Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

Table of contents

Table of Contents
Table of contents..........................................................................................................................i

List of figures.............................................................................................................................iii

List of table.................................................................................................................................iv

Abbreviation................................................................................................................................v

Executive summary........................................................................................................................vi

CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................1

INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1

1.1. Background...........................................................................................................................1

1.2. Statement of the problem..................................................................................................4

1.3. Objectives..........................................................................................................................4

1.3.1. General objective.......................................................................................................4

1.3.2. Specific objectives.....................................................................................................4

1.4. Significance of the project................................................................................................5

1.5. Scope of study...................................................................................................................5

CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................6

LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................................6

CHAPTER THREE.........................................................................................................................8

MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY...........................................................................................8

3.1. Conventional methods of pectin extraction..........................................................................8

1. Acid Hydrolysis.............................................................................................................9

2. Filtration........................................................................................................................9

3. Precipitation...................................................................................................................9

4. Washing and Drying......................................................................................................9

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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

3.2.1. Ohmic heating............................................................................................................10

Determination of SPC............................................................................................................10

Pectin yield............................................................................................................................11

pectin yield %= pectin weight sample weight x 100…………………… (6).........................11

3.2.2. Microwave heating..........................................................................................................11

3.2.3. Supercritical water...........................................................................................................13

3.2.4. Ultrasound - assisted methods.........................................................................................13

3.2.5. High-pressure processing...............................................................................................14

3.2.6. Ultrasound......................................................................................................................14

3.2.7. Moderate electric field...................................................................................................15

CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................17

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION............................................................................17

4.1. Conclusion......................................................................................................................17

4.2. Recommendation............................................................................................................18

References..................................................................................................................................19

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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

List of figures
Fig 3.1. Schematic representation of the pectin production technology..........................................9

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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

List of table
Table 3.1. A summary of the application of volumetric heating technologies (ohmic and
microwave) for pectin extraction...................................................................................................12
Table 3.2. Benefits and limitations of emerging technologies that have been used for PE...........15

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Abbreviation
GHG……………………………………………………………...Greenhouse gas
GalA………………………………………………………………Galactronic acid
DE……………………………………………………………….. Degree of esterification
CE………………………………………………………………..Conventional extraction
EPT……………………………………………………………… Emerging process technology
PE………………………………………………………………. Pectin extraction
SPC………………………………………………………………System performance coefficient
MHZ…………………………………………………………… Mega Hertz
GHZ…………………………………………………………….. Giga Hertz
UMAE…………………………………………………………. Ultra sound microwave assisted
extraction
HPP……………………………………………………………. .High pressure processing
MEF………………………………………………………….. .. Moderate electric field

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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

Executive summary

Plant-based pectin is a hydrocolloid with distinct structural and metabolic characteristics. Peels
and other abandoned fruit processing industry trash are the source of this extract. Pectin is widely
used in a variety of industries, including food, medicines, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, biomedical,
and edible packaging, because of its unique features and natural origin. This paper uses life cycle
assessment methodology to gain a sustainable understanding of the conventional pectin
production process. This makes new insights into the process possible, which encourages a more
agreeable and long-lasting pectin production process. This project gives some insight about
innovative pectin extraction method like ohomic heating, microwave heating, supercritical
heating, ultrasound-assisted method, high-pressure method, ultrasound, and moderate electric
field methods were expressed briefly. Furthermore, mineral and organic acids were compared to
understand the greenness of acids from the sustainability view.
Keywords: pectin, sustainability, fruitwaste, conventional process, innovative process.

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background

Fruit waste is produced in large quantities by the fruit processing industries as a result of the
removal of inedible fruit parts including seeds and peels. The majority of this fruit waste ends up
in landfills, where its microbial decomposition and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions cause
major environmental problems. As the market for processed fruit goods has grown, so too has
the amount of fruit byproducts produced throughout time. It's interesting to note that the
concentrated bioactive content of fruit leftovers is typically higher than that of the finished
product. This opens up opportunity for bio-based product extraction through value-adding, which
has a large market potential. Furthermore, a variety of useful bioactive compounds, including
aspartin, polyphenols, pigments, essential oils, enzymes, secondary metabolites, and
polysaccharides, are known to be present in fruit processing waste. The process of extracting
useful goods from fruit processing waste aligns with the recycling concept, which aims to reduce
waste and enhance sustainability for the benefit of the environment. Among the various products
with added value, pectin, a hydrocolloid, is a naturally occurring biopolymer that is extensively
studied and recovered from fruit processing waste. The main component of pectin, a complex
and varied heteropolysaccharide, is galacturonic acid (GalA) monomers. GalA is used to
determine the purity of pectin; commercial applications require a minimum purity of 65% GalA.
The smooth linear regions of homogalacturonan, which make up the majority of the pectin
molecule, and the hairy ramified regions, which are composed of different neutral sugar side
chains such as rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, xylose, and other monosaccharides, can be used
to categorize the pectin structure. Methyl ester groups make up the GalA backbone, which
controls the pectin's degree of esterification (DE). Pectin's rheological qualities can be further
determined by classifying it as high DE (>50% methyl esters) or low DE (<50% methyl esters)
based on the DE. Pectin is widely utilized in the food industry as an emulsifier, agelling agent,
and stabilizer. It is also used as edible coatings in food packaging. Pectin is also being
investigated in a number of different industries, including biomedicine as wound-healing
patches, nutraceuticals as a prebiotic, pharmaceuticals as drug delivery vehicles, cosmetics as a

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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

texturizer for creams and stabilizer for shampoos, and cosmetics as a prebiotic(Nadar, Arora and
Shastri, 2022).
Food waste causes significant issues for human civilization in terms of the economy, ecology,
and food security. Around 1.6 billion tons of food produced for human use are lost or wasted
before being consumed along the food supply chain, with fruits and vegetables accounting for
the majority of food loss. Processing results in a significant quantity of trash being produced
during the manufacturing of a broad variety of consumer goods. The majority of these wastes
were inedible or undesirable plant components (seed, husk, peel, and rind), and when disposed of
traditionally, they caused significant environmental contamination as well as the loss of
important nutrients and chemicals. Furthermore, because of the sharply rising costs of raw
materials and the more costly and stringent waste disposal laws, waste management has grown.
As a result, the food processing industries have been looking for different ways to use the created
byproducts and ways to process them. Considering these wastes as a cheap and plentiful source
of several useful chemicals and nutrients and turning them into commercially viable goods with
additional value is one of the greatest possibilities currently accessible. This method can
minimize waste generation and prevent the loss of precious natural substances, which can have a
positive impact on the environment and finances(Kazemi et al., 2021).
Roughly one-third of the food produced worldwide is wasted each year, according to FAO
(2019). The majority of the lost goods are made from plants, such as root tubers, oil-bearing
crops, and byproducts from the processing of fruits and vegetables. The food processing business
may benefit from the significant quantities of useful components found in these wastes, and
environmental issues like global warming can be mitigated. For instance, pectin, an inexpensive
and nutritionally beneficial substance, is included in a large number of agricultural wastes and
byproducts.
Plant cell walls, both main and secondary, are often home to the non-starchy polysaccharide
pectin. A non-starchy carbohydrate, pectin is often found in the main and secondary cell walls of
plants. Chemically speaking, pectin is made up of 17 sets of monosaccharides, of which D-
galacturonic acid (D-GalA) is the most abundant, followed by Dα-1,4-linked -galactose or L-
arabinose, and homogalacturonan, rhamnogalacturonan I, rhamnogalacturonan II, and xyloga
lacturonan. Homogalacturonans are derived from the plant cell wall pectin and are also known as
linear galacturonans (galacturonic acid), polygalacturonides, or polygalacturonic acids.

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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

A feature of homogalacturonan is partial methyl esterification at C-6 carboxyl position and,

depending on the plant source, acetyl-esterified at O-2 or O-3 position. Pectin is divided into two
categories: high methoxy pectin and low methoxy pectin, depending on the level of methylation.
Pectin chains' helical form influences their functioning, and they include highly variable
structural variants and flexible coils. Gel formation is also caused by the polysaccharide chain's
tendency to engage with other molecules and maintain different structural levels through the use
of calcium or hydrophobic and hydrophilic contacts. Pectin is one of the major components used
for the preparation of edible coatings. Also, it has been used to maintain qualitative
characteristics such as extending the shelf-life of fruits and vegetables. The method of pectin
extraction and the source of pectin influence the gelling ability, solubility, and viscosity of the
resultant product. These traits are interrelated, i.e., an increase in gelling ability leads to an
increase in gel tendency, decreases solubility and increases viscosity, and vice versa. These
properties are important functional attributes of the pectin structure. High methoxy pectin, which
has more than 50% of the esterified carboxyl group, forms gels with low pH (2–3.5) and 55–75%
of sugar concentration, whereas low methoxy pectin is characterized by less than 50% of
esterified carboxyl groups, pH (2–6), which is usually used in low-sugar products.
In the food business, low methoxy pectin is used to make juice and low-calorie meals, whereas
high methoxy pectin is utilized to make various kinds of jam and jellies. Pectin has also been
employed as a stabilizing and food emulsifier. For this reason, active films for food packaging
are made using pectin. The emulsifying and stabilizing qualities of pectin may be impacted by its
hydrodynamic characteristics and interactions with other polymers. Pectin can also be utilized as
a prebiotic medication to address issues connected to the colon. According to global
hydrocolloids, pectin may find use in the food and pharmaceutical sectors. As a result, several
segments of the global food business anticipate growing pectin production, particularly through
the extracton from by product. Citrus peels, banana peels, mango peels, apple pomace, sugar
beet, cocoa husk, mulberry branch bark, fava bean hulls, sisal waste, watermelon waste,
pomegranate rind, and passion fruit peel waste are among the agricultural byproducts from which
pectin may be economically extracted. Pectin is acquired via extraction, regardless of its kind
and chemical structure. Pectin extraction has, in fact, been done for a long time from a variety of
food sources as well as agricultural waste and byproducts. The primary goal of these procedures
is to extract pectin with the greatest purity and maximum yield. Conventional extraction (CE), on

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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

the other hand, has a number of drawbacks over emerging processing technologies (EPT),
including low degrees of esterification resulting from lengthy, direct heating, undesired
physicochemical and functional characteristics, and thermal degradation. Furthermore, the
structural proteins and diverse polysaccharides found in plant cell walls make it difficult to
extract pectin from it. As a result, the extraction technique and other related factors determine
how much pectin can be removed(Gavahian et al., 2021).

1.2. Statement of the problem

Many fruits and vegetables contain pectin, a valuable polysaccharide with various
applications in food and pharmaceutical industries. However, a large amount of fruit
waste is generated during processing, which causes environmental and economic
losses.
The conventional methods for pectin extraction involve acid treatments at high
temperatures and long durations, which have several drawbacks such as low yield,
thermal degradation, undesirable properties, and environmental problems. Hence,
there is a need for alternative methods that can overcome these limitations and
improve the quality and quantity of pectin extraction. Emerging processing
technologies such as microwave, ohmic heating, ultrasound, pulsed electric field, and
high-pressure processing are among the innovative approaches that have been studied
for pectin extraction. These technologies can offer advantages such as higher
extraction yield, shorter extraction time, lower energy consumption, and better
preservation of pectin characteristics.
1.3. Objectives
1.3.1. General objective
The general objectives of this project is to transform fruit processing waste into pectin
1.3.2. Specific objectives
 To understand conventional method of pectin extraction.
 To review different innovative approaches for improving pectin extraction.
 To understand the effect of different innovative approaches on different fruit waste.

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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

1.4. Significance of the project

By converting fruit waste (such as peels, pomace, and discarded fruit parts) into pectin, we
maximize resource utilization. Instead of discarding these by-products, we extract valuable
compounds that can be used in various applications. It contributes to waste reduction,
minimizing the environmental impact associated with fruit processing. Food manufacturers can
reduce costs by using pectin derived from waste rather than purchasing it separately this is also
possible by extracting it from fruit waste. Pectin extracted from fruit waste can enhance the
quality of food products. It improves texture, stability, and mouthfeel in jams, jellies, and other
processed foods. Transforming fruit waste into pectin aligns with sustainability goals, economic
viability, and healthier food choices. It’s a win-win for both the environment and industry.

1.5. Scope of study

The scope of this project includes determination of fruit waste to extraction of pectin using
conventional method. It also include comparison of different innovative approach of pectin
extraction by considering different food waste.

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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

A second life for fruit and vegetable waste(Minjares-Fuentes et al., 2014). A review on
bioplastic films and coatings for potential food protection applications. This paper reviews the
use of fruit and vegetable waste as a source of natural polymers, such as pectin, for the
production of bioplastic films and coatings for food packaging. It discusses the extraction
methods, properties, and applications of these biomaterials, as well as the challenges and
opportunities for their development.
A review on the potential of citrus waste for D-Limonene, pectin, and bioethanol
production(Merino et al., 2022). This paper provides an overview of the valorization of citrus
waste, which is rich in pectin and other valuable compounds, such as D-limonene and sugars. It
describes the methods and factors affecting the extraction of these compounds, as well as their
potential uses in various industries, especially food and biofuel.
Extraction of Pectin from Different Fruit Wastes due to the Quality Upgradation of Jellies
Preparation–Review(Nadar, Arora and Shastri, 2022). This paper evaluates the extraction of
pectin from different fruit wastes, such as apple, orange, banana, and mango, and compares their
quality and suitability for jelly making. It also discusses the effects of extraction parameters,
such as pH, temperature, and time, on the yield and characteristics of pectin.
Sustainability Challenges and Opportunities in Pectin Extraction from Fruit-Processing Waste.
This paper analyzes the environmental impacts and benefits of pectin extraction from fruit-
processing waste, such as apple pomace and citrus peels. It compares the conventional acid-
based extraction with emerging technologies, such as microwave, ultrasound, and enzyme-
assisted extraction, and suggests ways to improve the sustainability and efficiency of the process.
The study examined the extraction of pectin by novel techniques, with a particular emphasis on
its functional qualities and potential use in food packaging and examined biological value
chemicals that were recovered utilizing unconventional ways from citrus garbage.

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Nevertheless, in addition to citrus, this study work presents comprehensive data on various
agricultural by-products, such as fruits and vegetables, as well as the effect of EPT in pectin
extraction. Research on the extraction of pectin by ultrasonic technology (single and combination
methods) emphasized the health-promoting properties and bioavailability of the product. An
additional evaluation focused on the extraction of rhamnogalacturonan-I from fruit and vegetable
waste using various traditional and EPT methods. It also covered the uses of pectin in the food
and pharmaceutical sectors. Simultaneously, several facets of pectin extraction, including
traditional extraction techniques (such as using acid, alkali, and enzyme extraction) and some
non-conventional methods such as ultrasound and microwave were also given due consideration.
The literature mentioned above has aided in advancing scientific study in this field and offered
insightful information on the developments in pectin extraction. Some significant EPT, such as
ohmic heating, mild electric fields, pulsed electric fields, and high-pressure processing, have not
been covered in these review publications, nevertheless. Furthermore, there aren't many talks on
using several methods to extract pectin. Thus, scholars in this field might benefit from a narrative
review based on recently published articles that transmit a wide range of investigations on
developing processing technologies.

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CHAPTER THREE
MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY

The various extraction methods that are reported for pectin can be classified into conventional
methods and emerging green nonconventional methods. The most prevalent methods include
conventional methods of heating in the presence of acids as catalysts to aid the solubilization of
protopectin. The emerging nonconventional methods include enhanced heat and mass transfer
methods with or without acids

3.1. Conventional methods of pectin extraction

There are three steps in the conventional pectin extraction procedure. Pretreatment, which can
involve blanching, washing, or just plain drying, is the initial step. Pretreatment stops the
breakdown of pectin by inactivating enzymes or microorganisms and creating stable raw
material. The second step, pectin extraction, calls for an acid (mineral or organic) with a pH
range of 1.5 to 3, a temperature range of 75 to 100 °C, and a reaction period of one to three hours
in order to solubilize protopectin. Filtration and concentration of the filtered pectin solution are
part of the third stage, known as post extraction. The concentrated pectin solution is then
precipitated by adding twice as much ethanol. In general, three factors are critical to the
extraction of pectin: acid, temperature, and reaction time. Because organic acids are food-grade
and renewable, there is much research being done on them as a greener alternative to mineral
acids, in an effort to address the disadvantages of using them. Pectin extraction involves the use
of organic acids such as citric, tartaric, malic, acetic, lactic, oxalic, and ascorbic acid in addition
to mineral acids including hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric, and phosphoric acids. Another important
factor that affects pectin yields is temperature, since higher temperatures naturally encourage
reaction kinetics. According to the scientists, 70% of the pectin in mango peels could be
extracted at 80 °C, however the conventional method could only extract 1.55% of the pectin at
20 °C. This demonstrates how crucial temperature is for the solubilization of protopectin. Lower
pectin yields could result from a greater temperature's detrimental effects on pectin precipitation,
which are caused by the breakdown of pectin chains. A longer reaction time at a higher

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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

temperature is linked to the breakdown of pectin and other bioactives, which also raises
questions about excessive energy use.

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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

Fig 3.1. Schematic representation of the pectin production technology

Conventional method of pectin extraction from fruit waste involves the following steps
1. Acid Hydrolysis: Food waste containing pectin is treated with acid (usually sulfuric acid)
at high temperatures (around 80-100°C) and low pH (between 1.5 and 3.5) for several
hours. The acid breaks down the pectin molecules into smaller fragments.
2. Filtration: After hydrolysis, the mixture is filtered to separate the liquid (containing
pectin) from the solid residue.
3. Precipitation: The filtered liquid is then neutralized using an alkaline solution (such as
calcium hydroxide or sodium carbonate). This causes the pectin to precipitate out of the
solution.
4. Washing and Drying: The precipitated pectin is washed to remove impurities and then
dried to obtain the final pectin product.

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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

3.2. Innovative approaches for improving pectin extraction

Cutting-edge methods for enhancing PE are founded on newly thermal and non-thermal
processing methods, such as mild electric heating and supercritical heating, microwave heating,
ultrasound, high-pressure processing, field, and pulsed electric field. These technological
advancements pectin by processes other than CE.

3.2.1. Ohmic heating

Ohmic heating is an advanced thermal heating process that is quick and uniform in nature, as
electric current is transferred through food materials generating heat according to Joule’s law.
Ohmic heating has been used for PE because it can enhance the extraction yield through
volumetric heating. This could be due to rapid heating in the heterogeneous system, which
enhances heat and mass transfer during the extraction process. This reduces processing time and
minimizes changes in pectin properties. As a result, ohmic heating has the potential to improve
pectin quality and lower manufacturing costs. This technology has been used to sterilize foods
and extract valuable components from plant materials. Study conducted by (Saberian et al.,
2018), the effects of pH, solvent, Solid-Liquid (S/L) ratio, and voltage on the pectin yield,
quality, and system performance coefficient (SPC) were evaluated at a constant extraction
temperature of 90 ºC using orange waste as a raw material. At higher voltage gradients with
lower pH and S/L ratio, the SPC was appreciably enhanced to 84.4%. Also, it influenced the
pectin yield increasing it from 1.17 to 10.69%. Therefore, the yield of pectin was higher at 30
V/cm, pH of 1.5, and S/L ratio of 1:20 g/ml. The authors reported that ohmic heating took less
extraction time (15 s) compared to CE (200 s). Analyzing temperature gradient, SPC, and other
engineering parameters, it can be concluded that ohmic heating is an efficient method for PE.
Determination of SPC
The energy given to the system was calculated by using the current and voltage values recorded
during the ohmic heating experiments according to Equation:
Eg = ∑ VIt ……………………………………………eqn (1)
Where Eg is the energy given to the system (J), V is voltage across the sample, (V), I is
alternating current passing through the sample (A), and t is time (s). The heat required to heat the
sample to a prescribed temperature was calculated as:
Qt=mcp(Tf −Ti)……………………………..eqn (2)
Where Q is the amount of heat taken by system (J), Tf is final temperature, Ti is initial

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temperature ( ºC), Cp is specific heat capacity (J/kg K), and m is mass of the sample (kg).The
specific heat capacities of the orange juice waste samples were supposed to be independent of
temperature and calculated according to Equation (3)
Cp=1.675+ 2.5 Xw ………………………………eqn (3)
Where Xw is percent of the moisture. The energy given to the system will be equal to the energy
required to heat the sample plus the energy loss according to following equation
Eg=Qt + Eloss………………………………….. (4)
The Eloss term in Equation (4) represents the heat required to heat the test chamber, the electrodes,
and so on, heat loss to the surroundings by natural convection and the part of the heat generation
rate used for goals other than heating the juice for example in chemical reaction, phase change.
The total energy loss during ohmic heating, Eloss, was calculated by using the energy given to
the system and the heat required to heat the sample to a distinct temperature. Since low Eloss
would display a system with a high performance, a system performance coefficient or SPC was
defined as following

SPC= ( QtEg ) x 100……………………………………. (5)

Therefore, for a system with zero Eloss, SPC will be equal to one.
Pectin yield
After the time of extraction (ohmically or conventionally), the hot mixture was cooled to room
temperature and centrifuged (4,000 rpm, 30 min), and the supernatant was precipitated with two
volumes of 96% (v/v) ethanol at 4 8ºC for 1 hr. The precipitated pectin mass was washed with
96% ethanol for two times in order to remove impurities (such as mono and disaccharides and
phenol compound). The pectin was dried in a forced circulation oven at 60ºC until a constant
weight (16 hr). The dried pectin was then weighed with an analytical balance. All values are
reported in gram per 100 g of dry matter (g/100 g d.m.)
pectin weight
pectin yield ( % )= x 100…………………… (6)
sample weight

3.2.2. Microwave heating

Microwave heating is considered an emerging thermal technology in the food industry, which is
applicable in the drying of food products, inactivation of enzymes, sterilization, and extraction.
This technology uses frequencies from 300 MHz to 300 GHz (similar to radiofrequency heating)

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heating the polar components due to the phenomenon of ionic polarization and dipoles rotation.
Also, microwave processing accelerates biomass production and electromagnetic waves which
can transfer and deplete energy very fast, in a continuous and flexible manner. These processes
could damage the cells inside the biomass, causing an improved extraction with higher
yield(Carbonell-Capella et al., 2017). A summary of the findings on the applications of ohmic
and micro wave heating, as advanced thermal technologies, for PE is presented in Table 3.1.
Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) has been used to enhance PE and was found to yield a
higher amount of pectin in a shorter period of time than with CE.
Table 3.1. A summary of the application of volumetric heating technologies (ohmic and
microwave) for pectin extraction.
Heating Raw Processing Tempe Time Pectin DE References
method material conditions (W) rature (min) yield (%)
(◦C) (%)
Ohmic Orange 30 90 0.4 10.69 75 (Saberian et
waste al., 2018)
Microwave Pomelo 520 (HSME) 150 90 5.6 2.92 ND (Chen, Fu
(SFME) and Luo,
2015)
Microwave Sour 700 ND 3 29.1 ND
orange
peel
Microwave Dragon 800 ND 1.3 18.59 46- (Rahmati,
fruit peel 47 Abdullah and
Kang, 2019)
Microwave Potato 400,800 (batch 90, 85 5,20,60 ND 40- (Arrutia et
waste process) 2000 45 al., 2020)
(continuous)
Microwave Elephant 495 ND 8.93 20.36 ND (Khedmat et
apple al., 2020)
fruit
Microwave Cocoa 400 ND 15 9.64 ND

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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

pod husk

3.2.3. Supercritical water

Another emerging technology that reduces extraction time is subcritical water, which uses only
water at subcritical conditions; this eliminates the need for addition of acids. At subcritical
conditions, the hydrogen bonds of water molecules tend to weaken, thereby decreasing its
dielectric constant and enhancing the polarity of water. These properties of water also reduce the
energy requirements due to enhanced extraction efficiency. However, if very high pressure is
required for extraction, generating those pressures could be a problem. The reaction temperature
and time can be reduced by the inclusion of ultrasound. Ultrasound-assisted extraction uses
acoustic waves to produce micro bubbles. The collapse of these micro bubbles disrupts the cell
wall structure, which enables efficient solvent penetration and mass transfer.

3.2.4. Ultrasound - assisted methods

Ultrasound assisted methods are known for advantages such as reduced and improved pectin
yields, which makes this method a greener approach than the conventional heating method.
Ultrasound is generally used along with food grade acids such as citric acid or acetic acid to
obtain pectin yields that are comparable to those with the conventional process. The authors
(Nadar, Arora and Shastri, 2022) extracted pectin from grape pomace using citric acid. They
compared both conventional and ultrasound-assisted extraction and observed that, without
ultrasonication, 25.6% of pectin was obtained, whereas with ultra-sonication, 32.4% of pectin
was obtained. Nevertheless, an additional step of ultrasound might further increase the electricity
requirements, which will further increase the net impact. As a new green method, enzyme-
assisted extraction is being investigated extensively in order to produce pectin at mild
temperatures with larger yields and better quality. High specificity and selectivity enzymes are
used in this procedure to break free the proto pectin from the cell walls. This method's benefit is
that it eliminates acids from the process, preventing equipment corrosion. Higher yields, a lower
working temperature (which uses less energy), and high-quality pectin (because of the particular
activity of enzymes) are further benefits. However, the expense of enzymes may be an industry
bottleneck, and the usage of buffers may result in increased input costs. However, even if using
enzymes is more environmentally friendly, the process of producing them requires energy
intensive. Furthermore, enzyme concentration, transportation, and storage in low temperatures
might adversely affect the sustainability.
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 Transformation of fruit waste into pectin

Many other hybrid-assisted methods are reported, which use a combination of nonconventional
extraction methods to further improve the efficiency of the process. These hybrid methods
include ultrasound microwave-assisted extraction (UMAE) and ultrasound enzyme-assisted
extraction (UEAE). However, all of the processes and the inputs need to be analyzed from the
sustainability point of view.

3.2.5. High-pressure processing

HPP is one of the non-thermal pasteurization processing technologies, which is widely applied in
the food industry. In HPP, samples are sealed in special packages and placed in a vessel under
isostatic pressure above 300 MPa. HPP induces high pressure which causes severe damage to
plant cells and leads to the diffusion of solvents and enhances the mass transfer and release of the
extracts. HPP is used in synergetic extraction to improve the yield of pectin and other functional
components by reducing the extraction time. For example, (Nadar, Arora and Shastri, 2022)
combined CE and HPP methodology to extract pectin from the passion fruit peels. The pectin
yield was increased from 7.4 to 14.3% due to HPP pre-treatment. It was noted that the DE was
50% and the D-GalA of pectin was 65% higher than CE. HPP resulted in reduced extraction time
with higher efficiency rates. Therefore, HPP can be considered a promising alternative to CE
extraction of pectin that can reduce environmental concerns through enhancing resource
efficiency. HPP to extract pectin and polyphenols from tomato peel waste.

3.2.6. Ultrasound
Ultrasound consists of vibrations greater than 20 kHz which can be applied to solid, liquid, and
gas. The term “ultrasound” generally refers to frequencies greater than 16 kHz. The ultra sound
technology has many applications in food industries including extraction, drying,
homogenization, blanching, and microbial inactivation. During extraction, ultrasound
frequencies play a major part in collapsing the cavitation bubbles close to the cell wall, which
leads to stronger agitation and solvent can penetrate the cells, resulting in an intensification of
mass transfer. The ultrasound can help in reducing the extraction time, energy consumption, and
enhance the overall yield mainly due to the cavitation force which can impel the chain of
compression and rarefactions, that leads to the formation of bubbles and changes in the
temperature and pressure on the molecules. Ultrasound technology can be considered as an
innovative approach to enhance resource efficiency. Due to its various advantages compared to
CE, it is extensively used on several types of plant by-products and food waste.

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3.2.7. Moderate electric field

MEF involves applying an electrical field (usually at low frequencies) at relatively low
temperatures, which may cause electroporation and enhanced diffusion. This technology has
been used for various extraction processes such as extraction of cellular materials from black tea
and mint leaves, extraction of pectin from passion fruit peel. Generally, MEF can enhance the PE
by application of voltage on the food materials which affects the cell membrane. A high electric
field ruptures the cell membrane and enhances permeability (Sensoy & Sas try, 2004). The field
strength of the MEF is high and it damages the tissues, thereby enhancing extraction.
Table 3.2. Benefits and limitations of emerging technologies that have been used for PE
Extraction Key advantages Concerns/limitation
technology
Ohmic heating 1. Rapid heating The possibility of process
2. Uniform heating runaway.
3. High efficiency Possibility of corrosion of
electrodes
Microwave 1. Reducing extraction time. Challenges in up scaling.
heating 2. Effective Possibility of the leakage of
microwave radiations
Moderate electric 1. Time-saving The use of expensive electrodes
field 2. Eco-friendly Possibility of electrochemical
reactions

High-pressure Disruptors cell wall and create inter The processing cost is relatively
processing fibrillar spaces in cell networks. high.
Possibility of doubling the pectin
yield.
Ultrasound 1. Enhanced extraction Dispersed phase in ultrasound
efficiency leads to compressibility, heat
2. Reduced extraction time intensity, and thermal diffusion

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To obtain higher yields and better quality of pectin at mild temperature, enzyme-assisted
extraction is widely explored as an emerging green technology. This method uses enzymes with
high specificity and selectivity to release the protopectin from the cell walls. The advantage of
this method is elimination of acids in the process, which prevents any corrosion of the
equipment. Other advantages include a lower operating temperature (which reduces the energy
consumption), pectin of high quality (due to the specific action of enzymes), and higher yields.
However, the use of buffers may lead to additional input costs, and the cost of enzymes could be
a bottleneck for industries. Nevertheless, even though the use of enzymes is greener, the
production process of enzymes on its own is energy intensive. Furthermore, enzyme
concentration, transportation, and storage in low temperatures might adversely affect the
sustainability. Many other hybrid-assisted methods are reported, which use a combination of
nonconventional extraction methods to further improve the efficiency of the process. These
hybrid methods include ultrasound microwave-assisted extraction (UMAE) and ultrasound
enzyme-assisted extraction (UEAE). However, all of the processes and the inputs need to be
analyzed from the sustainability point of view.

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CHAPTER FOUR
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1. Conclusion
The food industry is exploring the remarkable qualities of pectin, a unique hydrocolloid. It has
been quickly spreading to additional industrial sectors as well. One amazing method of reducing
greenhouse gas emissions from fruit processing waste that would otherwise end up in landfills is
to extract high-value compounds like pectin and other bioactive chemicals. But just using waste
isn't enough; to make it viable in the long run, the extraction method needs to be cost-effective,
environmentally friendly, and sustainable. To create a process that is truly environmentally
friendly, the sustainability problems with the current conventional method must be addressed
from a life cycle viewpoint. According to the study, methods for extracting pectin without acid
seem like a viable direction to go.

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4.2. Recommendation
According to the sustainability analysis of the pectin production process, the choice of acid, pH,
amount of ethanol, and electricity source all had a significant impact on the process's economy
and sustainability. While organic acids are thought of as environmentally friendly and green
alternatives, the manufacture of organic acids, such citric acid, has a greater influence on climate
change than the production of mineral acids. This may be mainly because organic acids are
weaker than mineral acids and need larger concentrations of acid to achieve the same pH values.
As a result, while choosing acids, one must take into account both their source and life cycle.
Furthermore, organic acids are more costly than mineral acids from an economic standpoint.
This may be the reason why industries steer clear of using organic acids to extract pectin, despite
the fact that they have been shown to provide pectin that is of superior quality and at
comparatively greater yields than mineral acids. Furthermore, a higher concentration of organic
acids results in greater equipment sizes, which has a negative cost impact.

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