1

CHAPTER (2)
TESTIMONY AND THE COURTROOM

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Describe the factors affecting the accuracy of testimony.

2. Learn how to detect deception.
3. Explain the ways to treat the offenders.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
When anyone witnesses a crime, an accident, or any event relevant to a
legal matter, he or she may later be required to testify about what was seen or
heard. Research on testimony indicates that eyewitnesses are frequently wrong.
Even the most honest and well-meaning citizen may be totally inaccurate when
asked to remember the details of a past event or to identify a suspect. Experiments
indicate that witness accuracy is decreased if there is a weapon in the suspect's
hand (Tooley et al., 1987), if the suspect belongs to a racial or ethnic group
different from that of the witness (Platz & Hosch, 1988), and if those questioning
the witness make misleading suggestions (Lindsay & Johnson, 1989; Wells &
Loftus, 1984).

Though legal experts are well aware that eyewitnesses may be mistaken,
the U.S Supreme Court has ruled that eyewitnesses can be considered credible if
they express certainty about their testimony.

w&m;½Hk;awGrSm xGufqdkwJhoufaoxGufqdkcsufawG[m rMumcPqdkovdk rSm;,Gif;rIawG

&Sdw,f/ ½dk;om;jyD;aumif;rGefwJh oufaoxGufqdkolwpfOD;[m olodcJhorQudkjyefjyD; azmfxkwfwJh
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ae&mrSm rwdusrIawG &SdEdkifw,f/ trSefawmh oufaou rdrd½IjrifawG½SdcJhw,fvdkY xifwJh

taMumif;t&mawGukd jyefajymjcif;yJjzpfw,f/ tm;vHk;[m trSefwu,fjzpfoGm;cJhwJhtjzpftysuf
awGvdkawmh wxpfcsajymvdkY r&ygbl;/

1.1 Personal Factors Affecting Observation

The factors affecting the accuracy of testimony are as follows:-

Accurate testimony in court will depend upon the accuracy with which the initial
observations are made. Factors that can distort the original impressions are
sensory factors such as vision, auditory, taste and smell, expectations and
attentions, emotions, age and intelligence.

w&m;½Hk;rsm;rSmxGufqdkwJh oufaoxGufqdkcsufwdusrI[m oufaoxGufqkdol&JU rlv

½IrSwfxm;rIawG (initial observations) b,favmufwduspGmvkyfEdkifcJhwJhtay:rSm rlwnfw,f/
vlawG&JUrlv½IrSwfjcif;tay: xdyg;ysufjym;apEdkifwJhtcsufawGxJrSm tm½Hkodjcif;udkjzpfay:apwJh
tm½HkcHtcsufrsm;jzpfwJh jrifrI (Vision)? Mum;rI (Auditory)? t&om (taste)eJY teHY (Smell)
wdkYtjyif? arQmfvifhjcif;eJYtm½Hkpl;pdkufjcif; (Expectations and Attentions)? pdwfvIyf&Sm;jcif;
(Emotions)? touft&G,f (Age) eJY ÓPf&nf (Intelligence) wdkYyg0ifw,f/

1.1.1 Vision

Common visual defects may prevent clear observation. For example, a near-
sighted person without his corrective lens cannot be expected to give unshakeable
evidence of events, which occur at some considerable distance. Conversely, far-
sighted persons have difficulty in making fine discriminations at distances within
arm's length. Colour blindness also may distort some testimony although the
witness may not be aware of it.

jrifrI (Vision) eJY ywfoufvdkYuawmh w&m;½Hk;awGrSm oufaobmjzpfcJhovJqdkwmudk

ppfar;avh&Sdw,f/ 'gayrJh omrefjrifrIqdkif&mcsdKU,Gif;csufawG[m jywfom;wJh½IrSwfrIudk twm;
tqD;jzpfay:apEdkifw,f/ jrifrIeJYywfoufNyD; teD;jriform; (near-sighted person) ta0;jrifol
(far-sighted person)? ta&mifuef;jcif;(Color blindness) &SdolqdkNyD; tjctaetrsdK;rsdK;&Sdw,f/
 3

teD;jriform; ( near-sighted person ) [m oleJYoifhavsmfwJh rsufrSefwyfrxm;&if?

tawmftoifha0;wJhae&mu tjzpftysufawGudk wdwdusus oufaoxGufqdkEdkifavmufatmif
jywfom;pGm rjrifEdkifbl;/
ta0;orm; (Far–sighted person) rdrdeJY vufwpfurf;tuGmrSm&SdwJh t&mawGudk
aumif;rGefpGm cGJcGJjcm;jcm;jrifzdkYrSm tcuftcJ jzpfapw,f/
ta&mifuef;jcif; (Colour blindness) &Sdol oufao[mvnf; oufaoxGufqdkay; &mrSm
rSm;,Gif;rIjzpfapw,f/ ta&mifuef;jcif; (2)rsdK; &Sdw,f/ vHk;0ta&mifuef;jcif;ESifh
wpf0ufwpfysufta&mifuef;jcif;wdkY jzpfw,f/ vHk;0ta&mifuef;olawG[m ta&mifawGudk
cGJjcm;NyD; rjrif&yJ tm;vHk;udk rGJjymjymom jrif&w,f/ wpf0ufwpfysuf ta&mifuef;ol[m teDeJY
tpdrf;a&mifudk cGJjcm;rjrifyJ tm;vHk;udk 0grIdif;rdIif;om jrifwwfw,f/ pdrf;jyma&mifeJY
c&rf;a&mifwdkYudkvnf; rIdif;jymjymom jrifMuw,f/ 'gaMumifh 'DvdkoufaoawGeJY tjrifeJY
ywfoufwJh oufaoxGufqdkcsufawGudk pdwfcs,HkMunfzdkY tawmfowdxm;&rSm jzpfygw,f/

1.1.2 Auditory Sensations

The chief difficulty with testimony involving auditory sensations lies in

determining the direction from which the sound comes. The ability to localize the
source of sounds is very easily disturbed by echoes or large reflecting surfaces. In
the absence of reflecting and echoing surfaces, location of sound sources is
reasonably accurate. But when the sound is unexpected and momentary there is a
confusion as to whether the sound comes from in front of, or behind or above or
below.

tMum;tm½HkcHjcif;eJYywfoufwJh oufaoxGufqdkcsufrSmjzpfwwfwJh t"dutcuftcJ

uawmh toH[m b,ft&yfu xGufay:vmovJqdkwJhtcsufay:rSm rlwnfw,f/ toHxGuf
ay:&mudk cefYrSef;EdkifwJhpGrf;&nfudk yJhwifoHrsm;xGufay:apwJh? 'grSr[kwf toHvdIif;½dkufcwf
onfhrsufESmjyifrsm;u tvG,fwul taESmuft,SufjyKEdkifw,f/ toHvdIif;½dkufcwfjcif; ESifh
yJhwifoHxGufay:&mrsufESmjyifrsm; r&SdrSom toHxGufay:&mt&yfudk wduspGm cefYrSef;EdkifrSm
jzpfw,f/ 'gayrJh toHvIdif;jzpfay:rIudk cefYrSef;rxm;cJh&ifjzpfjzpf? toHjzpfay:rI[m ,m,D
tcdkuftwefYom ay:aygufcJh&ifjzpfjzpf? toH[m a&SUuvm;? aemufuyJvm;? txufuvm;?
atmufuyJvm;qdkwm odzdkYrSm ½IwfaxG;rIjzpfwwfygw,f/
 4

1.1.3 Taste and Smell

Testimony concerning taste is of legal importance in regard to accusations of

poisoning. The principal inaccuracy in this area concern confusion of taste and
smell. Since prior tastes distort gustatory observations, it is important to know
what was eaten or drunk previously before assertions are made about given tastes.

t&omeJYywfoufwJh oufaoxGufqdkcsuf[m tqdyfcwfjcif;udk wduspGmazmfxkwf&mrSm

w&m;Oya'taMumif;t& ta&;BuD;ygw,f/ 'Dae&mrSm t"duuswJhrwdusrIuawmh t&omeJY
teHY[m a&maxG;aeavh&SdwmygyJ/ aemufwpfcsufuawmh t&ifupm;xm;cJhwJhtpm&JUt&om[m
aemufxyfpm;wJh tpm&JUt&omtay:rSm vTrf;rdk;Edkifao;w,f/
1.1.4 Expectation and Attention

An individual perceives what he expected to perceive even though what he

expected may not occur. On the other hand although interesting significant events take
place within sight and within earshot the individual may not notice it if he is not
expecting anything.
yk*¾dKvfwpfOD;[m ol&JUarQmfvifhrIawGjzpfyGm;EdkifzdkY raocsmwmawmifrS olBudKwifarQmfrSef;
½Ijrifxm;wJhtwdkif;yJ ½IrSwfavh½Sdw,f/ xl;jcm;jyD; pdwf0ifpm;p&maumif;wJh tjzpftysufudk
jrifEdkif? Mum;EdkifwJhtuGmta0;twGif;rSmjzpfaeaomfvnf;yJ 'Dyk*¾dKvf[mbmudkrS arQmfvifhxm;rI
r&Sd&if ol[m 'Dtjzpftysufudk owdjyKrdrSm r[kwfbl;/
1.1.5 Emotions

Considerable psychological evidence collected shows that observations made under

the stress of excitement are inaccurate. Contrary to this is the legal principle that
spontaneous exclamations made in the heat of emotion are admissible as valid
indications of the contented events.

pdwfvIyf&Sm;rI (Emotion) zdpD;aewJhtcsdefrSm &IUrSwfjcif;;jyKvkyf&if wdusrIr&SdEdkifaMumif; udk

pdwfynmprf;oyfavhvmrI taxmuftxm;awGu jyoxm;ygw,f/ oufaocHol[m
trItcif;jzpfpOfuvnf; pdwfwkefvIyfajcmufjcm;pGm ½IrSwfcJh&if? w&m;½Hk;rSmoufaotjzpf
xGufqdkpOfrSmvJ pdwfvIyf&Sm;aeolom jzpfw,fqdkwm owdjyK&rSm jzpfw,f/
 5

1.1.6 Age

The accuracy of children's testimony has been the object of much investigation.
Some courts place high confidence in the reports of children on the assumption that
they are sincere and have not yet learned the art of deceit. However it is a known
fact that children frequently confuse imagined experiences with reality, and also
the children unknowingly accept unintended subtle suggestions that distort the
evidence. But on some occasions children may maintain their independence of
thought in the face of persistent opposition. Thus it has been proposed that all
children's testimony be taken out of court by experienced child psychologists, who
would be able to detect factors that would tend to distort the report and to elicit a
true account.

touft&G,f (Age) uvJ oufaoxGufqdkcsifawGudk vTrf;rdk;xdyg;wwfao;w,f/

uav;i,fawG[m yGifhvif;½dk;om;w,f/ uav;i,fawG&JY oufaoxGufqdkcsufawG rSefuefrI ½SdzdkY
avhvmpHkprf;rIawG rsm;rsm;vkyf&r,f/ vdrfnmvSnfhjzm;rIr&Sdbl;qdkNyD;awmh olwdkY&JU xGufqdk
csuf[m wdusw,fqdkNyD; ,HkMunfMuw,f/ 'gayrJh uav;i,frsm;&JYxGufqdkcsuf[m wu,fh
tppftrSefvm;? ol&JUpdwful;,OftawGUtBuHKvm; qdkwm a&maxG;aewwfw,f/ 'ghtjyif
uav;i,fawG[m oufaotaxmuftxm;udk ysufjy,fapEdkifwJhodrfarGUwJh qGJaqmifrIawGudk
vufcHvG,fwwfMuao;w,f/ tcsdKYtajctaeawGrSmqdk&if uav;awG[m qefYusifbuftae
txm;uaeNyD; vGwfvyfpGmawG;ac:rIudk pGJpGJNrJNrJqkyfudkifxm;w,f/ 'gawG[m uav;&JU
oufaoxGufqdkcsufudk vufcHzdkYqdkwm owdjyK&rJh tcsufawGyJ jzpfw,f/

1.1.7 Intelligence

Closely related to the question of age is the effect of intelligence on testimony. Is

a highly intelligent individual more accurate than persons less well endowed? In the
studies of "class-room crimes" where college students have immediately reported their
impressions of what happened, no relationship has been established between intelligence
and accuracy of report.
 6

oufaoxGufqdkcsufudkvTrf;rdk;xdyg;EdkifwJh touft½G,f (Age) eJY teD;qHk; qufEG,f

aewJh tcsufuawmh ÓPf&nf (intelligence) ygyJ/ ÓPf&nfjrifhol[m ÓPf&nfedrfholxuf
ydkwdusovm;qdkwmudk avhvm&mrSm awGY&Sdcsufuawmh ÓPf&nf[m owif;tcsuftvuf
wduspGm wifjyEdkifrIeJY qifEG,frIr&Sdbl;qdkwm awGU&w,f/

1.2 Factors between Observation and Recall

There is always an interval of varying length between the moment when a

crime is committed and when testimony concerning the particular crime is given.
Various factors such as memory, special intervening events, and manners of
identification pervert testimony.

rIcif;jzpfyGm;csdefeJY oufaoxGufqdkcsdeftMum;rSm tcsdefumvtydkif;tjcm; tawmfMum

jrihfoGm;cJh&if oufaoxGufqdkqdkcsufudk ysufjy,fap EdkifwmyJ/ 'DtcsufawGxJrSm rSwfÓPf
(memory)? xl;jcm;wJh Mum;0ifaESmuf,SufrJhtjzpftysufrsm; (Special intervening events) eJY
jyefvnfazmfxkwfyHkenf;vrf;rsm; (manners of identification) wdkYyg0ifw,f/

1.2.1 Memory

According to legal assumption memory is a kind of entity that man possesses

in varying degrees. This assumption does not agree with the psychologist's concept of
memory. From the psychologist's point of view memory is not a single process or a
unified characteristic of man's behaviour. Rather, it refers to the fact that
impressions, judgements or experiences are retained more or less imperfectly over
a period of time so that they can be recalled or recognized on later occasions. The
retention and recall of material is dependent on many conditions as prejudice,
retroactive inhibition, manners of reproducing material, the time interval between
the original observation and its recollection, “Photographic Memories,” and the
memory in old age.
 7

w&m;Oya'aMumif; t,ltqt&qdk&if rSwfÓPf (memory) udkvlom;awG[m tqifh

trsdK;rsdK;eJYydkifqdkifxm;Muw,fqdkxm;Muw,fvdkY tqdk&Sdw,f/ 'D,lqcsuf[m pdwfynm&Sif&JU
,lqcsufeJYudkufnDrIr&Sdbl;/ pdwfynm½IaxmifhuMunfh&if rSwfÓPf[m vlom;&JUtjyKtrlxJu
wpfckwnf;aomjzpfpOfr[kwfbl;/ rSwfÓPfqdkwm[maemifwpfcsdefrSm jyefvnfawG;odazmfxkwf
EdkifatmifvdkY pGJxifcsufawG? qHk;jzwfrIawG? awGUBuHK&wmawGudk tcsdeftMumMuD;tenf;eJYtrsm;
rjynfhpHkbJxdef;odrf;xm;&wJht&mudk qdkvdkw,f/ taMumif;t&mwpf&yf jyefvnfawG;od
azmfxkwf&mrSm wpfzufowftpJGawG? taMumif;t&mudk jyefvnfazmfxkwfwJhenf;vrf;? rlv
½IrSwfxm;rIeJY jyefvnfazmfxkwfrItMum; tcsdefumvtydkif;tjcm;pwJh tcsufawGay:rSm rlwnf
w,f/
1.2.2 Special Intervening Events

Occasionally, there are unusual conditions that take place between observation
and recall which cause distortions in memory. Rumours or testimony of other
observers may have unhappy effects on the witness. Also, number of times a
person is called upon to repeat his testimony may affect his feelings of certainty
concerning it.

xl;jcm;wJh Mum;0ifaESmuf,SufwhJ tjzpftysufawG[mvnf; oufaoxGufqdkcsufudk

ysufjym;apEdkifw,f/ wpfcgwpf&HrSm rSwfÓPf (memory) udk ysufjym;rIjzpfapwJh jyefvnf
awG;odazmfxkwfjcif;eJY ½IrSwfrItMum;rSm jzpfyGm;wJh xl;jcm;aom tajctaersm; &Sdygw,f/
aumv[mvrsm;? tjcm;½IrSwfolrsm;&JU oufaoxGufqdkcsufrsm;[mvnf; rsufjrifoufao
tay:rSm raumif;aom tusdK;oufa&mufrIjzpfapw,f/ oufaoxGufqdkcsufudk xyfcgxyfcg
xGufqdk&wJh tBudrfta&twGuf[mvnf; xGufqdkcsuf aocsmwdusrIudk xdyg;apEdkifw,f/
1.2.3 Manners of Identification

If eyewitnesses are to identify either objects or persons involved in a crime,

there should be little coaching or suggestion or rather not at all. The procedures
should be conducted by a person not responsible for apprehending suspects and
observers should be required to make their identifications individually and isolated
from the influence of other observers.
 8

oufaoxGufqdkcsufawGudk jyefvnfazmfxkwfwJhtcg aqmif&Guf&wJh enf;pOfawGu

ta&;BuD;w,f/ ñTef;jcif; (suggestion) [m vlwdkY&JUtjyKtrludk vTrf;rdk;&mrSm ta&;ygwJh
tcsufwpfckjzpfw,f/ oufaoxGufqdkcsufudk nTef;jcif;eJY vTrf;rdk;Edkifw,f/ ar;cGef;ar;jref;yHk?
ar;jref;enf;udkvdkufNyD; nTef;jcif;&JUtusdK;oufa&mufrIudk jzpfay:Edkifw,f/ 'gaMumifh t&m0w¬K
'grSr[kwf vlrsm;eJYywfoufNyD; oufaoxGufqdkwJhtcg a&SUaeuvrf;aMumif;ay;jcif;rsdK; rjyK
oifhbl;qdkwm owdjyK&r,f/ ouFmruif;jzpfwJholrsm;udk zrf;qD;&mrSm yg0ifzrf;qD;wJh
ol[mvnf; ppfaq;cH&mrSm ryg0ifoifhbl;/ oufaoxGufqdkoludk olwdkY[molwdkY wpfOD;jcif;
omxGufqdkoihfNyD; wpfjcm;½IrSwfolrsm;&JU vTrf;rdk;rIrSvnf; uif;a0;oifhw,f/

2.0 DETECTING DECEPTIONS

The question “Is the witness telling the truth?” is a recurring theme in nearly
every courtroom scene. The search for reliable indexes of deception has a long
past. There have been many ways to break the “will to deceive.” But the
psychologist feels that it is not necessary to break the will to deceive but to find
out whether he was lying or not, by using the modern apparatus like lie-detector
and psychogalvanometer which can record and measure the physiological changes
which accompany emotion. The assumption is that the person under examination
will be more emotionally disturbed when he tells lies than when he is telling the
truth. This assumption has been attacked at times on the grounds that if a suspected
but innocent person, is subjected to a truth test he will become tense, responding
emotionally to questions put to him. This fact also to a certain extent is true, but if
the examiner can give maximum reassurance and protection there will be a
relieving of pressures. In other words considerable skill is required on the part of
the examiner to control the examining situation and interpret the records. However
alternations in skin resistance, blood pressure, breathing pattern, eye steadiness
have proved of significance in diagnosis of truth and falsehood in innumerable
cases.
 9

rsufjrifoufaowpfOD;onf trSefw&m;udkxGufqkdygovm;qkdwJh ar;cGef;onf w&m;cGif

tm;vkH;eD;yg;rSm xyfwvJvJjzpfay:ae&wJhtaMumif;w&m;wpfckck jzpfaeygw,f/ vSnfhjzm;jcif;
qkdif&m ñTef;udef; (Indexces of deception) rsm;udk tcsdefumvMum&SnfpGmuyif avhvm
okawoejyKvkyfcJhjcif;jzpfygw,f/ vSnfhjzm;vdkwJhpdwfqE´udk azsmufzsufEkdifwJh enf;vrf;awG
trsm;BuD;&Sdaeygw,f/ odkUaomf pdwfynm&Sifrsm;u vSnfhjzm;vdkwJh pdwfqE´udk azsmufzsufzdkU
rvdkawmhbl;[k cH,lxm;Muygw,f/
rsufjrifoufaowpfOD;onf rrSefruefxGufqkdonf? rqkdonfudk (Lie-detector) rkom;
azmfu&d,meJU Psychogavanometer pdwfvQyfppfprf;oyfwkdif;u&d,mponfh acwfay:u&d,m
rsm;jzifh rSefrSefuefuefxGufqdkjcif; &Sd? r&Sdudk pdwfvIyf&Sm;rIeJU wqufwnf;qufoG,faewJh
ZD0ur®qdkif&majymif;vJrIawGudk wkdif;wmjcif;jzifh rSwfwrf;wifEkdifrSm jzpfygw,f/ ppfaq;cHae
&olwpfOD;[m trSefw&m;udk xGufqkdaeygwmxuf rkom;xGufqkdaewJhtcsdefrSm ol[m pdwf
vIyf&Sm;aESmifh,SufrIcHpm;ae&wmudk awGU&ygw,f/ ¤if;awGU&Sdcsuf[m aocsmwJhtwkdif;twm
wpfckxd rSefuefaeaMumif; awGU&ygw,f/
odkUaomfwzufwGif ,if;awGU&Sdcsuftay: apm'uwufvdkaomolrsm;u oHo,&Sdol[k
owfrSwfxm;aomfvnf; trSefrSm tjypfuif;oltm; tqkdyg u&d,mrsm;jzifh ppfaq;rIcHap ygu
olonf pdwfwif;rmrIcHpm;&NyD;? olUudkar;vmwJh ar;cGef;awGudkvnf; pdwfvIyf&Sm;rIESifh
ajzqdkwkHUjyefEkdifbG,f&m &Sdygonf/ xdkodkU jzpfEkdifbG,f&mtcsufonf twkdif;twmwpfcktxd
rSefuefaomfvnf; ppfaq;olu ppfaq;oltm; vdktyfaomtmrcHcsufESifh tumtuG,fay;
jcif;tm;jzifh pdwfzdpD;rIrsm;udk ajzavsmhoGm;rSm jzpfygw,f/ wpfenf;tm;jzifh ppfaq;olu
ppfaq;rItajctaet&yf&yfudk tajzrSwfwrf;rsm;xdef;csKyfMuyfrwfokH;oyfEkdifaom t&nftcsif;
vkHavmufpGm&SdbdkU vdktyfygonf/ rnfodkUyif&Sdaomfjim;vnf;? ta&jym;ckcHrIpGrf;&nfwdk;EIef;ykHpH?
rsufvkH;wnfNidrfrI ponfh ajymif;vJrIrsm;onf ppfaq;cHolwpfOD;tm; trSefw&m;udk xGufqdk jcif;
&Sd? r&Sd cdkifckdifrmrmazmfxkwfEkdifaMumif;udk ra&rwGufEkdifaom ppfaq;rIrsm;tm;jzifh ckdifvkH
apygonf/

3.0 TREATMENT OF OFFENDERS

 10

Historically, a convicted criminal was punished on the theory that he should

suffer vengeance for his wrong doing. But vengeance in any degree should not be
an aim. The emphasis should be on treatment rather than punishment of those
already convicted. From the psychological view-point, the general problem is to
find ways to have the individual unlearn his criminal habits and value, and learn to
behave in a manner acceptable to the law. Immediacy is one of the conditions
contributing to the effectiveness of correctional measures. It is desirable that
criminal should be apprehended and dealt quickly after the crime is committed.
The second condition is that corrections should be invariable to have their
maximum effect. The third condition is that correctional measures be relevant to
the conditions producing antisocial behaviour.

tpOftvmt& jypfrIusL;vGefolwpfOD;onf rdrdrSm;,Gif;usL;vGefcJhaom trIaMumifh

wkHUjyefrI oabmw&m;t& tjypfay;cH&jcif;jzpfygonf/ odkUaomf wkefUjyefcHpm;ap&rnf[laom
&nf&G,fcsufrskd; rjzpfoifhay/ jypfrIusL;vGefolwpfOD;udk jypf'Pfay;cH&jcif;xuf rdrdudk,fudk
rdrdjyKjyifbdkU &nf&G,fcsufudk OD;pm;ay;oifhygonf/ pdwfynm½Ia'gifhtjrift&? jypfrIusL;vGefol
wpfOD;jcif;onf rdrdjypfrIjzpfapaom tjyKtrlrsm;udk oif,lrIrjyKapbJ w&m;Oya'abmif
twGif;rSmjyKrlbkdU oif,lavhvm&efjzpfygw,f/
jypfrIusL;vGefoludk rSm;,Gif;cJhaom tjyKtrlrsm;xda&mufpGm jyKjyifEdkifrnfh enf;vrf;
rsm;udk OD;pm;ay;azmfxkwfbdkUjzpfw,f/ jypfrIusL;vGefolwpfOD;udk rdrdusL;vGefcJhwJh jypfrItwGuf
tjrefqkH; zrf;qD;ta&;,lEkdifbdkU vdktyfygw,f/ 'kwd,tcsufuawmh jyKjyifay;jcif;&JU tusKd;
oufa&mufrIonf trSefwu,fxda&mufrI&SdapbdkU jzpfygonf/ wwd,tcsufuawmh rdrd
jyKjyifay;vdkufaom t&monf qufqHa&;qefUusifrItajctaeESifh vdkufavsmnDaxG &Sdoifh
ygonf/
The fourth condition is that the treatment should be sufficiently unpleasant
or costly so that the individual will not follow the socially unapproved cause of
action. However the courts should not place undue reliance on this above
mentioned principle, i.e. they need not assume that the more severe the treatment,
 11

the greater would be its effectiveness. Studies have shown that severe punishment
throws the organism into a panic and thus becomes uncoordinated and fails to
progress. They become bitter and resentful and moved farther away from
reformation. The most important point is that the correctional measures should
stimulate the kind of self-confidence which enables a person to discipline himself
in the future.

pwkw¬tajctaeuawmh jypfrIusL;vGefoltwGuf jyKjyifrIukxkH;onf ¤if;twGuf

BuD;rm;aom wefbdk; (odkUr[kwf) pdwfqif;&JpGmcHpm;ap½kHavmufom jzpfapoifhygonf/
odkUr[kwfygu ¤if;jypfrI usL;vGefolonf trsm;vufcHEkdifaom ta&;,lcH&rIudk qufvuf
vkyfaqmifrSm r[kwfygbl;/ odkUaomfvnf; txufwGifazmfjyxm;aom pnf;rsOf;Oya'orsm;
tay: w&m;½kH;rsm;onf vGefuJpGm,kHMunftm;udk;rI r&Sdoifhbl;/ qdkvdkwmuawmh jyKjyifrI onf
ykHrSefxufydkNyD;jyif;xefaom jypf'PfuscHapojzihf ykdNyD;BuD;rm;wJU xda&mufrIjzpfrnf[k
r,lqoifhbl;/ avhvmawGU&SdrIrsm;u jyif;xef;aomjypf'Pfay;rIaMumifh jypfrIusL;vGefoltae
jzifh txdwfwvefUpdwfrsKd;jzpfay:apNyD;? jypf'Pfay;jcif;\ &nf&G,fcsufESifh aoGzDum tusKd;
oufa&mufrI rjzpfapbJ wdk;wufrIqkH;½IH;apEkdifygonf/

4.0 SUMMARY

Accurate testimony in court will depend upon the accuracy with which the
initial observations are made. Factors that can distort the original impressions
include sensory factors such as vision, auditory, taste and smell, expectations and
attentions, emotions, age and intelligence.

There is always an interval of varying length between the moment when a

crime is committed and when testimony concerning the particular crime is given.
Various factors between observation and recall such as memory, special
intervening events, and manners of identification pervert testimony.
 12

There have been many ways to break the “will to deceive.” But the
psychologist feels that it is not necessary to break the will to deceive but to find
out whether he was lying or not, by using the modern apparatus like lie-detector
and psychogalvanometer which can record and measure the physiological changes
which accompany emotion. In the treatment of offenders, from the psychological
point of view, the focus should be placed on finding ways to have the individual
unlearn his criminal habits and value, and learn to behave in a manner acceptable
to the law.

w&m;&Hk;a&SU oufa oxGufrle Jhy wfoufjyD; wifjyxm;wmu jypfrlwpf&yf

jzpfy Gm;wJhtcg &lr Swfol&Jh yk*¾d K vfa&;qdkif& m tcsufa wGjzpfwJh tjrif? tMum;? t&om? teHh?
arSsmfvifhr lrsm;eJhtm&Hkp dkufrl? pdwfvly f&Sm;rlh? toufeJh OmPf& nfwdkh& Jh ta&;ygyHkudk
&Sif; vif;az:jyxm;w,f/ 'Dtjyif&lr Swfjcif;(Observation) eJh jyefvnfawG; odrl (Recall)
wdkhtMum;ta&;ygwJh rSwfOmPf? txl; Mum;0iftjzpftysufr sm;eJY oufaoxlr l trlt,m
rsm;taMumif;a&;om;xm;w,f/ rsufjrifoufaoawG& JU xGufqdkrla wG[m rSefrrSe f (odkh)
vSnfhjzm;rl &Sdr&Sd qdkwmudk axmufvSr f; wJh enf;emrsm;? jypfr lusL;vGefolrsm;udk jyKjyifr l
(Treatment) ay;yHk (4)rsdK;udk wqufwnf; wifjyxm;w,f/ jypf' gPfay;jcif; xuf jyKjyif
ay;jcif; tm;jzihf vlwpfOD; taeeJY olhukd,fol,HkMunfr l& SdvmjyD;? tem*wfrSm pnf; urf;eJh
tnD &yfwnfaexdki foGm;wwfa tmif vky fa qmifay;&ma&mufw,fqdkwmukd 'D Chapter rSm
a&;om;az:jyxm;w,f/

KEY QUESTIONS

1. What are the personal factors affecting the accuracy of observation

in testimony?

2. State the factors between observations and recall that pervert

accuracy of testimony.
 13

3. How do psychologists detect deception?

4. What are the ways to treat the offenders?

GLOSSARY

crime jypfrI

testimony oufaotaxmuftxm;

recall jyefvnfawG;odjcif;

special intervening events txl;Mum;0iftjzpftysufrsm;

deceptions vSnhfzsm;rIrsm;

offenders jypfrIusL;vGefolrsm;

vengeance *vJhpm;acsrI

lie-detector, rkom;azmfu&d,m

psychogalvanometer pdwfvQyfppfprf;oyfwdkif;wmu&d,m