ADDED — Laan ELTAvER ALLEN DIESELS CENTRE re c Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Alien Diesels Centre Midiand Combustion Co. Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum - Kilo 8, wudan MODULE 2 oo ADC TRAINING BASIC DIESEL ENGINE OPERATION DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. eS Page 1 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine Operation_Siesel engine esas Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, Sudan, BASIC DIESEL OPERATION The engines with which you will be working will convert heat energy into work by buming fuel in a confined chamber within the engine; thus the term INTERNAL COMBUSTION. Because they have pistons that employ a back- and-forth motion, diesel and gasoline engines are also classified as RECIPROCATING engines. CYCLES OF OPERATION The operation of an internal-combustion engine involves the admission of fuel and air into a combustion space and the compression and ignition of the charge. The combustion process releases gases and increases the temperature within the space. As temperature increases, pressure increases, and the expansion of gases forces the piston to move. The movement is transmitted through specially designed parts to a shaft. The resulting rotary motion of the shaft is used for work, in our case driving Pumps or Generators. Thus, the expansion of the gases within the cylinder is transformed into rotary mechanical energy. In order for the process to be continuous, the expanded gases must be removed from the combustion space, a new charge must be admitted, and combustion must be repeated. In the process of engine operation, beginning with the admission of air and fuel and following through to the removal of the expanded gases, a series of events or phases’ takes place. The term cycle identifies the sequence of events that takes place in the cylinder of an engine for each power impulse transmitted to the crankshaft. These events always occur in the same order each time the cycle is repeated. There-are-six main events that take place in the cycle of operation of the _ 2. Compression of air 3. Injection of Fuel | 4. Ignition and combustion of charge 5. Expansion of gasses [6 Removal of waste [z Intake of Air DAL. DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. foe ore) Page 2 of 75 Basic Diese! Engine OperationOry SO Rveda bred te “a ni be e es pert Ph in Bla s 3 StaleAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midiand Combustion Co. Ltd. ‘Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum — Kilo 8, ‘Sudan ‘The method by which an engine operates is referred to as the MECHANICAL, or operating, CYCLE of an engine. The heat process that produces the forces that move engine parts is referred to as the COMBUSTION CYCLE. Both mechanical and combustion cycles are included in a cycle of operation of an engine. MECHANICAL CYCLES We have talked about the events taking place in a cycle of engine operation, but we have said very little about piston strokes. A complete sequence of events will occur during a cycle regardless of the number of strokes made by the piston, The number of piston strokes occurring during any one cycle of events is limited to either two or four, depending on the design of the engine. Thus, we have a 4-stroke cycle and a 2-stroke cycle. These cycles are known as the mechanical cycles of operation. Relationship of Events and Strokes in a Cycle A piston stroke is the distance a piston moves between limits of travel. The cycle of operation in an engine that operates on the 4-stroke cycle involves four piston strokes—INTAKE, COMPRESSION, POWER, and EXHAUST. However, since six events are listed for diesel engines, more than one event must take place during some of the strokes, This is because such events as intake, compression, power, and exhaust in a 4-stroke cycle involve at least a major portion of a stroke and, in some cases, more than one stroke. You should not overlook other events taking place during a cycle of operation. You will have to consider all events in the operation of an engine when you begin to deal with maintenance problems involving the timing of fuel injection systems, 4-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine To help you understand the relationship between events and strokes, we will discuss the number of events that occur during a specific stroke. We will also discuss the duration of an event with respect to a piston stroke and the cases where one event overlaps another. We can demonstrate the relationship of events to strokes by showing the changing situation in a cylinder during a cycle of operation. The figure below illustrates these changes for a 4-stroke cycle diesel engine. DAL. DAL Engineering Co. Ltd cand Page 3 of 75 Basic Diese! Engine Operation‘Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, ‘Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. ‘Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum - Kilo 8, ‘Sudan. FOUR-STROKE CYCLE DOWNSTROKE (POWER) UPSTROKE (EXHAUST) DOWNGTROKE (TAKE) | UPSTROKE (COMPRESSION 4 ect? 4 A SSS Ue REVOLUTION oF CRANKSLAPY -[--——— one nevorurion of cxanxsnarr——— 160°» eo a. The Internal Combustion Engine Before explaining the operation of the four-stroke engine, some of the internal parts must be identified. Refer to the drawing of the basic internal combustion engine. Throughout the presentation, these parts are mentioned, so an understanding of what they do should be helpful. The Intake Valve opens at a precise time to allow the air mixture to enter the cylinder. The Exhaust Valve opens at a precise time to allow the bumed gases to leave the cylinder. The Fuel injector DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd, SERRE PEE Page 4 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine Operationig adit Jo aor iva self male teetng ont tf Bez Son BN allivsat hon at Poe AwWO BW HE. Tet i : : : BOF 5 he ote waa | otAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midtand Combustion Co. Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum - Kilo 8, ddan, introduces diesel into the cylinder, which creates an explosion. The force of the explosion is transferred to the Piston. The piston travels up and down in a Reciprocation Motion. The force from the piston is then transferred to the Crankshaft through the Piston Rod (connecting rod). The piston rod converts the reciprocating motion of the piston, to the Rotating Motion of the crankshaft. Now that the basic parts are identified, lets go through the four strokes of the internal combustion engine, which are intake, Compression, Power, and Exhaust. The Intake Stroke: (On the intake stroke, the intake valve has opened. Th piston is moving down, and air is being pushed by atmospheric pressure and / or turbocharger, into thi cylinder through the intake valve port. The Compression Stroke: After the piston reaches the lower limit of its travel, it! begins to move upward. As this happens, the intake| valve closes. The exhaust valve is also closed, so the; cylinder is sealed. As the piston moves upward, the air is| compressed. The action of the pistons in compressing] the air rapidly increases the pressure within the cylinder. This action, in turn, results in a rapid increase in| temperature. The increase in temperature occurs| because the molecules of air are being squeezed into a| smaller and smaller space. DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd eee ed Page 5 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre Midiand Combustion Co. Ltd Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, Sudan The Power Stroke: Just before the piston reaches the top of its travel on the] compression stroke, the fuel injector forces diesel fuell through nozzles into the cylinder. The nozzles and| injection pressure cause the fuel to atomise and turn into] a fine mist, due to the high temperature of thel compressed air at this point, the fuel spontaneously) ignites as it is injected into the cylinder. The mixture] burns rapidly causing an increase in pressure. All of this] pressure against the piston forces it down in the cylinder, The power impulse is transmitted down through the| piston, through the piston rod (connecting rod), and to’ the crankshaft. The crankshaft is rotated due to the force. The Exhaust Stroke: As the piston reaches the bottom of its travel, th exhaust valve opens. Now, as the piston moves up on| the exhaust stroke, it forces the burned gases out of th cylinder through the exhaust port. Just before the piston] reaches the top of its travel, the intake valve opens while] the exhaust valve is still open. This allows fresh air t ‘sweep out’ or scavange the last remaining exhaust gasses. Just after the piston reaches TOC, the exhaust valve closes. The cycle repeats again with the intak stroke. The four strokes are continuously repeated| during the operation of the engine. Engine Components VALVE-ACTUATING MECHANISMS Valve mechanisms may vary considerably in construction and design, even though the function remains the same. We will go into more detail in the following paragraphs. ACTUATING MECHANISM, as used in this section, is that combination of parts that receives power from the drive mechanism and transmits the power to the engine valves. in order for the intake and exhaust valves, fuel injection, and air start to operate, there must be a change in the type of motion. The rotary motion of the camshaft must be changed to a reciprocating motion. The group of parts that, by changing the type of motion, DAL DAL Engineering Co. Lid —— Page 6 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationSHbAsven & Wy ote, SS Lari Maar aA Bib KR eg hake oFand bev (ADC) xsovouss cae Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midtand Combustion Co. Lte. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, ‘Sudan causes the valves of an engine to operate is generally referred to as the VALVE ACTUATING MECHANISM. A. vaive-actuating mechanism may include the camshaft, cam followers, pushrods, rocker arms, and valve springs. In some engines, the camshaft is so located that pushrods are not needed. In such engines, the cam follower is a part of the rocker arm. VALVES The intake and exhaust valves used. in.internal-c poppet type. Poppet valves he sled edges beveled_seats, which alves a ring action. Exhaust valves are usually made of silicon-chromium steel or steel alloys. Usually, there is a high content of nickel and chromium included in the steel or alloy so that the valves can resist corrosion caused by high-temperature gases. A hard alloy, such as Stellite, is often welded to the seating surface of the valve face and to the tip of the valve stem. Exhaust valves used in our engines have Nimonic seats which is a special material developed for the engines to run on Diesel or Crude oil, The hard alloy increases the wearing qualities of the surfaces, which make contact when the valve closes. Low-alloy steels are generally used for intake valves because these valves are not exposed to the corrosive action of the hot exhaust gases. Consequently, intake valves are capable of longer periods of trouble-free operation. ombustion engines are of the As an example, the inlet valves are reconditioned in the ADC workshop by grinding them back to the original shape and dimensions, normally after 9000 hours of running, however the Exhaust valves can not be reconditioned due to the Nimonic material and have to be replaced after 18000 hours of service. Valve seat inserts are provided in most diesel engine cylinder heads so that valve seat life is extended. Valve seat inserts also have the advantage of being replaceable. Several different types of materials are used in the manufacture of valve seat inserts. Intake valve seats are DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd ey Page 7 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. Vokes Limited Allen Diesels Centre, ‘Wad Medani Road, Khartoum — Kilo 8, sudan ROCKER anit H ES ) nae Pusrom, ceumore tinea << ~~ Valve operating mechanism manufactured from special alloys of cast iron. Exhaust valve seats are made from Nimonic material. Valve seat inserts are installed with an interference fit, Replaceable valve guides are provided for most diesel engines. Replaceable valve guides are made of a cast iron alloy that has a superior wearability and is more corrosion resistant than the alloy that is used in the cylinder head. Replaceable valve guides not only provide a guide and bearing for each valve stem but also aid in conducting heat from each valve stem to the water jacket that surrounds the guide. DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd — Page 8 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, ‘Midland Combustion Co. Ltd, Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, clan. Valve Springs Valve springs are mechanisms that serve to close the valves. Valve springs are made of highly tempered round steel wire that is wound in a spiral coil. Only a small percentage of the spring force is required to keep the valve tight on the valve seat of the head. The majority of the spring force is used to keep the pushrod or the rocker arm in contact with the cam while the valve is being opened and closed. This force of the valve spring prevents the bouncing or fluttering of the valve that would otherwise occur from the rapid motion of the opening and closing of the valve at high speeds. So that the spring can have sufficient force, it is always compressed when it is installed. (It is further compressed, of course, whenever the valve is opened.) Valve Spring Retainers Valve springs are mounted between supports. These supports, commonly referred to as SPRING SEATS, are located at the ends of the spring. The LOWER SPRING SEAT may be simply a recess in the top of the cylinder head, or a steel washer that rests on top of the cylinder head, and is shaped to fit the bottom coil of the spring. The UPPER SPRING SEAT, called the SPRING RETAINER, is a steel! washer that is shaped to fit the top of the spring. The upper spring seat is attached to the top of the valve stem by removable fastenings commonly known as valve keepers Valve Keepers A widely used type of valve spring retainer is provided with a conical recess in the upper seat. The valve stem is locked in the recess by means of a conical split collar, called a LOCK , KEEPER or COLLET. This collar fits around the stem and into one or more grooves turned in the valve stem Valve Rotators (On some engines that are subjected to long periods of idle or light loads, valve rotators may be used to keep the valves from sticking due to combustion deposits (carbon) forming on the valves. Valve rotators also serve to extend the life of the valves and valve seats by ensuring an even distribution of wear on the valve stem and valve guide. Without rotation, the combustion deposits that form on the valve stem, face, and seat would be cleaned off on one side only. Standard valve spring seats allow rotation but do not assure it. With controlled rotation, carbon deposits are cleaned off all around the valve stem, face, and seat. Valve rotators may be installed below ‘or above the valve spring according to design requirements. DAL. DAL Engineering Co. Ltd, Page 9 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midiand Combustion Co. Ltd. ‘Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, Sudan, CAMSHAFTS ‘A camshaft is a shaft with eccentric projections called cams. The camshaft of an engine is designed to control the operation of the valves and fuel injection pump usually through various intermediate parts. On some engines, a balance shaft is used to counterbalance the rotation of the weighted camshaft and to stabilize the oscillatory impulses developed within the engine The camshaft may be constructed in several ways. It can be forged in one piece in which the cams themselves are integral to the shaft. (This is the most common design in small to medium engines.) A camshaft of a large engine may consist of a shaft with separate forged steel or cast iron cams keyed and shrunk on the camshaft. Another construction used on larger engines is a camshaft that is made from sections which are bolted together. Some engines have two camshafts and others have only one, depending on the design of the engine. To reduce wear and to withstand repeated shock action, camshafts are made of low-carbon alloy steel with the cam and journal surfaces carburized (case- hardened) before the final grinding is done. The cams are arranged on the shaft so that the proper firing order of the cylinders served can take place. If one cylinder is properly timed, the remaining cylinders are automatically in time. All cylinders will be affected if there is a change in timing. The shape of the cam determines the point of opening and closing, the speed of opening and closing, and the amount of the valve lift The camshaft in a 4-stroke cycle diesel engine carries the cams for actuating the intake and exhaust vaives. In addition, the camshaft may carry cams for fuel injection equipment or air starting DAL DAL Engineering Co. Lid EES Page 10 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationALLEN DIESELS CENTRE Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Ltd Wad Medani Road. Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, Sudan valves Lees Heute, sae ea outa can ano nance ceed se aNCE sacacer suas Shar GCARINS (Gsaoee9 BUSAN a B c Various camshaft locations. The location of the camshaft differs in various engines. The camshaft may be located low (near the crankshaft) and may use long pushrods, or the camshaft may be located at the cylinder head level without pushrods Rocker Arms and Pushrods Rocker arms (levers) are part of the valve-actuating mechanism. A rocker arm is designed to pivot on a pivot pin or shaft that is secured to a bracket. The DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. ema Page 11 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. ‘Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum - Kilo 8, Sudan bracket is mounted on the cylinder head. One end of a rocker arm is in contact with the top of the valve stem, and the other end is actuated by the camshaft. In some installations where the camshaft is located near the cylinder head, the rocker arm may be actuated from the cam by the use of cam followers The two outer arms operate the exhaust valves, and the inner arm operates the fuel injector. Since there are four exhaust valves per cylinder, each exhaust rocker arm must operate a pair of valves through a valve bridge. The valve bridge enables the rocker arm to operate two valves simultaneously. The valve bridge in this engine is made of forged steel and has a hardened ball socket into which the ball end of the rocker arm adjusting screw fits. The valve bridge has two arms, each of which fits over an exhaust valve. The valve bridge spring keeps valve bridge tension off the valve stems until the bridge is actuated by the rocker arm. When the valve end of the rocker arm is forced down by the cam action, the valve bridge moves down, ‘compressing the valve springs and opening the valves. By the time the action of the cam lobe has ceased, the valve springs will have closed the valves. In installations where the camshaft is located below the cylinder head, the rocker arms are actuated by pushrods. The lifters (cam followers) have rollers which are forced by the valve springs to follow the profiles of the cams. The pushrod transmits the motion from the roller type of lifter for intake and exhaust valve operation and are activated by their respective intake and exhaust lobes of the camshaft. the unit in the figure below is a 4-stroke cycle unit and requires both an intake valve rocker arm and an exhaust valve rocker arm. DAL Engineering Co. Ltd DAL ———s Page 12 of 75 Basic Diese! Engine OperationALLEN DIESELS CENTRE Authorised representatives of Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Lt. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, Sudan, spnusring scace vor ExnAUST VALVE voxt rem alata Yore CrNTAKE: ADJUSTING ScoEM ROTATOR wae fe soning INTAKE VALE ROCKER Ae YORE Gute TARE VALVE (OPER EXMAUST VALYE (CLOSEOD PUSHAOD (EXHAUST? PuswncD (iNTAce) Pusi0D LIFTER (exmaust Fusing LIFTER CNTARED DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. DAL ERATED Page 13 of 75 Basic Diese! Engine Operation(ADC) ssmcsscom Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midiand Combustion Co. Ltd, Wad Medani Read, Vokes Limited Khartoum — Kilo 8, uudan Piston and Rings: Piston crowns of concave design are common. An advantage of the concave shape is that it assists in creating air turbulence, which mixes the fuel with air during the last part of compression in diesel engines. ‘Laas: The SKIRT of a trunk-type piston receives the side thrust created by the movement of the crank and connecting rod. In turn, the piston transmits the thrust to the cylinder wall. In addition to receiving thrust, the skirt aids in keeping the piston in proper alignment within the cylinder. ‘Most trunk-type pistons are of one-piece construction. Some trunk pistons are made of two parts and two metals; the trunk or skirt is made of cast iron or an aluminum alloy, and the crown or head is made of steel. in some pistons of this type of construction, the crown is fitted to the trunk with a ground joint, while in others the parts are welded together. Without GROOVES and LANDS, the piston rings cannot be properly spaced or held in position. The number of grooves and lands on a piston will vary considerably, depending on such factors as the size and the type of the piston. DAL. DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. aD Page 14 of 75 Basic Diese! Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co, Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kito 8, ‘Sudan ‘Some pistons have OIL DRAINS (small holes) in the bottom of some of the grooves , some pistons have oil drains in the skirt of the piston or in the land. These holes serve as oil returns, permitting lubricating oil from the cylinder wall to pass through the piston into the crankcase. Generally, the BOSSES (hubs) of a piston are heavily reinforced openings in the piston skirt. Some bosses are a part of an insert which is secured to the inside of the piston. The principal function of the bosses is to serve as mounting places for the bushings or bearings which support the piston pin. The bosses provide a means of attaching the connecting rod to the piston. Generally, the diameter of the piston at the bosses is slightly less than the diameter of the rest of the piston. This difference serves to compensate for the expansion of the extra metal in the bosses. Because of the intense heat generated in the combustion chamber, adequate cooling must be provided. The heat transmitted through the rings (approximately 30 percent of the heat absorbed by the piston) to the cylinder wall is not sufficient in many engines to keep the unit cooled within operating limits. Most pistons have fins or ribs and struts as internal parts. The additional surfaces of these parts help to dissipate heat; much of the heat is carried away by oil which may be pump-forced, sprayed, splashed, or thrown by centrifugal force onto the underside of the piston assembly. Oil is the principal means of cooling for most piston assemblies. Intake air is also used in the cooling of hot engine parts. In order to exhaust or scavenge a cylinder of burned gases and cool the engine parts, the intake and exhaust valves or ports are so timed that both are open for a short time at the end of the exhaust stroke. This action allows the intake air to enter the cylinder, clean out the hot gases, and, at the same time, cool the parts. PISTON RINGS Piston rings are particularly vital to engine operation in that they must effectively perform three functions: seal the cylinder, distribute and control lubricating oil on the cylinder wall, and transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder wall. All rings on a piston perform the latter function, but two general types of rings—compression and oil—are required to perform the first two functions. ‘The number of rings and their location will also vary considerably with the type and size of the piston. The ring closest to the crown is sometimes referred to as the FIRING ring. DAL Engineering Co. Ltd, DAL ena) Page 16 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine Operation(Apc) auch ese. come Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. ‘Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum - Kilo 8, sudan Piston fing location can be more accurately identified by reference to the crown or combustion end and to the skirt or crankshaft end of the piston. There are many variations in the design of compression and oil rings. Ot Be a sre SENT Compression Rings The principal function of compression rings is to seal the cylinder and combustion space so that the gases within the space cannot escape until they have performed their function. Some oil is carried with the compression rings as they travel up and down the cylinder for lubrication. Most compression rings are made of gray cast iron. Some types of compression rings, however, have special facings, such as bronze (inserted in a slot cut in the circumference of the ring) or a specially treated surface. Rings with the bronze inserts are sometimes called GOLD SEAL rings, while those with special DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. Ce rel Page 16 of 75 Basic Diese! Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midiand Combustion Co. Lid. ‘Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum - Kilo 8, udan facings are referred to as BIMETAL rings. The bimetal ring is composed of two layers of metal bonded together, the inner layer being steel and the outer layer being cast iron Compression rings come with a variety of cross sections; however, the rectangular cross section is the most common. Since piston rings contribute as much as any other one thing toward maintaining pressure in a cylinder, they must possess sufficient elasticity to press uniformly against the cylinder walls. The diameter of the ring, before installation, is slightly larger than the cylinder bore. Because of the joint, the ring can be compressed to enter the cylinder. The tension that is created when the ring is compressed and placed in a cylinder causes the ring to expand and produce a pressure against the cylinder wall The pressure exerted by rings closest to the combustion space is increased by the action of the confined gases during compression and combustion. The gases enter behind the top ring, through the clearance between the ring and groove, and force the ring out against the cylinder and down against the bottom of the groove. The gas pressure on the second ring and each successive compression ring is progressively lessened since the gas that reaches these rings is limited to that passing through the gap of each preceding ring. When a piston assembly is disassembled, you can look at the compression rings and tell whether they have been functioning properly. If a ring has been working properly, the face (surface bearing against the cylinder wall) and the bottom of the ring will be bright and shiny because of contact with the cylinder wall and the groove. The top and back (inside surface) of the ring will be black, since they are exposed to the hot combustion gases. Black areas on sealing surfaces indicate that hot gases have been escaping. Under normal operating conditions, with engine parts functioning properly, there will be very little leakage of gas because of the excellent sealing of the piston rings. The oil that prevents metal-to-metal contact between the rings and cylinder wall also helps, to a degree, in making the seal. When a proper seal is established, the only point at which gas can leak is through the piston ting gap. The gap of a piston ring is so small, compared to the total circumference of the ring, that the amount of leakage is negligible when rings are functioning properly. DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. poeeecereond Page 17 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine Operation(ADC) susuossaacomne Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, ‘Midland Combustion Co. Ltd, Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, Sudan Oil Rings Although oil rings come in a large variety of designs, they must all do two things: (1) distribute enough oil to the cylinder wall to prevent metal-to- metal contact, and (2) control the amount of oil distributed. Without an adequate oil film between the rings and the cylinder, undue friction occurs, resulting in excessive wear of the rings and the cylinder wall. On the other hand, too much oil is as undesirable as not enough oil. If too much oil is distributed by the rings, the oil may reach the combustion space and burn, wasting oil and causing smoky exhaust and excessive carbon deposits in the cylinder. Such carbon deposits may cause the rings to stick in their grooves. Sticking rings lead to a poor gas seal. Thus, oil rings provide an important function in proper control and distribution of the lubricating oil. Different manufacturers use a variety of terms in their technical manuals to identify the oil rings of an engine—such terms as oil control, oil scraper, oil wiper, oil cutter, oil drain, and oil regulating. Regardiess of the identifying terms used, all such rings are used to limit the oil film on the cylinder walls and to provide adequate lubrication to the compression rings. Most oll control rings use some type of expander to force them against the cylinder wall. This aids in wiping the excess oil from the cylinder wall. Some rings have very narrow faces bearing on the cylinder wall, which permit the ring assembly to conform rapidly to the shape of the cylinder wall. Since the ring tension is concentrated on a small area, the rings will cut through the oil film easily and remove the excess oil. The bevel on the upper edge of each ting face causes the ring to ride over the oil film as the piston moves toward top dead center (TDC), but as the piston moves downward for intake and power, the sharp, hook-like lower edge of each ring scrapes or wipes the oil from the cylinder wall. PISTON PINS AND PISTON BEARINGS In trunk-type piston assemblies, the only connection between the piston and the connecting rod is the pin and its bearings. These parts must be of especially strong construction because the power developed in the cylinder is transmitted from the piston through the pin to the connecting rod. The pin is the pivot point where the straight-line, or reciprocating, motion of the piston changes to the reciprocating and rotating motion of the connecting rod. Thus, the pin is subjected to two principal forces—the forces created by combustion and the side thrust created by the change in direction of motion. Before discussing the pin further, let us consider the side thrust which occurs in a DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. fee cea Page 18 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine Operation(ADC) ee Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. Wed Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum - Kilo 8, sudan single-acting engine equipped with trunk-type pistons. Side thrust is exerted at all points during a stroke of a trunk-type piston, except at top dead center (TDC) and bottom dead center (BDC). The side thrust is absorbed by the cylinder wall, Thrust occurs first on one side of the cylinder and then on the other, depending on the position of the piston and the connecting rod and the direction of rotation of the crankshaft. In view A of the figure below, gas pressure is forcing the piston downward (power). Since the crankshaft is otating clock-wise, the force of combustion and the resistance of the driven parts tend to push the piston to the left. The resulting side thrust is exerted on the cylinder wall. If the crankshaft were rotating counterclockwise, the situation would be reversed In view B of the figure below, the piston is being pushed upward (compression) by the crankshaft and connecting rod. This causes the side thrust to be exerted on the opposite side of the cylinder. Thus, the side thrust alternates from side to side as the piston moves up and down. Side thrust in an engine cylinder makes proper lubrication and correct clearance essential. Without an oil film between the piston and the cylinder wall, metal-to-metal contact occurs and results in excessive wear, If the clearance between the piston and cylinder wall is excessive, a pounding noise, called PISTON SLAP, will occur as the thrust alternates from side to side. DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd AS Page 190f75 Basic Diesel Engine Operation: Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, 4. | Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. ‘Wad Medani Road, * Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kito 8, 7 iz dan, os PRESSURE g Wa SHOE SIDE Wi ruaust —TamusT Puston Piston om MSERT Guswtug CONNECTING. ROD BUSHING PISTON PIN OUBIING BEARING SHELL HALVES, DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. DAL A Page 20 of 75 Basic Diese! Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, Sudan. CONNECTING RODS The connecting rod is the connecting link between the piston and the crankshaft. It is one of the most highly stressed parts of an engine in that the connecting rod transmits the forces of combustion to the crankshaft. When used in V-type engines, two rods are mounted on a single crankpin The two cylinders served are off-set so that the rods can be operated side by side. Rods are generally made of drop-forged, heat-treated carbon steel (alloy steel forging). Most rods have an |- or H-shaped cross section which provides maximum strength with minimum weight. The bore (hub, eye) at the piston end of the rod is generally forged as an integral part of the rod The bore of the crankshaft end of a conventional rod is fitted with a precision bearing of the shell type Connecting rod bearings of most engines are pressure-lubricated by oil from adjacent main bearings, through drilled passages. The oil is evenly distributed over the bearing surfaces by oil grooves in the shells, Bearing shells have drilled holes which line up with an oil groove in the rod bearing seat. Oil from this groove is forced to the piston pin through the drilled passage in the rod. Connecting Rod Bolts. Connecting rod bolts are the securing link between the piston assembly and the crankshaft. The rod bolts, because of the need for great strength, are generally made of heat-treated alloy steel. Fine threads with close pitch are sed to give maximum strength and to permit secure tightening The majority of rod bolts used are machined to provide high fatigue resistance by having a large portion of the body of the bolt turned to a diameter of less than the root diameter of the thread. Thus, all the body, except the ends and the center portion (which acts as a dowel), is machined to the smaller diameter. DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. DAL Page 21 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine Operation(ADC) susvoxsei cee Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, ‘Midiand Combustion Co. Ltd. ‘Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, sudan CRANKSHAFT ‘As one of the largest moving parts in an engine, the crankshaft changes the movement of the piston and the connecting rod into the rotating motion that is needed to drive such items as generators and pumps. ‘As the name implies, the crankshaft consists of a series of cranks (throws) formed as offsets in a shaft. The crankshaft is subjected to all the forces developed in an engine. Because of this, the shaft must be of especially strong construction. It is usually machined from forged alloy or high-carbon steel. The shafts of some engines are made of cast-iron alloy. Forged crankshafts are nitrided (heat-treated) to increase the strength of the shafts and to minimize wear. The MAIN JOURNALS serve as the points of support and as the centre of rotation for the shaft. As bearing surfaces, the main journals and the connecting rod journals of crankshafts are surface-hardened so that a longer wearing, more durable bearing metal can be used without causing excessive wear of the shaft As illustrated in the figure below, crankshafts have a main journal at each end of the shaft with an intermediate main journal between the cranks. Each CRANK (throw) of a shaft consists of three parts, two webs and a pin. Crank webs are sometimes called cheeks or arms. The cranks, or throws, provide points of attachment for the connecting rods, which are offset from the main journals. In many crankshafts, especially in large engines, the connecting rod journals and main journals are of hollow construction. Hollow construction not only reduces weight considerably but also increases torque capability of the crankshaft and provides a passage for the flow of lubricating oil The forces that turn the crankshaft of a diesel engine are produced and transmitted to the crankshaft in a pulsating manner. These pulsations create torsional vibrations, which are capable of severely damaging an engine if they are not reduced, or dampened, by opposing forces. Many engines require an extra dampening effect to ensure satisfactory operation. It is provided by a torsional vibration damper mounted on the free end of the crankshaft. Several types of torsional dampers are currently in use. ‘On some crankshafts, part of the web of the crankshaft extends beyond the main journal to form or support counterweights. These counter-weights may be integral parts of the web or may be separate units attached to the web by DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. Ee Page 22 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, sudan ‘studs and nuis, or setscrews. Counterweights balance the off-center weight of the individual crank throws and thereby compensate for centrifugal force generated by each rotating crank throw. Without such balance, the crank action will create severe vibrations, particularly at the higher speeds. If such vibrations are not controlled, the shaft would become damaged. Excessive vibration may lead to complete failure of the engine. Counterweights use inertia to reduce the pulsating effect of power impulses in the same manner as the flywheel. Flywheels are described later in this section. FRONT MAIN BEARING — COUNTERWEIGHTS COUNTERNE IGHTS: REAR MAIN CONNECTING BEARING. ROD JOURNAL JOURNAL INTERMEDIATE: MAIN BEARING a) SOURNAL 4} THRONES HED NOTE: 1-THROW:2-WEBS+1 PIN ‘One-piece, 6-throw crankshaft. cenaee eits An example of hollow connecting rod journal construction. DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. DAL ds RAST Page 23 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co, Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum — Kilo 8, Sudan. NA In the oil passage arrangement shown in view B of the above figure , the passage is drilled straight through the diameter of each main and connecting Tod journal. A single diagonal passage is drilled from the outside of a crankshaft web to the center of the next main journal. The diagonal passage connects the oil passages in the two adjoining connecting rod journals and main journals. The outer end of the diagonal passage is plugged DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd, — Page 24 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midiand Combustion Co, Lid Wad Medani Road. Vokes Limited Khartoum — Kilo 8, Sudan. Lubricating oil under pressure enters the main bearing and is forced through the diagonal passage to lubricate the connecting rod bearing. From there it flows through the drilled connecting rod to lubricate the piston pin and cool the piston. CRANKSHAFT THROW ARRANGEMENTS The smooth operation of an engine and its steady production of power depends, to a great extent, on the arrangement of the cranks on the shaft and ‘on the firing order of the cylinders. For uniform rotation of the crankshaft in most multi-cylinder engines, the power impulses must be equally spaced with respect to the angle of crankshaft rotation. Whenever possible, they must also be placed so that successive explosions do not occur in adjacent cylinders. BEARINGS As mentioned in chapter 3, the bearings of an engine make up an important group of parts, Bearings serve to support rotating shafts and other moving parts and to transmit loads from one part of the engine to another. Engine bearings consist of two basic types: antifriction bearings and friction bearings. ANTIFRICTION BEARINGS and thrust bearings, The use of antifriction bearings is mostly limited to the exterior areas of an engine. You will find them in use in cooling pumps, fuel-injection pumps, governors, starters, flywheel pilot bearings, and turbochargers. All antifriction bearings employ a rolling element (rollers, balls, or needles) between the inner and outer rings (races). Either the inner ring or the outer ring will remain stationary. (Refer to the figure below for cutaway views of two types of antifriction bearings.) Because of the small contact area between the rolling elements and the inner and outer rings and the necessity for the bearing to withstand the high compression stress, the material used for the construction of roller bearings is usually carbonized steel alloy and that used for ball bearings is usually heat-treated chromium-alloy steel DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. Poses cen Page 26 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine Operationioe Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Lta. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum - Kilo 8, Sudan A SNGLEQOW ECP GUOVE UALL BEARINC. 1, CYLINIAEAD, STRAECHY KOLLER WEARING Cutaway view of a ball bearing and roller bearing. Bearings that are similar in appearance may not be suitable as replacement bearings. Ball and roller bearings are identified by a numerical code which indicates the bore in millimeters or sixteenths of an inch. The internal fit, or tolerance, and any special characteristics are also coded by number. Letter codes indicate the type of bearing, the outside diameter (OD), the width of the cage, the seal or shield, the modification, and the required lubricant. FRICTION BEARINGS In diesel engines, friction bearings serve to support the crankshaft, connecting tod, camshaft, and gear train. In some engine applications, friction bearings also support the rocker arm shaft as well as various pumps. Precision-type bearings that act as supports for the crankshaft are referred to as MAIN JOURNAL BEARINGS. In our discussion of friction bearings, we will use the main journal bearing as a representative sample. Main journal bearings are of the sliding contact, or plain, type consisting of two half shells. (See the figure below) The main journal construction has a steel back bonded with a layer of bearing material. The bearing material is tin- based. Regardless of the construction materials, the function and performance of main journal bearings are basically the same. Main bearings and their housing and caps are precision machined with a tolerance sufficiently close that, when properly installed, the bearings are in alignment with the journals and fit with a predetermined clearance. The clearance provides space for the thin film of lubricating oil which is forced, DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. oe ey Page 26 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, Sudan, under pressure, between the journals and the bearing surfaces, Under normal operating conditions, the film of oil surrounds the journals at all engine load pressures, Lubricating oil enters the bearing shells from the engine lubricating system, through oil grooves in the bearing shells. These inlets and grooves are located in the low-pressure area of the bearing Main bearings are subjected to a fluctuating load, as are the connecting rod bearings and the piston pin bearings. However, the manner in which main journal bearings are loaded depends on the type of engine in which they are used. In a 4-stroke cycle engine, the load is applied first on one bearing shell and then on the other. The reversal of pressure is the result of the large forces of inertia imposed during the intake and exhaust strokes. In other words, inertia tends to lift the crankshaft in its bearings during the intake stroke and exhaust stroke. FLYWHEELS The speed of rotation of the crankshaft increases each time the shaft receives a power impulse from one of the pistons. The speed then gradually decreases until another power impulse is received. If permitted to continue unchecked, these fluctuations in speed (their number depending upon the number of cylinders firing on one crankshaft revolution) would result in an undesirable situation with respect to the driven mechanism as well as to the engine. Therefore, some means must be provided so that shaft rotation can be stabilized. In most engines, this is accomplished by installation of a flywheel on the crankshaft. In other engines, the motion of such engine parts as the connecting rod journals, webs and lower ends of the connecting rods, and such driven units as the generator serves the purpose. The need for a flywheel decreases as the number of cylinders firing in one revolution of the crankshaft and the mass of moving parts attached to the crankshaft increase. A flywheel stores up energy during the power event and releases it during the remaining events of the operating cycle. In other words, when the speed of the shaft tends to increase, the flywheel absorbs energy. When the speed tends to decrease, the flywheel gives up energy to the shaft in an effort to keep shaft rotation uniform. In doing this, a flywheel (1) keeps variations in speed within desired limits at all loads; (2) timits the increase or decrease in speed during sudden changes of load: (3) aids in forcing the piston through the compression event when an engine is running at low or idling speed; and (4) provides leverage or mechanical advantage for a starting motor. Flywheels are generally made of cast iron, cast steel, or rolled steel. Strength of the material from which the flywheel is made is of prime importance DAL Engineering Co Ltd DAL mance e cers Page 27 of 75 Basic Diese! Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, ‘Midiand Combustion Co. Lid. ‘Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, Sudan. because of the stresses created in the metal of the flywheel when the engine is operating at maximum designed speed. The flywheel is the point of attachment for items such as a starting ring gear or a turning ring gear. The rim of a flywheel may be marked in degrees. With a stationary pointer attached to the engine, the degree markings can be used for a determination of the position of the crankshaft when the engine is being timed. BARRING GEARS. Diesel drive installations are equipped with a means of jacking, or barring, over. A great majority of diesel engines are jacked over by hand, One method of rotating the engine is with the use of a turning bar. In this installation, holes are provided around the circumference of the rim for insertion of the turning bar so that the crankshaft can be manually rotated. (See fig. below.) This is a very simple but effective means that allows for the precise positioning of the crankshaft when required for timing. Ring gear and coupling (flywheel). DAL DAL Engineering Co, Ltd, en ed Page 28 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine Operation(ADC) ee Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diese's Centre, Midiand Combustion Co. Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum - Kilo 8, idan ‘Still another method of rotating the crankshaft is illustrated in the figure below. This engine barring device consists of a pinion and a hex head drive shaft. The drive shaft is mounted in a housing containing an eccentric sleeve arrangement for engaging the pinion with the ring gear on the flywheel. The barring device shown is operated by an electric motor on the 4000 series engines. The engine is equipped with safety devices that prevent the engine from starting while the barring gear is engaged. The type of safety devices will depend on the = type_:—=Csoo_~_— starting §=—ssystem =— used. SUMMARY The valve-actuating mechanisms are those parts that transform the rotary motion of a drive mechanism into reciprocating motion. Reciprocating motion is used for the operation of engine cylinder valves. The camshaft is the principal part of a valve-actuating mechanism. Rotary motion of the cams on the camshaft is changed to reciprocating motion, and power is transmitted to the various cylinder valves (intake, exhaust, fuel injection, and air start) by means of rocker arm or tapped assemblies. These assemblies make contact with the cams by the use of cam followers. The process of transmitting the power developed in an engine to useful energy involves the motion of many parts. The major parts are the piston, connecting rods, and crankshaft; however, many related parts must be DAL Engineering Co. Ltd DAL =a Page 290f75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Lte. ‘Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, Sudan. considered in the process of changing reciprocating motion to rotary motion. For example, a piston, which may be of the trunk type or the crosshead type, receives the force of combustion and transmits it to the crankshaft through a connecting rod. To accomplish their functions, pistons are fitted with piston rings, such as compression and oil control rings. Piston rings function to maintain a gastight seal between the piston and cylinder wall, to assist in cooling the piston, and to control cylinder wall lubrication. The crankshaft, the largest of the moving parts of an engine, receives the power impulses from all cylinders of the engine, transforms the motion of the pistons and connecting rods into rotary motion, and transmits the resulting torque to the flywheel or driven unit. Other important parts which must be considered in connection with moving parts of an engine are bearings. Bearings may be of the antifriction type or friction type. Both types can be found on diesel installations. Antifriction bearings are commonly used in the engine accessories while friction bearings are commonly used within the internal structure of the engine. As in the case of the principal stationary parts of the engine, you should be thoroughly familiar with all of the major moving and actuating components of an engine. You should know the functions and operating principles of these parts and how these parts are related to the stationary parts. You should be able to associate each component, as discussed separately, with other related components of the engine and how each part or assembly is related to the cycle of engine operation. DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd ENS Page 30 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine Operation(ADC) ausuocsa. come ‘Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, Sudan START AIR SYSTEM The GENERATOR engines (2006 series) at the pump stations are all known as “Black Start” engines. This means they can be started when there is no external electrical power supply. Alll critical components required for starting these engines are pneumatically operated, the Lube Oil Priming Pump and the Turbo start air motor which engages the flywheel ring gear to rotate the engine. The compressed air is supplied by air compressors, one of them being a diese! driven compressor for the black start conditions and the others being electrical motor driven. The compressors are 2 stage high pressure units designed to pressurize the system to 21 Bar. They are not completely oil free instrument air units, and do contaminate the air supply with oil to a small extent, however have been proved to be within acceptable limits of oil contamination for the instrumentation used. Too much oil or water in the compressed air is not desirable, oil affects the operation of instrumentation such as the Oil Mist Detector, and water causes components to rust and seize. Any rust, dust and dirt particles that pass through the air compressor need to be filtered out before they reach the engine control systems otherwise they can lead to parts wearing out, getting blocked or seizing. To do this, a filter unit is mounted in the compressed air supply pipe. This filter need to be checked periodically and stripped and cleaned when nessesary. When air is compressed any moisture in the air is concentrated along with the air itself. If the air around us seems to be dry, as in the desert at the pumpstations, and you suck in large quantities of this air and compress it, the small amount of water vapour is concentrated into a much smaller volume. When the compressed air drops in temperature — it will increase with compression, the water vapour will precipitate out as water droplets. This water need to be removed from the system, and is done by two methods. 1. automatically using the water trap and drain unit mounted in the supply pipe between the air compressors and the air receivers. This unit has a float and valve mechanism built into it and when the water level rises in the bowl, the float opens the drain valve. The pressure inside the unit forces the water out until the float drops and shuts off the exhaust valve. These auto drain units need regular monitoring and maintenance and are not suited to operating conditions found at the pump stations 2. by manually blowing down the air receivers on a regular basis, and always before starting an engine. Care must be taken when opening the drain valve as the air pressure can blow sand and dirt at a high velocity causing injury to DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd, Page 31 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midiand Combustion Co. Ltd Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, dan personnel. The valve should be cracked open and left to drain out the water ‘slowly. An air pressure regulator is also mounted in the compressed air supply line, this is to prevent the air pressure exceeding the safe working pressure of the system. There are other safety systems in place, such as relief valves on the air receivers and a pressure switch on the air compressors that switch off the motor when the pressure reaches a specified point. It must be stressed that compressed air or any gas is extremely dangerous and all care must be taken to ensure staff are not injured. A compressed gas has a large amount of stored energy and if a pipe breaks for instance, the air = and energy - will continue rushing out at high speed until the pressure has equalized with the atmospheric pressure. If at any time you find yourself having to pressure test a vessel, the safe way to do this is by using a liquid like water. Hydraulic pressure is safer because if a few drops of liquid escape, the pressure instantly decreases, there is not as much stored energy because the molecules are larger and closer together to begin with The Air accumulator or receiver is simply a large storage tank for compressed air. Each engine has its own receiver that stores enough compressed air to start the engine 4 to 5 times without the air compressor running. Bear in mind that the generators (2006) have a pneumatic lube oil priming pump that can run for a few minutes before the engine starts, and for 5 minutes after the engine stops for the pre lube and post lubrication cycle. This air motor uses valuable air and the pressure will drop fast. If an engine trips and needs to be restarted, there is no need to wait until the 5 minute post lube is completed before restarting the engine. The engine already has oil being pumped through it during the post lube so is ready for a start immediately. The only delay before restarting must be to ensure the engine has come to a complete standstill otherwise the starter motor will engage the flywheel while it is stil moving and destroy the turbo start motor and flywheel ring gear. Slow roll and fast roll system. When an engine has been stopped, there is a chance that water may have leaked from the cylinder head or water jacket into the cylinder liner, or that something else has seized in the pump, gearbox or generator. If a cylinder has got water in it and the engine is started, the water may have no where to go (compression stroke) and as a liquid can not be compressed, something will be destroyed on the engine. A cylinder head or connecting rod or most likely the crankshaft will be bent. In order to prevent this from happening, the Allen Diesel engines have a safety system in place that reduces the DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. —S Page 32 of 75 Basic Diese! Engine Operationos ‘Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Alien Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum - Kilo 8, sudan ‘compressed air supply used to start the engine until the engine has completed 3 full revolutions. This ensures that each piston has the ability to travel its full ‘stroke without restriction. The principle behind the slow roll is with the reduced air supply the engine will not rotate if something is preventing it from doing so, and thereby preventing damage to moving parts. If this does happen, an alarm is generated at the UCP “failed to rotate”. This alarm does not mean the same as the alarm “Slow roll failed” as will be explained in a later module. After the engine has completed 3 revolutions, the fast roll solenoid admits the full air pressure to the engine and also to the governor actuator, the engine speed increases, fuel is injected and the engine fires and runs. When the engine speed has increased to 375 RPM, it is running using fuel and the slow and fast roll solenoids are closed. The reason some air is directed to the hydraulic actuator for the fuel racks when the fast roll solencid is open is simple. The actuator is normally driven with gears from the engine gear train, this enables the actuator to build up hydraulic pressure to operate the fuel racks. The problem on start up is the engine is not running so the gear train will be turning too slowly to generate the necessary hydraulic pressure and the fuel racks will not open. Compressed air is connected to the bottom of the pneumatic / hydraulic booster module, this manually forces the hydraulic fluid into opening the fuel racks allowing the engine to fire, which once running can then drive the hydraulic pump via the gears. TIP. If the engine “fail to start” alarm is activated, look closely at the fuel racks when pressing the start button. The racks should remain closed for the slow roll, and then spring to the fully open position. if the racks do not do this, check they move freely and also have the C&l check for loose wires on the hydraulic actuator. It is very unlikely to be the Woodward 721 digital control unit OR the hydraulic actuator itself, so check everything else first!!! DAL. DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. a Page 33 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. ‘Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum - Kilo 8, wudan CHARGE AIR SYSTEM The charge air is the air that is forced into the cylinders during the induction stroke of the engine. It has nothing to do with the start air. Lets start at the beginning with the locker maze air filter. Clean air is critical for use in an engine, this should be logical, sand and dust particles, spiders, rats and donkeys do not belong inside an engine. Any foreign matter will cause sever damage to the moving parts such as piston, rings, valves, turbocharger etc. The engine air filter uses three methods to filter dirt out of the air, the first one being the use of centrifugal force. The air drawn into the filter is directed through vanes which cause a vortex. Large dirt particles are carried within the high pressure area to be deposited before the second element which is a simple mesh to trap rags, paper etc, The third and most important element is an oil bath, The remaining air passes through a layer of oil which traps and small dust particles, leaving clean air to proceed further into the engine system. The oil in the air filter system is a critical part of the system and must be monitored regularly. There is no fixed time for these inspections and common sense should be used. For example, after a sand storm, the oil will have trapped a lot more sand than usual and will need replacing a lot sooner than normal operating conditions. By waiting for the 250 hour service to inspect the cil bath is possibly 240 hours too late and a lot of damage has been done to the engine in this time. After passing through the air filter, the charge air then reaches the TURBOCHARGER. Turbochargers are a type of forced induction system. They compress the air flowing into the engine The advantage of compressing the air is that it lets the engine squeeze more air into a cylinder, and more air means that more fuel can be added. Therefore, you get more power from each explosion in each cylinder. A turbocharged engine produces more power overall than the same engine without the charging. DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd ey Page 34 of 75 Basic Diesel Engine Operation(ADC) son eses come Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum ~ Kilo 8, Sudan Basics Turbochargers allow an engine to burn more fuel and air by packing more into the existing cylinders. The typical boost provided by a turbocharger is 6 to 8 pounds per square inch (psi). Since normal atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi at sea level, you can see that you are getting about 50 percent more air into the engine. Therefore, you would expect to get 50 percent more power. It's not perfectly efficient, so you might get a 30- to 40-percent improvement instead. One cause of the inefficiency comes from the fact that the power to spin the turbine is not free. Having a turbine in the exhaust flow increases the restriction in the exhaust. This means that on the exhaust stroke, the engine has to push against a higher back-pressure. This subtracts a little bit of power from the cylinders that are firing at the same time. The turbocharger also helps at high altitudes, where the air is less dense. Normal engines will experience reduced power at high altitudes because for each stroke of the piston, the engine will get a smaller mass of air. A turbocharged engine may also have reduced power, but the reduction will be less dramatic because the thinner air is easier for the turbocharger to pump. The turbocharger is bolted to the exhaust manifold of the engine. The exhaust from the cylinders spins the turbine. The turbine is connected by a shaft to the compressor, which is located between the air filter and the intake manifold The compressor pressurizes the air going into the pistons. The exhaust from the cylinders passes through the turbine blades, causing the turbine to spin. The more exhaust that goes through the blades, the faster they spin. DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. Page 35 of 75 Basic Diese! Engine OperationAuthorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum - Kilo 8, Sudan COMPRESSOR Rese SECTION serie sourmepon ‘TURBINE SECTION (On the other end of the shaft that the turbine is attached to, the compressor pumps air into the cylinders. The compressor is a type of centrifugal pump -- it draws air in at the center of its blades and flings it outward as it spins. In order to handle extreme speeds, the turbine shaft has to be supported very carefully, Most bearings would explode at speeds like this, so most turbochargers use a fluid bearing. This type of bearing supports the shaft on a thin layer of oil that is constantly pumped around the shaft. This serves two purposes: It cools the shaft and some of the other turbocharger parts, and it allows the shaft to spin without much friction, Intercoolers. When air is compressed, it heats up; and when air heats up, it expands. So some of the pressure increase from a turbocharger is the result of heating the air before it goes into the engine. In order to increase the power of the engine, the goal is to get more air molecules into the cylinder, not necessarily more air pressure. DAL DAL Engineering Co. Ltd. —=eo Page 36 of 75 Basic Diese! Engine Operation(apc) sun oes. come Authorised representatives of: Rolls-Royce Diesels Allen Diesels Centre, Midland Combustion Co. Ltd. Wad Medani Road, Vokes Limited Khartoum - Kilo 8, wudlan. ‘An intercooler or charge air cooler is an additional component that looks something like a radiator, except air passes through the inside and water on the outside of the intercooler tubes. The intake air passes through sealed passageways inside the cooler, while water from the jacket water system (1 stage) and secondary water system (2" stage) cool the air. The intercooler further increases the power of the engine by cooling the pressurized air coming out of the compressor before it goes into the engine This means that if the turbocharger is operating at a boost of 7 psi, the intercooled system will put in 7 psi of cooler air, which is denser and contains more air molecules than warmer air. The air after the intercooler (charge air cooler) passes into the Charge Air Manifold. The manifold supplies the pressurized air to the individual cylinder head inlet ports, Included in the charge air manifold is a temperature probe which is useful in determining the condition of the charge air cooler and also the engine temperatures. A pressure take off point supplies air pressure to the gauge and transmitter in the LGB. There is also a small hole drilled in the bottom of the charge air manifold to let any water drain out of the air before it enters the engine. If water can be seen coming out this hole, the intercooler plates may be leaking and water from the secondary or jacket water systems is entering the air. This is not good as the water may be entering the air system fast enough to eventually get drawn into the cylinder with serious results, The engine and turbocharger are bolted together and will expand when they reach operating temperature. This expansion, and also engine vibration is prevented from damaging fixed items like the Locker Maze air filter by installing flexible bellows between the two. There are also smaller bellows installed between each cylinder head and the charge air manifold DAL Engineering Co, Ltd. DAL setedchletie TS Page 37 of 75 Basic Diese! Engine Operation