type of work environment Job satisfaction self-reports
working increase job (remote or in office)
satisfaction?
To what extent can the The process-genre approach Students’ writing
process-genre approach affect
students’ writing?
Do students with extrinsic Extrinsic motivation and Students' ability to learn
motivation learn English intrinsic motivation English vocabulary
vocabulary better than those
with intrinsic motivation?
3.2.2. Quantitative and categorical variables

● Categorical variables: Categorical variables represent groupings of some kind. They are

sometimes recorded as numbers, but the numbers represent categories rather than actual
amounts of things. There are two types of categorical variables: nominal and ordinal
variables. Besides, variables with only two values are called binary valuables (1 / 0, Yes /
No, Success / Failure, Head / Tail)

● Numerical variables: When you collect quantitative data, the numbers you record represent

real amounts that can be added, subtracted, divided, etc. There are two types of quantitative
variables: discrete and continuous.
Type of What does the data represent? Examples
variable
Discrete
● A discrete variable is a variable that ● Number of students in a class
variables
takes on distinct, countable values.
● Number of different tree
● In theory, you should always be able
species in a forest
to count the values of a discrete
● Years of schooling
variable.

36
 Type of What does the data represent?
variable
● A continuous variable is a variable
that can take on any value within a
range.
● A continuous variable takes on an
infinite number of possible values
within a given range.
Continuous ● Because the possible values for a
variables
continuous variable are infinite, we
measure continuous variables (rather
than count), often using a measuring
device like a ruler or stopwatch.
● Continuous variables include all the
fractional or decimal values within a
range.
● Example of types of variables:
37
Examples
● Number of goals made in a
soccer match
● Number of red M&M’s in a
candy jar
● Votes for a particular
politician
● Number of times a coin lands
on heads after ten coin tosses
All of these variables take a
finite number of values that you
can count. They are examples of
discrete variables.
● The time it takes sprinters to
run 100 meters
● The size of real estate lots in
a city
● The weight of baby elephants
● The body temperature of
patients with the flu
● The deployment altitude of
skydivers
None of these variables are
countable. Each of them could
take on an infinite number of
values within a range.
 3.2.3. Other types of variables
Example (salt tolerance
Type of
Definition of various plant species
variable
experiment)
A variable that hides the true effect of another Pot size and soil type
variable in your experiment. This can happen when might affect plant
another variable is closely related to a variable you survival as much or more
Confoundi
are interested in, but you haven’t controlled it in than salt additions. In an
ng
your experiment. Be careful with these, because experiment you would
variables
confounding variables run a high risk of control these potential
introducing a variety of research biases to your confounders by holding
work, particularly omitted variable bias. them constant.
A variable that can’t be directly measured, but that Salt tolerance in plants
you represent via a proxy. cannot be measured
* proxy: something that you use to represent directly, but can be
Latent
something else that you are trying to measure or inferred from
variables
calculate measurements of plant
health in our salt-addition
experiment.
A variable that is made by combining multiple The three plant health
variables in an experiment. These variables are variables could be
Composite created when you analyze data, not when you combined into a single
variables measure it. plant-health score to
make it easier to present
your findings.

38
● Mediator (intervening) variables:

− An intervening variable is a hypothetical variable / an abstract scientific concept used to

explain the relationship between the independent variable, and dependent variable when
there is no such direct relationship between both.

− Independent variables govern the dependent variables through the channel of mediating

or intervening variables.

− Commonly cited examples of intervening variables include gravity, thirst, learning, and

intelligence.

− Intervening variables cannot be observed in an experiment (that’s why they are

hypothetical).

− The main characteristics of mediating variables are:

+ Mediating variables are caused by the independent variable.

+ Mediating variables affect the dependent variable.

+ The statistical correlation between the independent and dependent variables is higher

in the presence of the mediator.

− Mediation analysis is a way of statistically testing whether a variable is a mediator using

linear regression analyses or ANOVAs.

39
− In full mediation, a mediator fully explains the relationship between the independent and

dependent variable: without the mediator in the model, there is no relationship.

− In partial mediation, there is still a statistical relationship between the independent and

dependent variable even when the mediator is taken out of a model: the mediator only
partially explains the relationship.

− Example:

+ In a study on socioeconomic status and reading ability in children, you hypothesize

that parental education level is a mediator. This means that socioeconomic status
affects reading ability mainly through its influence on parental education levels.
You use a descriptive research design for this study. After collecting data on each of
these variables, you perform statistical analysis to check whether:
o Socioeconomic status predicts parental education levels,
o Parental education levels predicts child reading ability,
o The correlation between socioeconomic status and child reading ability is
greater when parental education levels are taken into account in your model.

+ According to research and data, the mortality rate of developed countries is lower than

in developing countries because of advanced healthcare facilities. So, here, developed

countries are the independent variable, the mortality rate is the dependent variable,
and the mediator would be better healthcare facilities that navigate the relationship
between both. Being a developed country cannot influence its mortality rate directly.
But after introducing the mediator here, which is better health care facilities, we can
see an obvious effect of being a developed country and having a low mortality rate.

+ The covid effect on people's savings: This pandemic has made people more conscious

of their spending and the importance of saving. During covid, amid all lockdown,
consumption decreases and causes the savings to increase. So, we can say here that
covid is the independent variable and people's savings is the dependent variable,
whereas the mediator here would be the low consumption, which causes the
relationship between these two to happen. Covid itself cannot influence people's
savings. But, after introducing the mediator, which is low consumption, we can see an
obvious relationship about how people's savings increase due to covid.

40
 + Buying burgers for a work party, which leads to positive team spirit and work being

done in half the time. So, burgers are the independent variable, the work rate is the
dependent variable, and the mediator that explains the relationship here is the positive
team spirit. The burgers cannot affect the work speed itself, but, after introducing a
mediator, which is positive team spirit here, we can see an obvious effect on the work
rate when burgers are bought.

+ There is an association between being poor and having a shorter life span. Just

because someone is poor doesn’t mean that will lead to an early death, so other
hypothetical variables are used to explain the phenomenon. These intervening
variables could include: lack of access to healthcare or poor nutrition.

● Moderator variables:

− A moderator variable is a qualitative (e.g., gender, SES) or quantitative (e.g., amount of

social support) variable that affects the level, direction, or presence of a relationship
between an independent or predictor variable and a dependent or criterion variable. It
shows you for whom, when, or under what circumstances a relationship will hold.

− In research, in order to infer that a variable is a moderating variable, there must be a

significant statistical interaction between the predictor and the moderator (i.e. p < .05).

− A moderator variable affects the relationship between a predictor variable (X) and an

outcome variable (Y). Moderator variables commonly affect the strength of the
relationship between X and Y.

− Moderators can be:

+ Categorical variables such as ethnicity, race, religion, favorite colors, health status, or

stimulus type,

+ Quantitative variables such as age, weight, height, income, or visual stimulus size.

− Example:

41
 + Social support is thought to function as a moderator of the relationship between stress

and negative health outcomes: in the presence of low social support, there is a strong
relationship between stress and negative health outcomes

+ While social media use can predict levels of loneliness, this relationship may be

stronger for adolescents than for older adults. Age is a moderator here.

+ In a study on work experience and salary, you hypothesize that:

o years of work experience predicts salary, when controlling for relevant

variables,
o gender identity moderates the relationship between work experience and salary.
This means that the relationship between years of experience and salary would differ
between men, women, and those who do not identify as men or women.
3.3. Scales of variables

* Going from lowest to highest, the 4 levels of measurement are cumulative. This means that they
each take on the properties of lower levels and add new properties. The least amount of information
is contained in nominal scale data, while the most amount of information can be obtained from ratio
scale data.

3.3.1. Nominal scales

● Characteristics:

− Used to name categories or attributes of objects

− The measures (numbers) used to identify the attributes are arbitrary and have no real

meaning

42
 − Hierarchy does not exist between categories 🡪Category name is more important than the

number

● Examples:

− Nationality

− Gender (1 = male, 2 = female, 3 = prefer not to answer)

− Hair colour

− Number based identifiers: social security number, zipcode

− City of birth

− Ethnicity

− Car brands

− Marital status

− Major

− Blood type

− The use of ID codes A, N and P to represent aggressive, normal, and passive drivers is a

nominal scale variable. The order has no meaning here, and the difference between
identifiers is meaningless.

● Mathematical operations that can be performed:

43
 − Grouping: using = and

− Central point: mode

− Frequencies

● Multiple response nominal scale:

− A variation of the nominal scale

− Always includes a "Check all that apply statement"

− Allows respondents to select multiple answers

3.3.2. Ordinal scales

● Characteristics:

− The measures (numbers) used to identify the attributes have meaning

− Hierarchy exists between categories

− Each catergory has unequal groupings (the groupings are dependent on the research

questions)

− The meaningful 0 does not exist

● Examples:

− Opinions

− Size of clothes

− Top 5 Olympic medallists (Although you can rank the top 5 Olympic medallists, this

scale does not tell you how close or far apart they are in number of wins)

− Language ability (e.g., beginner, intermediate, fluent)

− Likert-type questions (e.g., very dissatisfied to very satisfied)

44
 − Income (1 = less than $25,000; 2 = $25,000 - $59,999; 3 = $60,000 - $99,999; 4 =

$100,000 or more)

− Assigning ID codes 1, 2 and 3 to represent a persons response to a question regarding use

rate: 1 = use often; 2 = use sometimes; 3 = never use. Although order does matter in these
variables, the difference between responses is not consistent across the scale or across
individuals who respond to the question.

− What is the highest degree or level of education you have completed? Some High school,

High school, Trade school, Bachelor's Degree, Master's Degree, Ph.D. or higher, Prefer
not to say

● Mathematical operations that can be performed:

− Grouping: using = and

− Sorting: using > and <

− Central point: median, mode

− Frequencies

3.3.3. Interval scales

● Characteristics:

− The measures (numbers) used to identify the attributes have meaning 🡪The orders of the

numbers matters
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 − Hierarchy exists between categories

− Categories have equal groupings 🡪Each category has equivalent intervals, in which the

difference between 1 and 2 is the same as that between 5 and 6

− The meaningful 0 does not exist

− The value can be negative

● Examples:

− Time

− Test scores (e.g., IQ or exams) (There is no zero point for IQ. According to psychological

studies, a person cannot have zero intelligence, so zero is arbitrary; Test scores of
examination like SAT. Scores in SAT test are in the range of 200-800. The numbers from
0 to 200 are not used when they scale the raw score (number of questions answered
correctly) to the section score. The reference point is not an absolute zero)

− Personality inventories (The same is true for test scores and personality inventories. A

zero on a test is arbitrary; it does not mean that the test-taker has an absolute lack of the
trait being measured)

− Temperature in Fahrenheit or Celsius (The difference between any two adjacent

temperatures is the same: one degree. But zero degrees is defined differently depending
on the scale – it doesn’t mean an absolute absence of temperature)

− Dates

− How many times a week do you visit the Lucky Chicken Restaurant? One to two, Three

to four, Five to six 🡪The interval used to create this scale is 2

● Mathematical operations that can be performed:

− Grouping: using = and

46
 − Sorting: using > and <

− Arithmetic: using +, – but not x, / (We can say that 2 p.m. is 1 hour later than 1 p.m. but

cannot say that 6 p.m. is twice as late as 3 p.m.)

− Central point: arithmetic mean, median, mode

− Frequencies

− Range and spread: standard deviation, variance

3.3.4. Ratio scales

● Characteristics:

− The measures (numbers) used to identify the attributes have meaning 🡪The orders of the

numbers matters

− Hierarchy exists between categories

− Categories have equal groupings 🡪Each category has equivalent intervals, in which the

difference between 1 and 2 is the same as that between 5 and 6

− The meaningful 0 does exist (a natural zero, respondents can choose an absence of the

atttribute being measured)

− The value cannot be negative

● Examples:

− Distance travelled

− Age

− Weight

− Height

− Number of vehicles in a queue

47
 − Accident rate

− Temperature in Kelvin (In the Kelvin temperature scale, there are no negative degrees of

temperature – zero means an absolute lack of thermal energy)

− On average, how many bottles of water do you purchase each week? (0 can be an answer)

− Traffic density (measured in vehicles per kilometer) represents a ratio scale. The density

of a link is defined as zero when there are no vehicles in a link.

● Mathematical operations that can be performed:

− Grouping: using = and

− Sorting: using > and <

− Arithmetic: using +, –, x, / (We can say that 3 km is a kilometre far away from 2 km a 2

year-old child is half the age of a 4 year-old child)

− Central point: arithmetic mean, median, mode

− Frequencies

− Range and spread: standard deviation, variance

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
1. What is quantitative method?
1.1. Definition

● Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or

numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by

manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques.

● Quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups

of people to uncover patterns, trends, and relationships or to explain a particular

phenomenon.

48
● Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry,

psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.

1.2. Characteristics

● Structured: The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments. All aspects of

the study are carefully designed before data is collected.

● Large sample size: The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the

population.

● Reliable: The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.

● Objective: Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are

sought.

● Numerical data: Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables,

charts, figures, or other non-textual forms. Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or
computer software, to collect numerical data.

● Generalizable: Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results,

or investigate causal relationships.

● Hypothesis-driven

● Variables rather than cases: Quantitative researchers are less interested in individuals than in

the common features of groups of people. Therefore, quantitative research is centred around
the study of variables that capture these common features and which are quantified by
counting, scaling, or by assigning values to categorical data. All the various quantitative
methods are aimed at identifying the relationships between variables by measuring them and
often also manipulating them.
1.3 Stages

● Three key stages in the research process: (a) observing a phenomenon or identifying a

problem; (b) genetating an initial hypothesis; and (c) testing the hypothesis by collecting and
analysing empirical data using standardized procedures.

49
 ● Once the hypothesis has been successfully tested and further validated through replication, it
becomes accepted as a scientific theory or law.
1.4. Quantitative research methods
Research How to use
method
Control or manipulate
an independent variable to
measure its effect on a
Experiment dependent variable.
Ask questions of a group of
people in-person, over-the-
Survey
phone or online.
Identify a behavior or
occurrence of interest and
(Systematic)
monitor it in its natural
observation
setting.
Collect data that has been
Secondary gathered for other purposes
research e.g., national surveys or
historical records.
1.4. Pros and cons
Pros
Improving reliability
Researchers who collect accurate data have
more reliable results. Quantitative data research
offers an outcome based on numbers rather than
subjective judgments. The study results reflect
data regardless of whether that outcome aligns
with a preconceived theory.
Limiting variables
Researchers set up controls to reduce the
number of potential variables. Researchers
usually divide data into subsets of
demographics or other qualifying categories.
Limiting and controlling the research
environment allows researchers to draw
correlations between the most relevant
variables included in the study.
50
Example
To test whether an intervention can reduce
procrastination in college students, you give
equal-sized groups either a procrastination
intervention or a comparable task. You
compare self-ratings of procrastination
behaviors between the groups after the
intervention.
You distribute questionnaires with rating
scales to first-year international college
students to investigate their experiences of
culture shock.
To study college classroom participation,
you sit in on classes to observe them,
counting and recording the prevalence of
active and passive behaviors by students
from different backgrounds.
To assess whether attitudes towards climate
change have changed since the 1980s, you
collect relevant questionnaire data from
widely available longitudinal studies.
Cons
High cost
Creating new data through surveys or polls is
costly. Researchers often have to hire
individuals to assist with the work of collecting
and analyzing the data. Even accessing massive
databases and securing secondary data can be
expensive.
Results without explanation
Quantitative data can show trends in data and
correlations between variables, but it can't
explain why the correlation exists. When
researchers publish their study's data, other
professionals and readers may extrapolate
reasons for the results. However, the research
itself doesn't provide a reason for the outcome
of the study.
 Broadening studies
A quantitative study can provide a macro data
set for researchers who study social science
issues. For example, a study might involve
evaluating the home buying power of people of
different backgrounds. A researcher who uses
information from the federal government's
census could include millions of different
families of different income levels and
backgrounds. The researcher then might look
for patterns and correlations in the data.
Eliminating bias
Quantitative research can help avoid potential
bias from a study. The study uses quantitative
data with no pre-determined outcome. If the
data produces an unexpected result, the
researchers report the results. Also, a
quantitative study allows other researchers to
double-check the original researcher's process.
Comparing results
Researchers can replicate quantitative studies.
As part of a quantitative study, researchers
publish their data and what process they
followed to carry out the study. This allows
other researchers to follow their work. For
example, if a researcher publishes a study that
states smoking can increase the risk of lung
cancer, other researchers can replicate the study
and see if their findings corroborate its results.
2. Types of design in quantitative research

● A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data.

Creating a research design means making decisions about:

− Your overall research objectives and approach

− Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary research

− Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects

− Your data collection methods

− The procedures you’ll follow to collect data

− Your data analysis methods

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● Quantitative designs can be split into four main types:

− Experimental: true experimental, quasi-experimental, and pre-experimental designs →

The researcher's intervention is present → Researcher plays an active role in the process

− Non-experimental:

+ According to purpose: descriptive, correlational

+ According to time: cross-sectional, longitudinal

2.1. True experimental

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● Used to test causal relationships

● Involves manipulating an independent variable and measuring its effect on a dependent

variable

● Subjects are randomly divided into two groups:

− The treatment group (also called the experimental group) receives the treatment whose

effect the researcher is interested in.

− The control group receives either no treatment, a standard treatment whose effect is

already known, or a placebo (a fake treatment to control for placebo effect).

● Examples: In an experimental design, you could gather a sample of students and then

randomly assign half of them to be taught online and the other half to be taught in person,
while controlling all other relevant variables. By comparing their outcomes in test scores,
you can be more confident that it was the method of teaching (and not other variables) that
caused any change in scores.
2.2. Quasi-experimental research

53
● Used to test causal relationships

● An independent variable is identified but not manipulated by the experimenter, and effects of

the independent variable on the dependent variable are measured

● Examples:

− The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at the end of the first grade

− The effect of taking multivitamins on a students’ school absenteeism

− The effect of gender on algebra achievement

− The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of high school students

− The effect of magnet school participation on student attitude

− The effect of age on lung capacity

● Non-equivalent (comparison) groups design:

54
 − Testing 2 groups

− "Non-equivalent" because members of groups involved are not randomly assigned, there

may be internal factors that affect the results of the study

− Only conduct posttest

● Pretest - posttest design: Test the dependent variable before and after the treatment is given

● Interrupted time series design:

− A variant of pretest - posttest design

− Involves a series of testing/measurements at given intervals before and after the treatment

● Combination design:

− Combines the elements of both non-equivalent design and pretest - posttest design

− Involves a treatment group and control group

2.3. Correlational

● Characteristics:

− Used to test whether (and how strongly) variables are related

− Variables are measured without influencing them

− Relationships between and among a number of facts are sought and interpreted. This type

of research will recognize trends and patterns in data, but it does not go so far in its
analysis to prove causes for these observed patterns.

● A correlation coefficient: A single number that describes the strength and direction of the

relationship between variables.

● The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, also known as Pearson’s r, is

commonly used for assessing a linear relationship between two quantitative variables.
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● The most common data collection methods for correlational research include surveys,

observations, and secondary data.

● Examples:

− The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem

− The relationship between diet and anxiety

− The relationship between an aptitude test and success in an algebra course

− The relationship between ACT scores and the freshman grades

− The relationships between the types of activities used in math classrooms and student

achievement

− The covariance of smoking and lung disease

2.4. Descriptive

● Characteristics:

− Used to describe characteristics, averages, trends, etc

− Aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon

− Can answer what, where, when and how questions, but not why questions.

− Variables are measured without influencing them

− The researcher does not usually begin with an hypothesis, but is likely to develop one

after collecting data. The analysis and synthesis of the data provide the test of the
hypothesis.

● Examples:

− A description of how second-grade students spend their time during summer vacation

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 − A description of the tobacco use habits of teenagers

− A description of how parents feel about the twelvemonth school year

− A description of the attitudes of scientists regarding global warming

− A description of the kinds of physical activities that typically occur in nursing homes, and

how frequently each occurs

− A description of the extent to which elementary teachers use math manipulatives

2.5 Survey

● Ask questions of a group of people in-person, over-the-phone or online.

● Example: You distribute questionnaires with rating scales to first-year international college

students to investigate their experiences of culture shock.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. What is qualitative method?
1.1. Definition

● Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video,

or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to explain for

"what, why, how" behind a phenomenon, gather in-depth insights into a problem, or generate
new ideas for research.

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● Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such

as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

1.2. Qualitative method's goal

● Exploration:

− To provide the initial understanding of phenomenon

− Sample questions:

+ What happens with the people when they saw a promotion?

+ What are the teacher-student interactions in the class?

● Description:

− Descriptive is the heart of qualitative research. It conveys the information

− with the details and specificity necessary to accurately convey the experience.

− Sample question: What is the perspective of customers toward new products?

● Interpretation:

− To make sense of what goes on to reach out for understanding or explanation

− Sample question: How has the teaching method of the teachers affected the learning

experience of the students in the grade 2?

1.3. Characteristics

● Natural setting:

− Collect research data at the locations where participants experience the problem or issue

to be studied.

− Researchers do not change the environment setting and activities of the participants.

58
 − Gather information by talking directly to people and observe their action in natural

context.

● Researcher as a key instrument:

− Collect their own research data through participant observation, documentation, or direct

interviews with participants.

− Researchers use themselves as a research's instrument.

− Do not use instruments or questionnaires made by other researchers because they are the

only key of the study.

● Small sample size: Well-conducted research is very labour-intensive and therefore qualitative

studies typically use, of necessity, much smaller samples of participants than quantitative
ones.

● Multiple sources of data:

− Collect the required data from various sources such as interviews, documentation, and

observations

− Then, researchers review the data and make sense of it.

− After that, they generate it into categories and themes that cut across all the data source.

● Inductive data:

− The qualitative researchers build categories, patterns and themes from the inductive or

from separate data into a complete conclusion

− Example: The social sellers want to know the reason why their sale decreases, so they

will conduct face-to-face interviews with customers and observe their competitors and
customer's behaviors. After collecting the data in the specific time, the sellers will analyze
the data and make the conclusion (high price and lack engagement on social media). The
sellers will recognize the reasons and find the solution to boost the sales.

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● Emergent design:

− Emergent design refers to the ability to adapt to new ideas, concepts, or findings that arise

while conducting qualitative research.

− The initial plan is not a standard that has to be adhered to.

− Each stage of research could change after the researchers go into the field and collects

data.

● Reflexibility:

− Reflectivity is an awareness of the researcher's role in the practice of research and the

way this is influenced by the object of the research, enabling the researcher to
acknowledge the way in which he or she affects both the research processes and
outcomes.

− Their personal background, culture and experiences hold potential for shaping their

interpretations such as the themes they advance and the meaning they ascribe to the data.

− This aspect of the methods is more than merely advancing biases and values in the study,

but how the background of the researchers actually may shape the direction of the study.

● Holistic accounts:

− The qualitative researchers always try to make a complex picture of a research issue or

problem.

60
 − Researchers describe the perspective and factors associated with the problem as a whole.

(consist of internal and external factors)

1.4. Qualitative research methods

● Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.

● Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.

● Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.

− A focus group brings together a group of participants to answer questions on a topic of

interest in a moderated setting.

− Focus groups can provide more nuanced and unfiltered feedback than individual

interviews and are easier to organize than experiments or large surveys. However, their
small size leads to low external validity and the temptation as a researcher to “cherry-
pick” responses that fit your hypotheses.

● Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.

● Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video

recordings, etc.

● Example: To research the culture of a large tech company, you decide to take an

ethnographic approach. You work at the company for several months and use various
methods to gather data:

− You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the

company culture.

− You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by

email to find out if the culture varies across locations.

− You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their

experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

1.5. Pros and cons
Pros Cons

61
 Flexibility
The data collection and analysis process can be
adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They
are not rigidly decided beforehand.
Natural settings
Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or
in naturalistic ways.
Meaningful insights
Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences,
feelings and perceptions can be used in
designing, testing or improving systems or
products.
Generation of new ideas
Open-ended responses mean that researchers
can uncover novel problems or opportunities
that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.
2. Types of design in qualitative research
2.1. Enthnography
● Involve observing and studying a culture-sharring group of ppl in their natural setting to gain
a deep understanding of a group’s shared culture, conventions, and social dynamics.
62
Unreliability
The real-world setting often makes qualitative
research unreliable because of uncontrolled
factors that affect the data.
Subjectivity
Due to the researcher’s primary role in
analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative
research cannot be replicated. The researcher
decides what is important and what is irrelevant
in data analysis, so interpretations of the same
data can vary greatly.
Limited generalizability
Small samples are often used to gather detailed
data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous
analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw
generalizable conclusions because the data may
be biased and unrepresentative of the wider
population.
Labor-intensive
Although software can be used to manage and
record large amounts of text, data analysis often
has to be checked or performed manually.
● The word “ethnography” also refers to the written report of the research that the ethnographer

produces afterwards.

● Principles: naturalism, understanding, induction, ethics

● Involve observation, in-depth interviews

● Falls under the field of anthropology

● Advantages:

− Give the researcher direct access to the culture and practices of a group

− Access to more authentic information and spontaneously observe dynamics

− Be an open and flexible method

● Disadvantages:

− Time-consuming

− High cost

− Researchers’ bias

− Participants' confidentiality

− Ethical complexities

− Findings cannot be generalized

2.2. Observation

● Qualitative observation is a research method where the characteristics or qualities of a

phenomenon are described without using any quantitative measurements or data. Rather, the

63
 observation is based on the observer’s subjective interpretation of what they see, hear, smell,
taste, or feel.

● Qualitative observations can be done using various methods, including direct observation,

interviews, focus groups, or case studies. They can provide rich and detailed information
about the behavior, attitudes, perceptions, and experiences of individuals or groups.

● A qualitative observation could be a good fit for your research if:

− Conducting exploratory research

− Research topic is complex, subjective, or cannot be examined numerically

− Researcher is relying on triangulation within research approach

● Types of qualitative observations: Interviews, Case studies, Direct observation, Researcher as

participant

● Characteristics:

− Subjectivity: There's a high degree of variance from one observation to the next, making

each qualitative observational study unique.

− Personal contact with participants: Some qualitative observations involve the researcher

immersing themselves with the study participants to gather data.

− Inductive reasoning: A type of reasoning that combines experimenting and logical

thinking.

− Empathetic neutrality: Because humans are naturally empathetic, it's impossible to avoid

it during qualitative research.

− Natural inquiry: Researchers conduct some observations in a natural environment rather

than a simulated one.

− Sensitivity to context: Peoples' beliefs and environments can influence what the

researchers say and how they act.

● Advantages:

64
 − Rich and nuanced qualitative data

− Flexible research method

− Triangulation (Improve reliability and validity)

● Disadvantages:

− Research biases

− Small sample size

− Ethical considerations

2.3. Case study

● A long-time and in-depth study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event,

organization, or phenomenon.

● Good for describing, comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research

problem.

● Often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one or a few researchable

examples

● Also useful for testing whether a specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in

the real world

● Techniques for gathering data: Interviews, Surveys, Observations, Documents, Physical

Artifacts

● Unable to generalize the findings

● Types of case study:

− Explanatory:

65
 + This type of case study would be used if you were seeking to answer a question that

sought to explain the presumed causal links in real-life interventions that are too
complex for the survey or experimental strategies.

+ In evaluation language, the explanations would link program implementation with

program effects.

+ This type of case study is used to explore those situations in which the intervention

being evaluated has no clear, single set of outcomes.

− Descriptive: This type of case study is used to describe an intervention or phenomenon

and the real-life context in which it occurred.

− Single-case study: A thorough study into one specific case

− Multiple-case studies: A multiple case study enables the researcher to explore differences

within and between cases. The goal is to replicate findings across cases. Because
comparisons will be drawn, it is imperative that the cases are chosen carefully so that the
researcher can predict similar results across cases, or predict contrasting results based on
a theory.

− Collective: Collective case studies are similar in nature and description to multiple case

studies.

− Longitudinal: Study one or multiple cases over an extended period of time

− Intrinsic: Researchers who have a genuine interest in the case should use this approach

when the intent is to better understand the case. It is not undertaken primarily because the
case represents other cases or because it illustrates a particular trait or problem, but
because in all its particularity and ordinariness, the case itself is of interest. The purpose
is NOT to come to understand some abstract construct or generic phenomenon. The
purpose is NOT to build theory (although that is an option).

− Instrumental: Is used to accomplish something other than understanding a particular

situation. It provides insight into an issue or helps to refine a theory. The case is of
secondary interest; it plays a supportive role, facilitating our understanding of something
else. The case is often looked at in depth, its contexts scrutinized, its ordinary activities
66
 detailed, and because it helps the researcher pursue the external interest. The case may or
may not be seen as typical of other cases.

● Steps for using case study:

2.4. Interview

● An interview is a qualitative research method that relies on asking questions in order to

collect data. Interviews involve two or more people, one of whom is the interviewer asking
the questions.

● Interviews are commonly used in market research, social science, and ethnographic research.

● There are several types of interviews, often differentiated by their level of structure.

− Structured interviews have predetermined questions asked in a predetermined order.

− Unstructured interviews are more free-flowing.

− Semi-structured interviews fall in between.

● Advantages and disadvantages of interviews:

67
 Type of Advantages Disadvantages
interview
Structured
● Can be used for ● Researcher can’t ask additional
interview
quantitative research questions for more clarification or
nuance
● Data can be compared
● Limited scope: you might miss out on
● High reliability and
interesting data
validity
● At risk of response bias
● Time-effective for the

interviewer and the ● Due to the restricted answer options,

respondent people might have to choose the “best

fit”
Semi-structured
● Can be used in ● Lower validity than the structured
interview
quantitative research interview

● Relatively high validity ● At risk of Hawthorne effect, observer

bias, recall bias, and social desirability

● You can ask additional
bias
questions if needed
● You need to have good conversational

skills to get the most out of the

interview

● Preparation is time-consuming

Unstructured
● You can ask additional ● Low reliability and validity
interview
questions if needed
● You need to have excellent
● Respondents might feel
conversational skills to keep the
more at ease interview going
● You can collect rich, ● At risk of Hawthorne effect, observer
qualitative data bias, recall bias, and social desirability
● Can be used if little is bias

68
 known about the topic
● Easy to get sidetracked

● Hard to compare data

● Preparation is very time-consuming

2.5. Phenomenology

● Explores the meaning of lived experiences and how they are perceived by individuals

● Seek to understand ppl's perspectives, emotions, behaviours in specific situations

● Use in-depth interviews, open-ended questionnaires to collect data

● Involve limited sample size

● Risk of high researcher bias

2.6. Grounded theory

69
● Aim to develop theory by continously analyzing and comparing collected data from a

relatively large number of participants

● Inductive bottom-up approach: letting the data speak for itself, without being influenced by

pre-existing theories or researcher's preconceptions

● Helps offer an explanation about the main concern of the participants involved in the

research

● Collect data through interviews and observations, then analyze to identify patterns and

themes

● These emerging ideas are then validated by collecting more data until a saturation point is

reached. In other words, no new information can be squeezed from the data. From that base,
a new theory can be developed
2.7. Historical analysis

● Involves the examination of primary documents to understand the connection of past events

to present time

● Researchers rely on primary sources of historical data

70
 2.8. Content and discourse analysis

● An analysis or examination of text (or content) of the modes of communication

● Conducted to:

− Identify the intentions, focus, commmunication trends of an individual, group, or

institution

− Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to communications

− Reveal international differences in communication content

− Reveal patterns in communication content

− Describe psychological or emotional state of persons or groups

MIXED METHODS RESEARCH

1. Qualitative research vs. Quantitative research
Attribute Qualitative Quantitative
Characterized Understanding, context, complexity, Testing, measurement, objectivity,
by subjectivity replicability
Focus Testing hypotheses or theories
● Understanding and exploring human

behavior, attitudes, and experiences

● Formuating hypotheses or theories

Questions Open-ended Close-ended or multiple choice

Data type Non-numerical data such as words, Numerical data such as statistics and
images, and observations surveys
Sample Usually a small number of non- Usually a large number of cases
representative case representing the population of interest
Data Semi-structured methods such as in- Highly structured methods such as
collection depth interviews, focus groups, and structured observation using
methods participant observation questionnaires and surveys
Data analysis Summarize, categorize, interpret
Identify
Math
patterns,
and statistical
features, analysis
themes Identify statistical
Outcome Narrative report with contextual Statistical report with correlation,
description and direct quotations from comparisons of means and statistical
respondents significance of findings
Tóm lại:

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 ● Quantitative usually uses standardized method: SPSS

● Qualitative varies from contexts to contexts, have to base on the culture/environment

● Quantitative researchers follow a 'meaning in the general' strategy

● Qualitative researchers concentrate on an in-depth understanding of the 'meaning in the

particular'
Quantitative is easier for beginner researchers, qualitative needs much experience
2. Definition

● Mixed methods research involves different combinations of qualitative and quantitative

research either at the data collection or at the analysis levels.

● Researchers have been referring to studies that combine qualitative and quantitative methods

under a variety of names, such as multitrait-multimethod research, interrelating qualitative

and quantitative data, methodological triangulation, multimethodological research, mixed
model studies, and mixed methods research.

● Mixed methods research is often used in the behavioral, health, and social sciences,

especially in multidisciplinary settings and complex situational or societal research.

● Examples:

− To what extent does the frequency of traffic accidents (quantitative) reflect cyclist

perceptions of road safety (qualitative) in Amsterdam?

− How do student perceptions of their school environment (qualitative) relate to differences

in test scores (quantitative)?

− How do interviews about job satisfaction at Company X (qualitative) help explain year-

over-year sales performance and other KPIs (quantitative)?

− How can voter and non-voter beliefs about democracy (qualitative) help explain election

turnout patterns (quantitative) in Town X?

− How do average hospital salary measurements over time (quantitative) help to explain

nurse testimonials about job satisfaction (qualitative)?

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3. When to use mixed methods research

● Mixed methods research may be the right choice if your research process suggests that

quantitative or qualitative data alone will not sufficiently answer your research question.

● There are several common reasons for using mixed methods research:

− Generalizability: Qualitative research usually has a smaller sample size, and thus is not

generalizable. In mixed methods research, this comparative weakness is mitigated by the

comparative strength of “large N,” externally valid quantitative research.

− Contextualization: Mixing methods allows you to put findings in context and add richer

detail to your conclusions. Using qualitative data to illustrate quantitative findings can
help “put meat on the bones” of your analysis.

− Credibility: Using different methods to collect data on the same subject can make your

results more credible. If the qualitative and quantitative data converge, this strengthens
the validity of your conclusions. This process is called triangulation.

● As you formulate your research question, try to directly address how qualitative and

quantitative methods will be combined in your study. If your research question can be
sufficiently answered via standalone quantitative or qualitative analysis, a mixed methods
approach may not be the right fit.
4. Mixed methods research designs

● Convergent parallel: quantitative and qualitative at the same time → analyze separately →

compare results to draw overall conclusions.

● Embedded: collect and analyze both types of data at the same time, but within a larger

quantitative or qualitative design. One type of data is secondary to the other.

● Explanatory sequential: quantitative data collection and analysis first, followed by qualitative

data collection and analysis.

● Exploratory sequential: qualitative data collection and analysis first, followed by quantitative

data collection and analysis.

5. Pros and cons of mixed methods research
5.1. Pros
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● Increasing the strengths while eliminating the weaknesses: The main attraction of mixed

methods research has been the fact that by using both qualitative and quantitative approaches,
researchers can bring out the best of both paradigms, thereby combining quantitative and
qualitative research strengths. This is further augmented by the potential that the strengths of
one method can be utilized to overcome the weaknesses of another method used in the study.

● Multi-level analysis of complex issues: We can gain a better understanding of a complex

phenomenon by converging numeric trends from quantitative data and specific details from
qualitative data. Words can be used to add meaning to numbers and numbers can be used to
add precision to words. It is easy to think of situations in applied linguistics when we are
interested at the same time in both the exact nature and the distribution of a phenomenon (for
example, why do some teenage boys consider modern language learning 'girlish' and how
extensive is this perception?). Mixed methods research is particularly appropriate for such
multi-level analyses because it allows investigators to obtain data about both the individual
and the broader societal context.

● Improved validity: Mixed methods research has a unique potential to produce evidence for

the validity of research outcomes through the convergence and corroboration of the findings.

● Reaching multiple audiences: The final results are usually acceptable for a larger audience

than those of a monomethod study would be. A well-executed mixed methods study has
multiple selling points and can offer something to everybody, regardless of the paradigmatic
orientation of the person. Of course, there is also the danger that the study might fall through
the 'paradigmatic crack' and alienate everybody, but in the current supportive climate this is
less likely.
5.2. Cons

● Workload: Mixed methods research is very labor-intensive. Collecting, analyzing, and

synthesizing two types of data into one research product takes a lot of time and effort, and
often involves interdisciplinary teams of researchers rather than individuals. For this reason,
mixed methods research has the potential to cost much more than standalone studies.

● Differing or conflicting results: If your analysis yields conflicting results, it can be very

challenging to know how to interpret them in a mixed methods study. If the quantitative and
qualitative results do not agree or you are concerned you may have confounding variables, it

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 can be unclear how to proceed. Due to the fact that quantitative and qualitative data take two
vastly different forms, it can also be difficult to find ways to systematically compare the
results, putting your data at risk for bias in the interpretation stage.
6. Normal distribution:

● If we have a sufficiently big sample size, the characteristics of the people in this group will

approach a very special pattern termed 'normal distribution'.

● This means that within the sample a few people will display very high values, a few others

very low ones, with the bulk of the sample centred around the middle or average range.

● This is the all-important 'bell-shaped curve', and it has been found that the greater the

sample, the more 'normal' the distribution and the more regular the curve becomes.

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 DATA ANALYSIS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Frequency

● The number of times a value has occurred

● 3 types: simple frequency, relative frequency, cumulative frequency.

1.1. Frequency distribution

● A frequency distribution describes the number of observations for each possible value of a

variable

● Purposes:

− A method for simplifying and organizing data

− Presents an organized picture of the entire set of scores

+ Are scores generally high or low?

+ Are the scores clustered together or spread out?

− Shows where each individual is located relative to others in a distribution

+ Where does one score fall relative to all others?

● Frequency distribution table: Consists of at least two columns:

− Categories on the scale of measurement (X), ordered from lowest to highest

− Frequency for each category (how often each category was reported)

− Example:

Original scores: 1, 2, 3, 5, 4, 4, 2, 3, 1, 3, 2, 3, 2, 2
Score Frequency
1 2
2 5
3 4
4 2
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 5 1
● Pie chart

● Bar chart

● Histogram

Bar chart Histogram

Type of Categorical Quantitative
variable
Value Ungrouped (values) Grouped (interval classes)
grouping
Bar spacing Can be a space between bars Never a space between bars
Bar order Can be in any order Can only be ordered from lowest to
highest

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● Frequency polygon: A line graph of class frequency plotted against class midpoint. It can be

obtained by joining the midpoints of the tops of the rectangles in the histogram

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 1.2. Simple frequency

● Also absolute frequency

● Often denoted as f

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● The number of times a value has occurred → just count

1.3. Relative frequency

● How often a value occurs within the whole data set

● Example: Report the frequency of high scores on reading tests for two different schools

School A School B Similar

2 of 2 high marks 2 of 2

School A School B Different

2 of 10 high marks 2 of 80
To show this difference, we would compute the relative frequency.
Score Frequenc Relative Frequency Result
y

80 5 5 : 60 0.08

70 15 15 : 60 0.25

60 20 20 : 60 0.34

50 15 15 : 60 0.25

40 5 5 : 60 0.08

N = 60

● Ratio: a value compared to another value

● Proportion: a part compared to a whole

● Percentage: a proportion expressed in percentage

● Rate: how often an event happens compared with how often it might happen ⇒ The number

of things per some other number, usually 1000

● Example: An experiment using a sample of Chicago graduate students at San Jose State.

Step 1: check the number of each in the population of Chicano graduate students.
Step 2: code them as 1-2
Step 3: tally them
The number of males: 255 (1)
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 The number of females: 60 (2)
The total number of Chicano graduate students (hypothetically): 255 + 60 = 315
* 255, 60, and 315 are tallies
number of females (1) 60
Ratio= = = =0.24
number of males (2) 255

number of females ( 1) 60
Proportion= = = =.19
total number of students (1 )+ ( 2 ) 315

number of females
Percentage=( 100 ) =( 100 ) ( .19 )=19 %
total number of students
255
Rate (of males)=(1000)(Relative frequency of males )=(1000) ≈ 809.52 ‰
315

Meanings:
− Ratio: There are 24 women enrolled at the university to every 100 male Chicanos.

− Proportion: There are 19 women enrolled at the university to every 100 Chicanos.

− Percentage: The percentage of women enrolled at the university to every 100 Chicanos is 19

percent.

● Example: We might use rate to show the number of people who do learn a language

compared with the number of people who might learn the language. In this case, the formula
for calculating rate will be:
Number people wholearn
Rate=( 1000 ) ( Relative frequency )=(1000)
Number of potential learners

● Example: Galaxy people who speak English as a second language

Age Total ESL speakers Rate per 1,000 population

0-5 2,905,000 189.5

6 - 16 11,915,000 314.9
17 - 24 10,436,000 227.9
25 - 44 14,905,000 277.8
45 - 64 7,856,000 218.5
65+ 1,400,000 201.4

Interpretation:
− There are more ESL speakers who are in the age group 25 - 44.

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 − However, there is a greater proportion of ESL speakers in the 6 - 16 age group.

Your chances of finding someone to talk to in English is best if you walk up to someone between 6 and 16

● Percent change is used:

o to compare different populations with respect to frequency of some variable

o to compare the same population at different times

● Example: 20 years after we collected the above data, we conducted another survey of

Galaxy people. We found out that there was a change in the number of ESL speakers in the
6 - 16 age group: n1 = 11,915,000 and n2 = 19,742,000
n2−n 1 19,742,000−11,915,000
Percent change=(100) = =66 %
n1 11,915,000

● Remember:

o the “why” answer is not in the data, all these data show is that a change took place.
o If we wish to show a relationship between these variables => make hypotheses and test
them.
1.4. Cumulative frequency

● Often denoted as F

● Sum of simple frequencies of a value and all smaller values → show frequency below/above

a value

● Cumulative frequency is used:

− If you want to show the standing of any particular score in a group of scores

− This will show us how many scores fall below that particular point in the distribution.

− It is also the basis for calculating percentile scores.

● Percentile rank: The percentage of individuals in the distribution with scores at or below the

particular value

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 ● Percentile: When a score is identified by its percentile rank, written as ordinal number

● Example:

Your exam score is X = 43

60% of the class had scores of 43 or lower
Your score has a percentile rank of 60% and is called the 60th percentile.
● Example: Student placement in English classes at the university

Placement repuirement f F Percentile

392
0 quarter term 102 100
290
1 quarter term 130 74
160 (= 83 +
2 quarter terms 77 41
77)
3 quarter terms 45 21
83 (= 38 + 45)
4 quarter terms 38 10
38

74% of the students who took the test scored at or lower than that level
● Example:

2. Measures of central tendency

2.1. Arithmetic mean

● Trung bình cộng

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 2.2. Median

● Value that lies in the middle of the data, separating higher and lower half of a data set

● The median is the 50th percentile

● Data set with an odd number of values → 1 middle value → Median = that middle value

● Data set with an even number of values → 2 middle values → Median = average of the two

middle values
2.3. Mode

● Value with highest simple frequency

● There can be 0, 1, or more than 1 modes in a data set

3. Measures of spread
3.1. Range

● Difference between the largest and smallest value → Generally shows the spread of data

● Calculated with subtraction

3.2. Variance (s2) and standard deviation

● Calculate deviation first: Difference between a value and the mean of a data set

● Calculate variance

● Calculate standard deviation based on variance

DATA ANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. What is qualitative data analysis?
Qualitative data analysis (QDA) is the process of organizing, analyzing, and interpreting qualitative
data—non-numeric, conceptual information and user feedback—to capture themes and patterns,
answer research questions, and identify actions to take to improve your product or website.
2. Qualitative data analysis methods
2.1. Content analysis

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● Examines and quantifies the presence of certain words, subjects, and concepts in text, image,

video, or audio messages.

● The method transforms qualitative input into quantitative data to analyze the presence,

meanings, and relationships of such certain words, themes, or concepts

● Example: Researchers can evaluate language used within a news article to search for bias or

partiality. Researchers can then make inferences about the messages within the texts, the
writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of surrounding the text.

● Advantages of content analysis

− Unobtrusive data collection: You can analyze communication and social interaction

without the direct involvement of participants, so your presence as a researcher doesn’t

influence the results.

− Transparent and replicable: When done well, content analysis follows a systematic

procedure that can easily be replicated by other researchers, yielding results with high
reliability.

− Highly flexible: You can conduct content analysis at any time, in any location, and at low

cost – all you need is access to the appropriate sources.

● Disadvantages of content analysis

− Reductive: Focusing on words or phrases in isolation can sometimes be overly reductive,

disregarding context, nuance, and ambiguous meanings.

− Subjective: Content analysis almost always involves some level of subjective

interpretation, which can affect the reliability and validity of the results and conclusions,
leading to various types of research bias and cognitive bias.

− Time intensive: Manually coding large volumes of text is extremely time-consuming, and

it can be difficult to automate effectively.

● How to conduct content analysis

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− If you want to use content analysis in your research, you need to start with a clear, direct

research question.

+ Is there a difference in how the US media represents younger politicians compared to

older ones in terms of trustworthiness?

− Step 1. Select the content you will analyze

Based on your research question, choose the texts that you will analyze. You need to
decide:
+ The medium (e.g. newspapers, speeches or websites) and genre (e.g. opinion pieces,

political campaign speeches, or marketing copy)

+ The inclusion and exclusion criteria (e.g. newspaper articles that mention a particular

event, speeches by a certain politician, or websites selling a specific type of product)

+ The parameters in terms of date range, location, etc.

− Step 2. Define the units and categories of analysis

Determine the level at which you will analyze your chosen texts. This means defining:
+ The unit(s) of meaning that will be coded. Are you going to record the frequency of

individual words and phrases, the characteristics of people who produced or appear in
the texts, the presence and positioning of images, or the treatment of themes and
concepts?

+ The set of categories that you will use for coding. Categories can be objective

characteristics (e.g. aged 30-40, lawyer, parent) or more conceptual (e.g. trustworthy,
corrupt, conservative, family oriented).

− Step 3. Develop a set of rules for coding

+ Coding involves organizing the units of meaning into the previously defined

categories. Especially with more conceptual categories, it’s important to clearly define
the rules for what will and won’t be included to ensure that all texts are coded
consistently.

+ Recording the rules makes your method more transparent and reliable.

86
 − Step 4. Code the text according to the rules

+ You go through each text and record all relevant data in the appropriate categories.

− 5. Analyze the results and draw conclusions

+ Once coding is complete, the collected data is examined to find patterns and draw

conclusions in response to your research question. You might use statistical analysis
to find correlations or trends, discuss your interpretations of what the results mean,
and make inferences about the creators, context and audience of the texts.
2.2. Thematic analysis - most popular

● Find out something about people’s views, opinions, knowledge, experiences or values from

a set of qualitative data

● Usually applied to a set of texts, such as an interview or transcripts

● The researcher closely examines the data to identify common themes – topics, ideas and

patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly.

● Different approaches to thematic analysis

− Inductive and deductive approaches:

+ An inductive approach involves allowing the data to determine your themes.

+ A deductive approach involves coming to the data with some preconceived themes

you expect to find reflected there, based on theory or existing knowledge.

− Semantic and latent approaches:

+ A semantic approach involves analyzing the explicit content of the data.

+ A latent approach involves reading into the subtext and assumptions underlying the

data.

● How to conduct thematic analysis

87
− Step 1: Familiarization

+ The first step is to get to know our data. It’s important to get a thorough overview of

all the data we collected before we start analyzing individual items.

+ This might involve transcribing audio, reading through the text and taking initial

notes, and generally looking through the data to get familiar with it.

− Step 2: Coding

+ Coding means highlighting sections of our text – usually phrases or sentences – and

coming up with shorthand labels or “codes” to describe their content.

+ At this stage, we want to be thorough: we go through the transcript of every interview

and highlight everything that jumps out as relevant or potentially interesting. As well
as highlighting all the phrases and sentences that match these codes, we can keep
adding new codes as we go through the text.

+ After we’ve been through the text, we collate together all the data into groups

identified by code. These codes allow us to gain a a condensed overview of the main
points and common meanings that recur throughout the data.

− Step 3: Generating themes

+ Look over the codes we’ve created, identify patterns among them, and start coming up

with themes.

+ Themes are generally broader than codes. Most of the time, you’ll combine several

codes into a single theme.

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 + At this stage, we might decide that some of our codes are too vague or not relevant

enough (for example, because they don’t appear very often in the data), so they can be
discarded.

+ Other codes might become themes in their own right. In our example, we decided that

the code “uncertainty” made sense as a theme, with some other codes incorporated
into it.

+ Again, what we decide will vary according to what we’re trying to find out. We want

to create potential themes that tell us something helpful about the data for our
purposes.

− Step 4: Reviewing themes

+ Now we have to make sure that our themes are useful and accurate representations of

the data. Here, we return to the data set and compare our themes against it. Are we
missing anything? Are these themes really present in the data? What can we change to
make our themes work better?

+ If we encounter problems with our themes, we might split them up, combine them,

discard them or create new ones: whatever makes them more useful and accurate.

− Step 5: Defining and naming themes

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 + Defining themes involves formulating exactly what we mean by each theme and

figuring out how it helps us understand the data.

+ Naming themes involves coming up with a succinct and easily understandable name

for each theme.

+ For example, we might look at “distrust of experts” and determine exactly who we

mean by “experts” in this theme. We might decide that a better name for the theme is
“distrust of authority” or “conspiracy thinking”.

− Step 6: Writing up

2.3. Narrative analysis

● Narrative analysis is a method used to interpret research participants’ stories—things like

testimonials, case studies, interviews, and other text or visual data

● Some formats narrative analysis doesn't work for are heavily-structured interviews and

written surveys, which don’t give participants as much opportunity to tell their stories in
their own words.

● How to conduct narrative analysis

− Step 1 – Code narrative blocks

+ Organize your narrative blocks using inductive coding to organize stories by a life

event.

+ Example: Narrative interviews are conducted with homeowners asking them to

describe how they bought their first home.

− Step 2 – Group and read by live-event

+ You begin your data analysis by reading through each of the narratives coded with the

same life event.

+ Example: You read through each homeowner's experience of buying their first home

and notice that some common themes begin to appear, such as "we were tired of

90
 renting," "our family expanded to the point that we needed a larger space," and "we
had finally saved enough for a downpayment."

− Step 3 – Create a nested story structure

+ As these common narratives develop throughout the participant's interviews, create

and nest code according to your narrative analysis framework. Use your coding to
break down the narrative into pieces that can be analyzed together.

+ Example: During your interviews, you find that the beginning of the narrative usually

includes the pressures faced before buying a home that pushes the research
participants to consider homeownership. The middle of the narrative often includes
challenges that come up during the decision-making process. The end of the narrative
usually includes perspectives about the excitement, stress, or consequences of home
ownership that has finally taken place.

− Step 4 – Delve into the story structure

+ Once the narratives are organized into their pieces, you begin to notice how

participants structure their own stories and where similarities and differences emerge.

+ Example: You find in your research that many people who choose to buy homes had

the desire to buy a home before their circumstances allowed them to. You notice that
almost all the stories begin with the feeling of some sort of outside pressure.

− Step 5 – Compare across story structure

+ While breaking down narratives into smaller pieces is necessary for analysis, it's

important not to lose sight of the overall story. To keep the big picture in mind, take
breaks to step back and reread the entire narrative of a code block. This will help you
remember how participants expressed themselves and ensure that the core narrative
remains the focus of the analysis.

+ Example: By carefully examining the similarities across the beginnings of participants'

narratives, you find the similarities in pressures. Considering the overall narrative, you
notice how these pressures lead to similar decisions despite the challenges faced.

− Step 6 – Tell the core narrative

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 + After carefully analyzing the data, you have found how the narratives relate and

diverge. You may be able to create a theory about why the narratives diverge and can
create one or two core narratives that explain the way the story was experienced.

+ Example: You can now construct a core narrative on how a person's initial feelings

toward buying a house affect their feelings after purchasing and living in their first
home.
2.4. Grounded theory analysis

● Grounded theory analysis is a method of conducting qualitative research to develop theories

by examining real-world data.

● Unlike other qualitative data analysis methods, this technique develops theories from data,

not the other way round.

● According to Bernard, the grounded theory process is 'deceptively simple':

1. Produce transcripts of interviews and read through a small sample of text

2. Identify potential analytic categories (that is, potential themes) that arise
3. As the categories emerge, pull together all the data from those categories and compare
them
4. Consider how categories are linked together
5. Use the relations among categories to build theorectical models, constantly checking the
models against data, especially against negative cases
6. Present the results of the analysis using quotes from the interviews that illuminate the
theory (exemplars)
2.5. Discourse analysis

● Discourse analysis is the act of researching the underlying meaning of qualitative data. It

involves the observation of written or spoken language to study the relationships between
the information and its context.

● It aims to understand how language is used in real life situations.

● The method focuses on the contextual meaning of language. It focuses on the social aspects

of communication and the ways people use language to achieve specific effects (e.g. to build
trust, to create doubt, to evoke emotions, or to manage conflict).

● Discourse analysis is used to study larger chunks of language, such as entire conversations,

texts, or collections of texts

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 ● How to conduct discourse analysis

− Step 1: Define the research question and select the content of analysis

+ To do discourse analysis, you begin with a clearly defined research question. Once

you have developed your question, select a range of material that is appropriate to
answer it.

+ Discourse analysis is a method that can be applied both to large volumes of material

and to smaller samples, depending on the aims and timescale of your research.

− Step 2: Gather information and theory on the context

+ Next, you must establish the social and historical context in which the material was

produced and intended to be received. Gather factual details of when and where the
content was created, who the author is, who published it, and whom it was
disseminated to.

+ As well as understanding the real-life context of the discourse, you can also conduct a

literature review on the topic and construct a theoretical framework to guide your
analysis.

− Step 3: Analyze the content for themes and patterns

+ This step involves closely examining various elements of the material – such as

words, sentences, paragraphs, and overall structure – and relating them to attributes,
themes, and patterns relevant to your research question.

− Step 4: Review your results and draw conclusions

+ Once you have assigned particular attributes to elements of the material, reflect on

your results to examine the function and meaning of the language used. Here, you will
consider your analysis in relation to the broader context that you established earlier to
draw conclusions that answer your research question.

HYPOTHESIS TESTS
1. Student's t-test

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● A t-test is a statistical test that is used to compare the means of two groups.

● Is used to determine whether a process or treatment actually has an effect on the population

of interest, or whether two groups are different from one another.

● Independent variable is NOMINAL, dependent variable is RATIO/INTERVAL.

● Chỉ cho biết là có mối quan hệ hay kh, chứ kh nói quan hệ như thế nào

● Types:

− Paired-samples t-test: Compare TWO values of ONE subject

+ Compare pretest and posttest writing scores of Ss studying process writing

− Independent-samples t-test: Compare ONE value between TWO subjects

+ Compare posttest writing scores of Ss studying process writing and product writing

− One-sample t-test: Compare ONE value to a standard value

94
 + Compare the acidity of a liquid to a neutral pH of 7

1.1. Independent-samples t-test

● Note on equal variances:

− The independent-samples Student’s t-test could be done if the two variances are similar.

− You can use Levene’s test on the computer: put in data receive Sig. number

− Sig. < .05 Equal variance not assumed

− Sig. ≥ .05 Equal variance assumed

− If variances aren’t similar, we need a different t-test: Welch’s t-test.

● Steps:

− Calculate tobsAB

− Calculate these two things:

+ Level of significance (α ): .05 for social sciences

+ Degrees of freedom: df = (NA - 1) + (NB - 1)

− Make a decision:

Cách 1: Dùng t
+ tobsAB > t: There is a statistically significant difference between the variables → reject

the null hypothesis

+ tobsAB t: There is no statistically significant difference between the variables → fail to

reject the null hypothesis

+ Critical values of student's t: https://graziano-raulin.com/statistics/tables/T-tab.pdf

Cách 2: Dùng Sig. (2-tailed) ( p)

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 + Sig. (2-tailed) < .05: There is a statistically significant difference between the

variables → reject the null hypothesis

+ Sig. (2-tailed) ≥ .05: There is no statistically significant difference between the

variables → fail to reject the null hypothesis

● Example:

The researcher wants to know whether student posttest scores of process writing are statistically
higher than those of product writing. They collected the following data.
▪ Post-test process writing scores: 8.6, 8.7, 9.1, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 9.7, 9.4, 8.9, 9.2

▪ Post-test product writing scores: 9.0, 8.9, 8.2, 8.3, 8.5, 7.9, 8.3, 8.6, 8.1, 9.2

Group A uses proces writing, group B uses product writing.

Order the data:
- Post-test process writing scores: 8.6, 8.7, 8.9, 9.1, 9.2, 9.4, 9.7, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9
- Post-test product writing scores: 7.9, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.3, 8.5, 8.6, 8.9, 9.0, 9.2
Group N M s2 s
A 10 9.3 .22 .47
B 10 8.5 .18 .42
df = 18 t = 2.101
tobsAB = 4
As tobsAB

= 4 > 2.101, there is a statistically significant difference between the scores of two groups Reject

1.2. Paired-samples t-test

● Steps:

− Calculate the difference between 2 sets of data

− Calculate tobsD

− Calculate these two things:

+ Level of significance (α ): .05 for social sciences

+ Degrees of freedom: df = N - 1

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 − Make a decision: Như ở independent-samples t-test

● Example:

The researcher wants to know whether posttest scores of process writing have a statistically
significant improvement from pretest scores.
▪ Pre-test: 8.2, 8.3, 8.5, 7.9, 8.3, 8.6, 8.1, 9.2

▪ Post-test: 9.1, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 9.7, 9.4, 8.9, 9.2

Order the data and calculate the differences:

Student A B C D E F G H
Pre-test 8.2 8.3 8.5 7.9 8.3 8.6 8.1 9.2
Post-test 9.1 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.7 9.4 8.9 9.2
Differenc 0.9 1.4 1.3 2 1.4 0.8 0.8 0.0
e
M = 1.075
s2 = .34
s = .583
df = 7 t = 2.365
tobsAB = 5.215
2. Chi-square test

● A statistical test for categorical data

● Used to indicate whether there is a relationship between VARIABLES to ONE VARIABLE.

● Variables:

− TWO NOMINAL VARIABLES

− ONE NOMINAL VARIABLE and ONE ORDINAL VARIABLE

● Example: To indicate whether there is a relationship between MALE AND FEMALE to

EDUCATIONAL LEVEL.

● Two types (use the same formula but have different purposes):

− One-way chi-square test (chi-square goodness of fit test)

− Two-way chi-square test (chi-square test of independence)

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● Chi-square chỉ cho biết có tồn tại mối liên hệ hay không, chứ không cho biết độ mạnh của

mối liên hệ giữa hai biến.

2.1. One-way chi-square test

● Test whether the frequency distribution of ONE variable is significantly different from your

expectations.

● Often, the expectation is that the categories will have equal proportions.

● Steps:

− Calculate fexp

−
2
Calculate χ

− Calculate these two things:

+ Level of significance (α ): .05 for social sciences

+ Degrees of freedom: df = number of groups - 1

− Make a decision:

Cách 1: Dùng probability values of the chi-square distribution (t)

+ χ > t: There is a statistically significant difference between the expected and observed
2

variables → reject the null hypothesis

+ χ
2
t: There is no statistically significant difference between the expected and

observed variables → fail to reject the null hypothesis

+ Probability values of the chi-square distribution:

https://graziano-raulin.com/statistics/tables/Chi-tab.pdf
Cách 2: Dùng Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) ( p)

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 + Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) < .05: There is a statistically significant difference between the

variables → reject the null hypothesis

+ Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) ≥ .05: There is no statistically significant difference between

the variables → fail to reject the null hypothesis

● Example:

The researcher wants to know whether his expectation: I expect an equal number of teachers to
search the Internet to see recent developments never, rarely, sometimes, often, and always. He
collected 176 samples and collected the following data: Never = 51, Rarely = 29, Sometimes =
33, Often = 38, Always = 25.
176
f exp= =35.2
5

Searching the Internet to see recent developments Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always
f obs 51 29 33 38 25
f exp 35.2

=
11.5
df = 5 - 1 = 4 t = 9.488
As χ 2 = 11.5 > 9.488, there is a statistically significant difference between the expected and
observed behaviours in case of teacher reflectivity reject the null hypothesis
2.2. Two-way chi-square test

● Test whether TWO variables are related to each other.

● If two variables are independent (unrelated), the probability of belonging to a certain group

of one variable isn’t affected by the other variable.

● Steps:

− Calculate the row totals and column totals

− Calculate the grand total by summing the row totals and column totals

− Calculate fexp

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 −
2
Calculate χ

− Calculate these two things:

+ Level of significance (α ): .05 for social sciences

+ Degrees of freedom: df = (number of rows - 1) x (number of columns - 1)

− Make a decision:

Cách 1: Dùng probability values of the chi-square distribution (t)

+ χ > t: The two variables are statistically related → reject the null hypothesis
2

+ χ
2
t: The two variables are not statistically related → fail to reject the null

hypothesis

+ Probability values of the chi-square distribution:

https://graziano-raulin.com/statistics/tables/Chi-tab.pdf
Cách 2: Dùng Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) ( p)
+ Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) < .05: The two variables are statistically related → reject the

null hypothesis

+ Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) ≥ .05: The two variables are not statistically related → fail to

reject the null hypothesis

● Example:

The researcher wants to know whether the grammar teaching approaches are related to Ss'
improvement. They collected the following data:
Method Deductive Inductive
Improved 64 32
Not 31 15
improved

Method Deductive Inductive Total

Improved 64 32 96
Not 31 15 46
improved
Total 95 47 142

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df = (2 - 1) x (2 - 1) = 1 t = 3.841
As χ 2 = 0.0073 < 3.841, grammar teaching methods and Ss' improvement are not statistically related
fail to reject the null hypothesis

3. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

● Compare ONE value among 3 or more groups

● Example: Compare HAPPINESS among people aged 10-15, 15-20, 20-25, etc.

● The number of independent variables corresponds with N-way ANOVA

− One-way ANOVA: 1 independent variable

+ Testing relationship between 3 test preparation strategies (independent variable) and

performance

− Two-way ANOVA: 2 independent variables

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 + Testing relationship between 3 test preparation strategies (independent variable),

gender (independent variable) and performance

3.1. One-way ANOVA

● Steps:

− Calculate some summary statistics

+ Number of treatments (k)

+ Number of samples (N)

+ Number of entries for each group (n)

+ Total of each group's values (T)

+ Total of all values (G)

+ Mean of each group (M)

+ Sum of squares of deviation of each group (SS)

+ Sum of squares of all values

− Calculate SSwithin and SSbetween

− Calculate df within and df between

− Calculate F

− Make a decision:

Cách 1: Dùng critical value of F

+ F > critical value: There is a statistically significant difference between the variables

→ reject the null hypothesis

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 +
F critical value: There is not a statistically significant difference between the variables
→ fail to reject the null hypothesis

+ Critical values of the F distribution: https://graziano-raulin.com/statistics/tables/F-

tab.pdf (trong bảng này, số của cột là df between=df numerator, số của hàng là
df within=df denominator, số ở dòng trên là của α = .05 và dòng dưới là α = .01)

Cách 2: Dùng Sig. ( p)

+ Sig. < .05: There is a statistically significant difference between the variables → reject

the null hypothesis

+ Sig. ≥ .05: There is not a statistically significant difference between the variables →

fail to reject the null hypothesis

− Example:

The researcher wants to know whether there are any statistically significant differences among the
three test preparation strategies. They collected the following data:
Reread materials Answer prepared Qs Create and answer own Qs
Scores 2, 3, 8, 6, 5, 6 5, 9, 10, 13, 8, 9 8, 6, 12, 11, 11, 12

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104
 3.2. Post hoc test

● Used to indicate to which groups the difference belong.

● Only conducted after a significant ANOVA

● ANOVA will tell you if there are differences among the levels of the independent variable,

but not which differences are significant. To find how the treatment levels differ from one
another, perform a post-hoc test.

● Test each possible pair of groups

● Cứ đọc số Sig. và kết luận như nãy giờ nhá ^^

4. Pearson correlation

● The most common way of measuring a linear correlation

● Used to indicate the relationship between DEPENDENT VARIABLES

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● Example: Between LISTENING SCORE and SPEAKING SCORE, between WRITING

SCORE and READING SCORE, between HEIGHT and WEIGHT.

● Interpreting the existence of correlation based on the critical value of r:

− If r > critical value, there is a relationship between variables.

− If r
0.05, there is no relationship between variables. In other words, variables are independent.

● Interpreting the existence of correlation based on Sig.:

− If Sig. <.05, there is a relationship between variables.

− If Sig. ≥ 0.05, there is no relationship between variables. In other words, variables are

independent.

● Interpreting the direction of correlation based on Pearson correlation coefficient (r):

− Positive correlation: Both variables change in the same direction

+ As height increases, weight also increases

− Negative correlation: The variables change in opposite directions

+ As coffee consumption increases, tiredness decreases

− Zero correlation: There is no relationship between the variables

+ Coffee consumption is not correlated with height

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 REPORTING STATISTICS IN APA STYLE
1. General rules
1.1. Decimal places
One decimal place Two decimal places
● Means ● Correlation coefficients
● Standard deviations ● Proportions
● Descriptive statistics based ● Inferential test statistics such
on discrete data as t values, F values, and chi-squares
Use two or three decimal places and report exact values for all p values greater than .001.
For p values smaller than .001, report them as p < .001.
1.2. Leading zeros
Use a leading zero Don’t use a leading zero
● Variables that can be greater than 1 (e.g., ● p values

height or weight)
● Pearson correlation coefficient
● Cohen’s d
● Coefficient of determination
● t values
● Cronbach’s alpha
● F value

● z values

1.3. Capitalization, italicization and hyphenation

Italicize Don’t italicize
● Letters when they are statistical symbols ● Greek letters: σ or Χ2

or algebraic variables: Cohen’s d, SD,

● Subscripts for statistical
p value, t test
symbols: Mcontrol

● Trigonometric terms: sin, cos

● Vectors or matrices (boldface these

instead): V, X
Capitalize Don’t capitalize
● Names of effects or variables only when ● Lowercase statistical

they appear with multiplication signs:

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 Italicize Don’t italicize
Age × Sex effect terms: t test, p value

1.4. Parentheses vs. brackets

Use parentheses (round brackets) Use (square) brackets
● Degrees of freedom ● Confidence interval limits

● Statistical values when they aren’t ● Statistics in a text that’s already enclosed

already in parentheses within parentheses

2. Reporting
2.1. Means and standard deviations

● Means and standard deviations can be presented in the main text and/or in parentheses. You

don’t need to repeat the units of measurement (e.g., centimeters) for statistics relating to the
same data.

● Example:

− Average sample height was 136.4 cm (SD = 15.1).

− The height of the initial sample was relatively low (M = 125.9 cm, SD = 16.6).

− Height significantly varied between children aged 5–7, 8–10, and 11–13. The means were

115.3, 133.5, and 149.1 cm, respectively.

2.2. Reporting chi-square tests

● To report the results of a chi-square test, include the following:

− the degrees of freedom (df) in parentheses

− the chi-square (Χ2) value (also referred to as the chi-square test statistic)

− the p value

● Example:

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 − A chi-square test of independence revealed a significant association between gender and

product preference, Χ2(8) = 19.7, p = .012.

− Based on a chi-square test of goodness of fit, Χ2(4) = 11.34, p = .023, the sample’s

distribution of religious affiliations matched that of the population’s.

2.3. Reporting t tests

● To report the results of a t test, include the following:

− the degrees of freedom (df) in parentheses

− the t value (also referred to as the t statistic)

− the p value

● Example:

− Older adults experienced significantly more loneliness than younger

adults, t(32) = 2.94, p = .006.

− Reaction times were significantly faster for mice in the experimental

condition, t(53) = 5.94, p < .001.

2.4. Reporting analysis of variance (ANOVAs)

● To report the results of an ANOVA, include the following:

− the degrees of freedom (between groups, within groups) in parentheses

− the F value (also referred to as the F statistic)

− the p value

● Example:

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 − A one-way ANOVA demonstrated that the effect of leadership style was significant for

employee engagement, F(2, 78) = 4.58, p = .013.

− We found a statistically significant main effect of age group on social media

use, F(3, 117) = 3.19, p = .026.

2.5. Reporting correlations

● To report the results of a correlation, include the following:

− the degrees of freedom in parentheses

− the r value (the correlation coefficient)

− the p value

● Example: We found a strong correlation between average temperature and new daily cases of

COVID-19, r (357) = .42, p < .001.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

● The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without

speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the
results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

● In qualitative research, results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative

research, it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation
of them.

● Discussion section structure:

1. Summarize key findings

− Reiterate your research problem and concisely summarize your major findings

− Link your findings to the initial research questions

What should readers take away from this paper? Clear statements of the overall result that direc
2. Provide interpretations
− Spell out the significance of the results
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− Show how they answer the research questions

− Highlight the most significant or unexpected results

3. Discuss implications
− Overall aim: show the reader exactly what your research has contributed

− Relate your results back to the scholarly work in the literary review

+ Show how your findings fit with existing knowledge, what new insights they

contribute, and what consequences they have for theory or practice

+ Do your results support or challenge existing theories?

+ If they support existing theories, what new information do they contribute? If they

challenge existing theories, why do you think that is?

+ Are there any practical implications?

4. Acknowledge limitations
− Address limitations or weaknesses in the research

− Provide an accurate picture of what can and cannot be concluded from the study

demonstrate your credibility

− Only mention limitations that are directly relevant to your research objectives

− Share how much impact they had on achieving the aims of your research

5. State recommendations
− Suggest potential further research

− Discuss unanswered questions

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